Journal of Adolescence 42 (2015) 20e30

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Work or family or both? Value trajectories and their prediction over ten years
cile Tschopp a, *, Anita C. Keller b, c, 1, Barbara E. Stalder d, e, 2 Ce a

Organization, Work and Technology Group, Department of Management, Technology, and Economics, ETH Zurich, Weinbergstrasse 56/ 58, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland b University of Basel, Switzerland c Work and Organizational Psychology, Fabrikstrasse 8, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland d ^tel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000 Neucha ^tel, Switzerland Institute of Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Neucha e University of Teacher Education Bern, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online

Previous studies have shown that values are developed during young adulthood. This study investigated whether and when developmental trajectories of values depend on gender, language region, cognitive competence, expected education duration, and ambition. Longitudinal data of 2620 adolescents in Switzerland were collected at eight waves of measurement over 10 years. Latent growth model analysis revealed that work values mainly increase between ages 16 and 20, whereas family values primarily increase after age 20. This pattern fits the major life and career roles sequence: Becoming established in one's career comes first, and focusing on family building follows later. The initial levels and development of values were essentially affected by gender, but other individual factors such as cognitive competence, expected education duration, and ambition also showed some effect, particularly on family values. These new insights into the development of values improve the understanding of the career decisions and career behavior of adolescents. © 2015 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Intrinsic work values Family values Value trajectories Adolescents Longitudinal data Latent growth model

Individuals' career preferences and career decisions have been explained and understood by means ofdamong other factorsdindividuals' values (Hirschi, 2010; Johnson & Elder, 2002; Judge & Bretz, 1992; Rokeach, 1973; Super, 1990). Values are abstract concepts or beliefs about desirable states or behaviors that guide the selection or evaluation of behaviors and events, which in turn are sequenced by their relative importance (Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987). Stressing the important role of values, career research has intensively studied the effect of values on educational decisions and early career development (e.g., Eccles, 2005; Hirschi, 2010; Rimann, Udris, & Weiss, 2000), but the focus has rarely been on the development of the values themselves. Although most research has treated values as rather stable (e.g., Jin & Rounds, 2012; Rodrigues, Guest, & Budjanovcanin, 2013; Schein, 1978), the rare studies on value development have indicated that values develop during the transition to

