161
LETTERS
When Are Calories Psychology
Most
Fattening?
University of Birmingham,
ALAN J. BLAIR.
EdgbaGon, Birmingham
Schoolof B 15 2TT, U. K.
Even a few hundred kilocalories of readily assimilated energy activates satiety mechanisms for less than an hour (Booth, 1981). Hence, when energy is consumed in and with drinks between meals, it is least likely to suppress intake at the next meal. Lack of after-effect means nothing to learn and so, in the absence of long-term physiological control of human intake (Garrow, 1988), there is no basis for later compensation. Therefore the habitual consumption of calorific drinks and accompaniments after or between meals will add insidiously to energy deposits (Booth, 1988). Thus, the high prevalence of obesity may arise in considerable part from frequent failure to opt for energy-free drinks between meals and the unavailability of energy-free foods to accompany such drinks. Evidence is accumulating in support of this hypothesis. Incomplete caloric compensation of intake and increase in body weight after covert substitution of sugars by aspartame (Porikos & Van Itallie, 1984; Tordoff & Alleva, 1990) can be attributed to between-meal consumption of the sodas provided (although, as unfortunately is the convention, the timing of intake was not reported). Failure to compensate for alcohol energy may also depend on its postprandial consumption (Blair et al., 1989; de Castro & Orozco, 1990). In Britain, among the dietary strategies whose professed use was positively associated with success in reducing reported weight towards a personal target during an intensive attempt to control weight were the avoidance of alcohol and the cutting down on intake of high-fat snackfoods, such as nuts and crisps; more importantly, the general avoidance of the intake of energy between meals was the only strategy associated with success in maintaining weight lost until the time of questionnaire completion (Blair et al., 1989). In a later study, to obtain better evidence on weight loss maintenance, respondents were recontacted after a year. Reduction in weight (kg) calculated from the history of weights was used as a criterion of success. There was a negative association between weight loss over > 1 year and energy intake at drink-breaks calculated for all those who provided sufficient data (r = 0.3 1, P < 0.00 1, N = 119). The reported strategies of generally avoiding calories between meals, of avoiding sweet “extras” and of choosing fruit rather than higher calorie alternatives were also associated with maintained weight reduction (r = 0.17-0.19, P < 0.05, N = 137). It therefore appears that habits resulting in the consumption of energy between meals are making an underappreciated contribution to obesity and difficulties in holding off lost weight. Since availability cultivates demand by adapting preferences for items appropriate to the occasion (Schutz, 1991), consumers’ health could be considerably benefited by the food industry supplying more inclusive ranges of palatable and fashionable energy-free alternatives to the drinks and foods commonly consumed at drink-breaks at present and marketing them as items for general consumption rather than as diet products. Also, counselling and education in obesity prevention should give top priority to the message that those with a tendency to overweight should cut out all sources of calories between and after meals. Blair, A. J., Booth, D. A., Lewis, V. J. & Wainwright, C. J. (1989) The relative success of official and informal weight reduction techniques: retrospective correlational evidence. PSJJchology and Health, 3, 195-206. Booth, D. A. (1981) The physiology of appetite. British Medical Bulletin, 37, 135-140. Booth D. A. (1988) Mechanisms from models-Actual effects from real life: the zerocalorie drink-break option. Appetite, 11, Suppl., 94-102. de Castro, J. M., & Orozco, S. (1990) Moderate alcohol intake and spontaneous eating patterns of humans: evidence of unregulated supplementation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52, 246-253. Garrow, J. S. (1988) Obesity and related diseases. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Porikos, K. P. & Van Itallie, T. B. (1984) Effects of low-calorie sweeteners in reducing food intake: studies with aspartame. In L. D. Stegink & L. J. Filer (Eds.), Aspartame. Pp. 273-286. New York: Dekker. Schutz, H. G. (1991) One small step at a time. Appetite, 17, 157. Tordoff, M. G. & Alleva, A. M. (1990) Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame ore high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51, 963-969.