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ41 44 632 6148. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Tschopp), [email protected] (A.C. Keller), [email protected] (B.E. Stalder). 1 Tel.: þ41 31 631 3406. 2 Tel.: þ41 79 590 8930. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.013 0140-1971/© 2015 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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adulthood (Bardi & Schwartz, 1996; Jin & Rounds, 2012; Johnson, 2001; Lindsay & Knox, 1984; Porfeli, 2007) and change as people age and enact major life and occupational roles (Daniel, Fortuna, Thrun, Cioban, & Knafo, 2013; Smola & Sutton, 2002). Prior research has even suggested that values and behaviors mutually influence one another (Johnson, 2001; Porfeli, 2008). Porfeli (2007) proposed a discrepancy model in which dissatisfaction results from a perceived discrepancy between either different but conceptually related values or between a value and an associated experience. If a discrepancy is perceived, individuals tend to either adapt their behaviors or change their values in order to reduce the discrepancy. Especially during early career stages, changes are likely spurred by the newly encountered experiences. With respect to work values, Johnson (2001) demonstrated that the participants' work values underwent an adjustment process during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. This adjustment was based on the increasing knowledge of the potential job and career choices, which led to more realistic and prudent values (Jin & Rounds, 2012). The idea of adjustment between one's personalitydefining values and one's environment is also in line with the research on personality development. For example, Robins, Caspi, and Moffitt (2002) showed that work experiences during young adulthood were related to changes in personality. In another study, Scollon and Diener (2006) demonstrated that personality traits and social roles (satisfaction with aspects of one's life) can change jointly: The more that satisfaction with work and relationships increased, the steeper the increase in extraversion and decrease in neuroticism. Such findings imply that life experiences have an effect on people's perception of themselves, their lives, and their values. During young adulthood, people may be especially prone to such changes because they engage in new social roles (e.g., their work role). Thus far, existing research on value development has suffered from methodological limitations. For example, many studies have been based on a cross-sectional cohort comparison instead of longitudinal data (e.g., Smola & Sutton, 2002). In-depth knowledge of value trajectories would likely aid the understanding of occupational aspirations as well as the early career choices and career development of adolescents (Bardi & Goodwin, 2011; Johnson, 2001). Values have been shown to have an effect on thoughts and direct behavioral tendencies (Boldero & Francis, 2002; Porfeli & Vondracek, 2007), likely influencing individuals' life courses and career planning as well as career choices. Moreover, because the development of values and identities has been found to be determined by personal and contextual factors (Vondracek & Reitzle, 1998; Vondracek, Silbereisen, Reitzle, & Wiesner, 1999), intraindividual differences were included in this study in order to achieve a more specific understanding of adolescents' career planning and career choices. Following Smola and Sutton's (2002), as well as Jin and Rounds' (2012) call for further research on work values and factors that affect their development, we contribute in two ways to the career literature in a broader sense and to the career choice and career development literature in a more specific sense: First, we focus on the early career phase and value changes with regard to work and family values. Second, we examine how value trajectories individually differ. Using data from a Swiss longitudinal youth study, we provide a fine-grained picture regarding the development of values from ages 16 to 26. This age span includes the transition from upper-secondary education (age 16eapprox. 19) and to qualified employment or higher education (approx. age 20); this transition has been shown to be crucial for the personal and occupational development of young people (Arnett, 2000). This knowledge is likely to indicate how adolescents and young adults make their career decisions in order to achieve a good fit between their values and their career. Values Values are generally oriented toward specific life domains such as work or family. Work values include intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of work. While extrinsic work values refer to material aspects of work (e.g., income, promotion, advancement, recognition, and job security), intrinsic work values, which this study focuses on, refer to the actual content of work (e.g., self-development, autonomy, competence, dedication, and cooperation; George & Jones, 1997; Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Family values include the importance of partnership, the creation of one's own family, and having children (Mayer, Kuramschew, & Trommsdroff, 2009). These two sets of valuesdintrinsic work values and family valuesdwere chosen in our study for several reasons. Firstly, it has been shown that mainly intrinsic work values are relevant in predicting career development (Hirschi, 2010). Secondly, according to Mayer et al. (2009), some adolescents tend to place importance on getting married and having children in the future, which is a reflection of family values. These family values can act as an alternative to an ambitious career or conflict with work values and the pursuit of a career. Individuals, particularly females, appear to attempt a combination of work and family roles in their career. This can result in a work-family conflict, which heavily depends on the work-family culture (Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness, 1999). Thus, both of these value sets are important to an individual's career choice. Thirdly, the considerable amount of research that has focused on work-family and family-work spillover, as well as the work-family conflicts demonstrating the importance of the two domains (Demerouti, Peeters, & van der Heijden, 2012; Georgellis & Lange, 2012; Hanson, Hammer, & Colton, 2006; Kelly et al., 2014; Radcliffe & Cassell, 2014; Ruppanner, 2013), is in line with our emphasis on the trajectories of work and family values. Examining the interplay of work and family issues in the current study is intended to emphasize the particular importance of both themes in the development of people's lives. The current study Findings from prior research are ambiguous regarding the trajectory of work values. Jin and Rounds (2012) hypothesized an increase in intrinsic work values during the adolescent and college years because of “a normative value change toward expanding the self and gaining more information” (p. 328). The results of their meta-analysis did indeed show a trend toward