LETTERS
When Are Calories Psychology
Most
Fattening?
University of Birmingham,
ALAN J. BLAIR.
EdgbaGon, Birmingham
Schoolof B 15 2TT, U. K.
Even a few hundred kilocalories of readily assimilated energy activates satiety mechanisms for less than an hour (Booth, 1981). Hence, when energy is consumed in and with drinks between meals, it is least likely to suppress intake at the next meal. Lack of after-effect means nothing to learn and so, in the absence of long-term physiological control of human intake (Garrow, 1988), there is no basis for later compensation. Therefore the habitual consumption of calorific drinks and accompaniments after or between meals will add insidiously to energy deposits (Booth, 1988). Thus, the high prevalence of obesity may arise in considerable part from frequent failure to opt for energy-free drinks between meals and the unavailability of energy-free foods to accompany such drinks. Evidence is accumulating in support of this hypothesis. Incomplete caloric compensation of intake and increase in body weight after covert substitution of sugars by aspartame (Porikos & Van Itallie, 1984; Tordoff & Alleva, 1990) can be attributed to between-meal consumption of the sodas provided (although, as unfortunately is the convention, the timing of intake was not reported). Failure to compensate for alcohol energy may also depend on its postprandial consumption (Blair et al., 1989; de Castro & Orozco, 1990). In Britain, among the dietary strategies whose professed use was positively associated with success in reducing reported weight towards a personal target during an intensive attempt to control weight were the avoidance of alcohol and the cutting down on intake of high-fat snackfoods, such as nuts and crisps; more importantly, the general avoidance of the intake of energy between meals was the only strategy associated with success in maintaining weight lost until the time of questionnaire completion (Blair et al., 1989). In a later study, to obtain better evidence on weight loss maintenance, respondents were recontacted after a year. Reduction in weight (kg) calculated from the history of weights was used as a criterion of success. There was a negative association between weight loss over > 1 year and energy intake at drink-breaks calculated for all those who provided sufficient data (r = 0.3 1, P < 0.00 1, N = 119). The reported strategies of generally avoiding calories between meals, of avoiding sweet “extras” and of choosing fruit rather than higher calorie alternatives were also associated with maintained weight reduction (r = 0.17-0.19, P < 0.05, N = 137). It therefore appears that habits resulting in the consumption of energy between meals are making an underappreciated contribution to obesity and difficulties in holding off lost weight. Since availability cultivates demand by adapting preferences for items appropriate to the occasion (Schutz, 1991), consumers’ health could be considerably benefited by the food industry supplying more inclusive ranges of palatable and fashionable energy-free alternatives to the drinks and foods commonly consumed at drink-breaks at present and marketing them as items for general consumption rather than as diet products. Also, counselling and education in obesity prevention should give top priority to the message that those with a tendency to overweight should cut out all sources of calories between and after meals. Blair, A. J., Booth, D. A., Lewis, V. J. & Wainwright, C. J. (1989) The relative success of official and informal weight reduction techniques: retrospective correlational evidence. PSJJchology and Health, 3, 195-206. Booth, D. A. (1981) The physiology of appetite. British Medical Bulletin, 37, 135-140. Booth D. A. (1988) Mechanisms from models-Actual effects from real life: the zerocalorie drink-break option. Appetite, 11, Suppl., 94-102. de Castro, J. M., & Orozco, S. (1990) Moderate alcohol intake and spontaneous eating patterns of humans: evidence of unregulated supplementation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52, 246-253. Garrow, J. S. (1988) Obesity and related diseases. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Porikos, K. P. & Van Itallie, T. B. (1984) Effects of low-calorie sweeteners in reducing food intake: studies with aspartame. In L. D. Stegink & L. J. Filer (Eds.), Aspartame. Pp. 273-286. New York: Dekker. Schutz, H. G. (1991) One small step at a time. Appetite, 17, 157. Tordoff, M. G. & Alleva, A. M. (1990) Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame ore high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51, 963-969.