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an increase of intrinsic work values in college years (ages 18e21.9) and a trend toward a decline in work values during the emerging adulthood years (ages 22e25.9). Johnson (2001) found a loss of importance in work values over a time span of 14 years (from age 17 to age 32). It is important to highlight the methodological differences between Johnson's (2001) study and the present study. First, Johnson (2001) investigated U.S. high school seniors, who she described as being encouraged to be ambitious, but this high ambition appeared to downgrade over time. This seems to be a cultural context issue that cannot be automatically transferred to the Swiss context due to the two cultures' socioeconomic differences (e.g., education systems, job markets, and family economic support systems). Our sample included Swiss high school seniors and apprentices enrolled in vocational programs, which included extended workplace training in companies. To investigate the value changes, Johnson (2001) compared the level of values from wave 1 and wave 8, whereas we observed the value trajectory (i.e., intraindividual changes) by analyzing it along six waves of measurement in order to gain more detailed information about the value trajectory. During upper-secondary education (high school or apprenticeship), we expected an increase in intrinsic work values like Jin and Rounds (2012) argued for because adolescents are engaged in a work identification process (Hirschi & Vondracek, 2009). According to Porfeli's (2007) discrepancy model, the increased involvement with work and work identification prompts an increase in work values that reduces the resulting dissonance between work values and actual intense work activity. Skorikov and Vondracek (1998) demonstrated an increase of adolescents' vocational identity development with age, most explicitly between Grades 10 and 12. Thus, we assumed an increase would likely be reflected in the first period of our data that covers the first four years after compulsory school, which includes the period when most adolescents in Switzerland engage in upper-secondary education (ages 16e19). The fourth year (approx. age 20) acts as a turning point. For most Swiss adolescents, it indicates the start of qualified employment or the continuation of education on the tertiary level, thus heralding the second period of our data (years 5e10 after compulsory school: Ages 20e26). In this second period, adolescents' development of intrinsic work values can vary considerably in accordance with their chosen career trajectories. These differences in work values may be reflected in how they see their job and career. Some young employees may view their work as a career or even a calling, whereas others view their work as more of a duty or a means to an end (Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997). Thus, we assumed: Hypothesis 1a. Intrinsic work values would increase during the first period, followed by individual variations expressed in the second period. With this hypothesis, we expected a complementary trajectory of family values compared to intrinsic work values; namely, a discrepancy reduction between conceptually related values (Porfeli, 2007). Analogous to Gille's (2006) findings, we also expected an increase of family values, although we assumed that the increase would occur more during the second period than the first as individuals matured. We assumed that family values would gain in importance once intimate relationships stabilized and children became a serious issue, although high individual variation would likely occur between the genders. Specifically, the overall increase of family values within relationships would be mainly caused by the females' increase of family values (Semmer, Tschan, Elfering, K€ alin, & Grebner, 2005). Hypothesis 1b. (ages 16e19).

Family values would increase over time, although more in the second period (ages 20e26) than in the first

In accordance with the developmental-contextual approach to career development, which states a dynamic interaction between person and context to determine the initial vocational choice (Vondracek, Lerner, & Schulenberg, 1986), as a second step, we explored the individual differences of the value trajectories along gender, language region, cognitive competence, expected duration of education, and ambition. While gender, cognitive competence, expected duration of education, and ambition belong to the person factors, language region represents a context factor. These five factors were chosen because previous research has shown their impact on values and on value-related constructs (e.g., career orientation or career aspiration). In particular, several studies have detected gender differences concerning the importance of values (Duffy & Sedlacek, 2007; Hirschi, 2010; Johnson, 2001; Semmer et al., 2005). Particularly, Johnson (2001) showed in her study that female high school seniors had higher mean levels of intrinsic work values; however, the development of their values over the observed eight years was similar to their fellow male students. Concerning family values, Mayer et al. (2009) did not find any gender differences. Because their focus on family values was slightly different from oursdMayer et al. (2009) focused on the responsibility of parents for their children and vice versadwithin our contextual focus of when intimate relations become serious, we nevertheless expected higher family values for women than men. We based this expectation on the predominant traditional role model in Switzerland (BFS, 2013a) and the previous findings among Swiss adolescents, that show that females tend to report higher importance on family issues than men (Semmer et al., 2005). The French-speaking and German-speaking parts of Switzerland have been shown to differ in family-relevant issues such as a higher percentage of family households in the French-speaking part (BFS, 2013b). Differences in work-related issues were also detected, such as, for example, higher turnover intentions among employees in the German-speaking versus the Frenchspeaking parts of Switzerland (Grote & Staffelbach, 2011; Semmer et al., 2005) or differences in career preferences (Gerber, Wittekind, Grote, Conway, & Guest, 2009). However, differences between the language regions in Switzerland have not shown to be consistent or systematic. For example, Grote and Staffelbach (2011) could not detect any differences between the language regions regarding job and career satisfaction or organizational commitment. Because language differences may have their roots in distinct values, we investigated the effects of language regions on values.

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Cognitive competence has been seen as a relevant factor for career options and career trajectories (Blickle, 2011) because occupations require a cognitive minimum level; in turn, this cognitive minimum level acts as a selection criterion. Being aware of this selection criterion, adolescents are likely to adapt their intrinsic work values appropriately to their occupational opportunities in terms of Porfeli's (2007) discrepancy model. Therefore, cognitive competence is likely to be related to intrinsic work values and to interact with family values. While intrinsic work values are related to the choice of occupation (Super & Sverko, 1995), they may also interact with the effort to achieve a chosen occupation. The effort to achieve a chosen occupation can be reflected in the expected duration of education. In particular, when individuals expect a long-lasting and laborious education, they may temporarily prioritize intrinsic work values over family values and, therefore, postpone plans for the family. Finally, ambition may affect career aspiration and career trajectories. For example, Ashby and Schoon (2010) showed that ambition during adolescence affects social status attainment and earnings later in adulthood. In consideration of Porfeli's (2007) discrepancy model, ambition can have a direct or indirect effect on the development of intrinsic work and family values; namely, work ambition can directly interact with the individual's family values by generating a temporary dissonance as long as the relevant family values are not adapted, and it can indirectly interact by intensifying specific behaviors that lead to a discrepancy with the particular values until they are adapted. Because prior research findingsdespecially regarding the relationship between the discussed context factors, person factors, and valuesdare scarce and sometimes ambiguous, we included these factors in our models and hypothesized the following: Hypothesis 2. Gender, language region, cognitive competence, expected duration of education, and ambition all affect the initial levels of intrinsic work and family values as well as value change.

Method Participants To test our hypotheses, we used data from the Swiss longitudinal youth survey, Transition from Education to Employment (TREE),3 which was based on a sample of 6343 adolescents who took part in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study in 2000. The panel study focused on the post-compulsory educational and labor market pathways of a school leaver's cohort in Switzerland, who left compulsory school in 2000. Annual panel waves, which combined Computer Assisted Telephone Interviews (CATI) with paper-and-pencil surveys, were conducted from 2001 to 2007, and an eighth wave was carried out in 2010. Wave-specific response rates for this panel study ranged between 85% and 91% (cf. Stalder, Meyer, & Hupka-Brunner, 2011, who provided a detailed overview of the study design and sample). Participants of the panel study were selected for this analysis if they participated in every wave from 2001 to 2010, which resulted in a sample size of 2620 (59.5% females). The mean age in 2001 was 16.9 years (SD ¼ 0.81). Most Swiss adolescents enrolled in upper-secondary education after compulsory school, either high school or equivalent (53% of this panel in 2001), or vocational education and training (33%). After graduating from upper-secondary education, young adults in Switzerland usually transitioned to the labor market or enrolled in tertiary education (e.g., university; 17% of panel participants were enrolled in tertiary education in 2010). Measures The panel study sought to consistently repeat every previous assessment in every following wave. But because the study is an interdisciplinary project that seeks to serve multiple data uses, some variables were assessed only in PISA 2000 study, at a single TREE-wave, bi-annually, or at a different regularity. As a result, gender, language region, cognitive competence, and expected duration of education were only available from the initial PISA data and data for the variable “ambition” from the first TREE measurement. Intrinsic work and family values were assessed in every wave except waves two and six. Values. Intrinsic work and family values were measured using items developed on the basis of Watermann's (2000) value scales and Rimann et al.'s (2000) value orientations, which had been used in other longitudinal studies (Rimann, et al., 2000; Watermann, 2000). Participants were asked to indicate what is important to them when they think about their future and to rate the items on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ not important at all to 4 ¼ very important). Intrinsic work values were measured using the following four items: “To have a job where I can help others,” “to have a job where I can always learn new things,” “to have a job where I’m often in contact with people,” and “to have a job where I have the feeling of doing something meaningful.” Cronbachs' alpha ranged from .63 to .71 across all panel waves. Family related values were measured using three items: “To marry or to live in a stable partnership,” “to have children,” and “to create my own family.” Cronbachs' alpha ranged from .71 to .89. A principal component analysis with our data confirmed the two assumed factors and they explained, on average, 62.5% of the variance.

3 The Swiss youth panel study, Transitions from Education to Employment (TREE), has been running since 2000 and has since been funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation, the University of Basel, the Swiss Federal Office of Statistics, the Federal Office of Professional Education and Technology, and the cantons of Berne, Geneva, and Ticino. Distribution: Data service, FORS, Lausanne.

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Gender was assessed in PISA 2000; females were coded with 0 and males with 1. Language region referred to the participants' residence at the time of the PISA 2000 study. This was either in the German(47.6%), French- (39.9%), or Italian- (12.5%) speaking part of Switzerland. Two dummy variables were created to account for the non-German language regions: RegionF, the first dummy variable, coded participants who lived in the French-speaking part with 1; and RegionI, the second dummy variable, coded participants who lived in the Italian speaking part with 1. Participants who lived in the German-speaking part were coded with 0 in both dummy variables. Cognitive competence. Cognitive competence was measured in this study by reading literacy because of the high correlation found between reading literacy and intelligence (Birch & Belmont, 1965). Because reading literacy assesses the understanding of information in a text, identification of key statements, and ability to interpret and provide a critical assessment of the text's content or form, we considered literacy to be a reasonable operationalization of cognitive competence. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) norms for the PISA study, students' results were divided into five levels, with higher levels indicating higher reading literacy (OECD, 2003a). Reinforcing its correlation to cognitive competence, reading literacy has also been shown to be positively related to student engagement in schooling and learning (OECD, 2003b), access to upper-secondary education and training (Hupka-Brunner, Sacchi, & Stalder, 2010), positive career development (Stalder, 2012), socioeconomic status (Keller, Meier, Gross, & Semmer, 2015), and to gender, reading enjoyment, and family background (OECD, 2001; OECD/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2003). Expected duration of education. Participants indicated with their answers to the PISA 2000 assessment questions what kind of job they expected to have by the age of 30. These occupations were categorized by means of ISCO-88 classification (Ganzeboom & Treiman, 1996) and based on the expected duration of participants' education. The expected duration of education, which is a prerequisite to the expected occupation by the age of 30, ranged from zero (e.g., homemaker) to more than eight years (e.g., surgeon). About 22% did not indicate what kind of job they expected to have by the age of 30. Thirty-one percent of participants indicated a job that required an education of three or four years (mean duration of vocational programs). For 43%, the expected job required an education of five or more years (higher education degree), and less than 1% indicated a job with an additional education of two years. The indicated job by 3% of the participants did not require any further education and was consequently coded with zero years. Ambition. The first TREE wave included an item stating “I am ambitious” and was measured using a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ not true at all and 4 ¼ very true). Statistical analysis procedures
n & Muthe
n, We applied latent growth modeling to explore our research questions. We used the Mplus 7 program (Muthe 1998e2012) and applied the full information maximum likelihood (FIML) procedure included in Mplus to deal with missing values. This approach has been shown to lead to a more reliable and less biased estimation than conventional methods such as listwise or pairwise deletion (Schafer & Graham, 2002). The procedure for the structural analyses consisted of several steps: First, the measurement models of intrinsic work values and family values were specified and tested for measurement invariance. Second, the latent growth models were calculated by evaluating linear and nonlinear solutions. We estimated the linear solutions first and compared the model fit to a quadratic solution. For both models, the quadratic solution resulted in a better model fit; therefore, we fitted a piecewise latent growth model, as these models are easier to interpret. We used wave four as a developmental turning point, as the majority of Swiss adolescents fulfill a transition at this point (Stalder, Meyer, & Hupka-Brunner, 2008). Furthermore, we estimated the growth curves for men and women separately in order to account for possible differences in the developmental processes. However, we did not find any differences across gender for the developmental processes. Third, we predicted the intercepts and slopes of intrinsic work and family values using gender, language region, reading literacy, expected educational duration, and ambition. To report model fit, we followed the recommendations by Hu and Bentler (1998, 1999). The fit indices that they currently recommend as most useful include the TuckereLewis index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and the Standardized Root-Mean-Square Residual (SRMR). They suggest that a good fit is indicated by values greater than or equal to .95 for TLI, less than or equal to .06 for RMSEA, and .08 for SRMR. Results Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations for intrinsic work values and family values as well as for reading literacy, expected duration, and ambition. The sample means of family values seem to initially decrease and later increase; intrinsic work values seem to remain rather stable. Measurement models Table 2 provides an overview of the measurement models for intrinsic work values and family values. We compared freely estimated measurement models with longitudinally constrained ones. Weak factorial invariance was empirically confirmed for intrinsic work values (Dc2 ¼ 19.0, Ddf ¼ 15, p > .05, i.e., factor loadings do not change over the observed time span). For family values, partial weak factorial invariance was confirmed (Dc2 ¼ 13.3, Ddf ¼ 8, p > .05). Partial measurement invariance

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Table 1 Means and standard deviations for intrinsic work values and family values, reading literacy, expected duration, and ambition. Predictors

M

SD

t1 intrinsic work values t3 intrinsic work values t4 intrinsic work values t5 intrinsic work values t7 intrinsic work values t8 intrinsic work values t1 family values t3 family values t4 family values t5 family values t7 family values t8 family values Reading literacy Expected duration Ambition

3.37 3.34 3.36 3.39 3.31 3.26 3.22 3.03 3.06 3.18 3.22 3.29 3.31 5.35 3.12

.48 .50 .52 .50 .52 .52 .75 .89 .88 .84 .80 .76 1.07 2.25 .76

refers to the second transition phase (i.e., we were not able to constrain the factor loadings to be equal for the whole time span). Following Steenkamp and Baumgartner's (1998) recommendations, we allowed the factor loadings from waves one, three, and four to be different from waves five, seven, and eight in order to receive a good model fit (Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1998; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). For an overview of the measurement invariance testing, see, for example, Meredith (1993), and for specifically second-order latent growth models, see Ferrer, Balluerka, and Widaman (2008). Latent growth models We tested the linear and nonlinear trends (quadratic and piecewise solutions) for intrinsic work values and family values. To estimate linear trends, the loadings of the slopes were set to 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 9 (accounting also for waves without assessed values). For both value types, piecewise solutions fitted best. The models for intrinsic work values and family values included one intercept, one slope for the first four years, and one slope for years five to 10 after the participants left compulsory school (cf. Fig. 1). Intrinsic work values increased over the first four years, ages 16e19 (mean slope ¼ .03, p < .05), and showed a tendency to decrease in years five to 10, ages 20e26 (mean slope ¼ .01, p < .10). Also, for intrinsic work values, intercept (.21, p < .001), first slope (.01, p < .001), and second slope (.01, p < .001) showed significant variance. Family values did not change significantly over the first four years after leaving compulsory school, ages 16e19 (mean slope ¼ .03, p > .05). However, in the fifth year after compulsory school (age 20), family values started to increase significantly (mean slope ¼ .13, p > .001). Besides these general trends, intercept (.23, p < .001), first slope (.02, p < .001), and second slope (.01, p < .001) showed significant variance, meaning that there were individual differences in initial levels and growth rates. Fig. 1 shows the growth trajectories for intrinsic work values and family values. Latent growth models with predictors Finally, we added the predictors to our models. The goodness of fit for intrinsic work values (c2 ¼ 1077.5, df ¼ 330, TLI ¼ .95, RMSEA ¼ .03, SRMR ¼ .04) and family values (c2 ¼ 632.3, df ¼ 185, TLI ¼ .97, RMSEA ¼ .04, SRMR ¼ .04) were good. The initial levels of intrinsic work values were predicted by gender, language region, reading literacy, expected educational duration, and ambition: The higher initial levels were associated with being female, living in the Italian part of Switzerland, having a lower reading literacy, expecting longer educational pathways, and having higher ambitions. Both slopes were only predicted by gender: The growth rates were lower for the first period and steeper for the second period for males compared to females.

Table 2 Goodness-of-fit indices for measurement models of intrinsic work values and family values. Measurement models

Chi-square

df

TLI

RMSEA

SRMR

Intrinsic work: free Intrinsic work: weak factorial invariance Intrinsic work: strong factorial invariance Family values: free Family values: partial weak factorial invariance Family values: partial strong factorial invariance

663.9 682.9 947.4 127.4 140.7 321.0

177 192 207 75 83 91

.97 .97 .96 1.00 1.00 .99

.03 .03 .04 .02 .02 .03

.04 .04 .04 .02 .02 .03

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Fig. 1. Estimated growth trajectories for intrinsic work values and family values (N¼2620). Note: Numbers below year refer to adolescents' age.

The initial level of family values was predicted by gender, language region, and ambition. For example, being male and living in the French or Italian part of Switzerland seemed to be associated with having higher initial levels of family values. Also, participants who reported a higher ambition reported higher initial levels of family values. The general growth rate in these values for the first four years (ages 16e19) was not significant; however, significant variance indicated that the value levels of some participants also changed during this first period. Changes during this period were predicted by all variables in the model, but the beta-values were relatively low. Increases over the second perioddyears 2005 to 2010 (ages 20e26)d were predicted by gender, language region, reading literacy, and expected educational duration. Males and participants from the German-speaking part of Switzerland reported steeper increases in family values. Also, participants with lower reading literacy and lower educational duration expectations reported steeper increases (see Table 3 for beta-values). We also tested whether the interaction between gender and the language region predicted initial levels or slopes of work and family values; however, none of the tested interaction terms were significant predictors. Discussion The goals of the present longitudinal study were to investigate intrinsic work and family value development between ages 16 and 26 and to identify the possible predictors of the trajectories. Our findings showed an increase of the importance of intrinsic work values during the first phase of our study, i.e., during upper-secondary education. This might be due to adolescents' intense engagement in their careers during this time. In the years following upper-secondary education, the development of intrinsic work vales showed significant individual differences with a general tendency to decrease over time. During this time, most adolescents were engaged in full employment or tertiary education. These results supported Jin and Rounds' (2012) arguments that intrinsic work values may develop during the transition to adulthood because of a normative redefining of the self. In keeping with Hirschi and Vondracek's (2009) conclusion that career goals are prioritized at the end of compulsory school, our analysis revealed that the years after compulsory school (ages 16e19) appear to be a stage of defining work values and developing work identity. Also, Skorikov and Vondracek (1998) showed that adolescents' vocational identity development progressed with age, particularly between Grades 10 and 12, whereas such a tendency could not be observed in other domains such as religious, lifestyle, or political identity. Moreover, our results showed that family values seem to mainly develop a few years later than intrinsic work values. This is in accordance with Semmer et al.'s (2005) findings that family values gain in importance during a stage when intimate relationships stabilize and children become a serious issue. The development of intrinsic work values and family values can be explained by Porfeli's (2007) discrepancy model: The increase of intrinsic work values is likely due to the resulting dissonance of the intensified involvement with work and work identification. The increase of family values a few years later is likely

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Table 3 Beta-values of predictors for intercepts and slopes of intrinsic work values and family values. Intrinsic work values

Gendera RegionFb RegionIb Reading literacy Expected duration Ambition

Family values

Intercept

Slope 1

.35*** ns .09** .14*** .16*** .12***

.19*** ns ns .07+ ns ns

Slope 2 .21*** ns ns ns ns ns

Intercept

Slope 1

Slope 2

.07* .17*** .29*** ns ns .08**

.09** .08* .08* .07* .06+ .07*

.06* .17*** .25*** .08** .10** ns

Note: N ¼ 2620. ***p < .001; ** p < . 01; * p < .05; þ p < .10. a 0 ¼ female, 1 ¼ male. b Regions are dummy-coded. RegionF ¼ French speaking part. RegionI ¼ Italian speaking part.

prompted by the slight decrease of intrinsic work values which is a reduction strategy of the perceived discrepancy between family values and intrinsic work values. In view of the individual differences, our results indicated that the increase of family values is more relevant for women, which is an insight denoted by previous research (Semmer et al., 2005). Besides women's higher family values, which moreover revealed a steeper increase for women than men, they also reported higher levels and steeper trajectories in intrinsic work values, although only in the first period (ages 16e19). In the second period (ages 20e26), men's intrinsic work values showed higher growth rates than women's. The value trajectories found in our study may refer to the enduring traditional roles of men and women in Switzerland (Hofstede, 1998; Sczesny, Bosak, & Schyns, 2004), with women having higher family values than men and a smaller increase or even a decrease in their intrinsic work values in the second period (a few years after compulsory school). However, Swiss women's higher initial intrinsic work values, and the steeper increase of these values immediately after compulsory school, indicate an effort to enrich what they perceive to be their socially incumbent role as mother and housewife. These findings indicate that intrinsic work and family values are not mutually exclusive but coexist and constitute a challenge for working individuals and employers in order to enable achieving both (Thompson et al., 1999). Considering the investigated factors of language region, cognitive competence, expected duration of education, and ambition, we detected some astonishing results. First, while the initial level of intrinsic work values is predicted by the investigated factors, the slope was not. This suggests that initial values differ due to individual characteristics, but value trajectories seem affected by other factors; for example, life circumstances (cf., Daniel et al., 2013). Another argument might be according to the developmental-contextual approach to career development by Vondracek et al. (1986). They proposed that person and context factors develop over time and, therefore, effects are only found when changes in person and context factors are jointly considered. Further research may test this assumption. Second, the finding that higher cognitive competencedmeasured by reading literacydpredicted a lower initial level of intrinsic work values might be counterintuitive. However, perhaps adolescents with higher cognitive competence do not focus on the meaning of work, but instead aspire to prestigious careers that might be reflected in higher extrinsic work values. An alternative explanation, which should be examined in future research, might be that adolescents with low cognitive competence enroll in vocational education and training, where they participate in the production processes of their company on a daily basis (SKBF, 2014). If they engage in positive learning situations and experience that their work is useful and fulfilling, this is likely to enhance their appreciation of intrinsic work values. Lastly, the counterintuitive effect of cognitive competence may also be related to the measurement used in this study. Future research may investigate if our findings were specific for reading literacy and if other indicators of cognitive competence reveal the same patterns. Third, although some hints suggest that work attitudes vary between the different language regions in Switzerland (Grote & Staffelbach, 2011), we found only marginal differences in initial intrinsic work values between the German- and Italianspeaking regions in Switzerland. Initial family values, in contrast, were more pronounced in the French- and Italianspeaking region compared to the German-speaking one. These findings of regional differences in family values but not in intrinsic work values lead to the assumption that family values seem more culturally anchored than work values. Namely, the initially higher level of family values for adolescents in French- and Italian-speaking regions corresponds with the actual situation of the higher percentage of family households in the corresponding regions (BFS, 2013b), whereas the inconsistent findings regarding the differences in work attitudes and behaviors between all three language regions (Grote & Staffelbach, 2011; Semmer et al., 2005) are not reflected in their initial level and later development of intrinsic work values. And, finally, ambition was positively related to higher initial levels of intrinsic work values and family values. Except for the decrease of family values among adolescents with high ambition over the first period, there was no significant value change over time depending on individuals' ambition. Based on this finding, it appears that people's ambition levels remain stable. Alternatively, our data reflects a possible ceiling effect for people with high ambition. Further research is needed to clarify what dynamics explain these effects. Reflecting the individual differences from the perspective of the developmentalcontextual approach (Vondracek et al., 1986), we conclude that personal and contextual factors are significantly related with the initial levels of values and value trajectories.

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Strengths and limitations With these findings, our research offers important insights into the development of values among Swiss adolescents and young adults, which strengthens our understanding of adolescents' decisions regarding education, career, and family. An advantage of this study is the inspection of a time span over 10 years and the inclusion of several predictors. However, a limiting factor is the lack of inclusion of the effect of career experiences on work and family value development and the measurement invariance issue of the family values. This invariance issue might be related to the change in societal family values itself and should be investigated in the future. Another drawback is the operationalization of cognitive competence through reading literacy. It remains unclear if the particular operationalization might be the reason for the counterintuitive findings concerning the relationship between cognitive competence and the initial level of intrinsic work values, or if the provided alternative explanations hold true. Moreover, building on the investigated explanatory factors of this study, additional socio-demographic information such as parental education, jobs, and values should be integrated into the model because prior research has shown their considerable effect on initial value development among adolescents (e.g., Loughlin & Barling, 2001; Padilla-Walker, Fraser, & Harper, 2012; Roest, Dubas, & Gerris, 2010). In a further step, it would be helpful to investigate if and to what extent this effect changes over time as individual experiences come into play. Finally, the increased permeability of the educational system enables for intertwined careers, which might be related to the trajectories of values. Therefore, an additional focus on the modern interaction between value trajectories and educational systems would be enlightening. Practical implications From a practical point of view, we came up with two recommendations based on our findings. Firstly, it seems that adolescents use the first couple of years after compulsory school to develop work values apart from securing income and status. Adolescents may be encouraged to actively explore working life in order to develop a sense of their preferences regarding meaningful work. A second recommendation concerns policy makers and employers. They should be aware that, according to the coexistence of high work and family values, there seems to be a tendency of young adults, both men and women, to combine work and family. For a successful combination of work and family, these young adults may need supportive legislation, child-care facilities, and family-friendly work settings such as part-time jobs and a flexible work time and place. 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