This article was downloaded by: [McMaster University] On: 08 February 2015, At: 14:35 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
The Journal of General Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vgen20
Visual Memory for Place on the Page a
a
Eugene B. Zechmeister , Jack McKillip , Stan a
Pasko & Dale Bespalec
a
a
Loyola University of Chicago , USA Published online: 06 Jul 2010.
To cite this article: Eugene B. Zechmeister , Jack McKillip , Stan Pasko & Dale Bespalec (1975) Visual Memory for Place on the Page, The Journal of General Psychology, 92:1, 43-52, DOI: 10.1080/00221309.1975.9711326 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1975.9711326
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
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This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
The journal of General Psychology, 1975, 92, 43-52.
VISUAL MEMORY FOR PLACE ON T H E PAGE* Loyola University of Chicago
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 14:35 08 February 2015
EUGENEB. ZECHMEISTER,JACK MCKILLIP, STAN PASKO, DALE BESPALEC
AND
SUMMARY Sixty-four Ss were asked to read a lengthy prose passage and were subsequently tested for (a) information recall, (b) memory for location of information answers; and (c) discrimination of information answers in a multiple-choice (MC) task. In agreement with previous studies, spatial memory was highly reliable and significantly greater for correct than incorrect information answers. However, the present experiment showed that cueing Ss to a spatial test did not raise the level of spatial recall over that for a noncued group. Further, proportion of both item and spatial recall was found to increase directly with degree of visual memory for location as indexed by a five-point subjective knowledge scale. There was also a general trend for multiple-choice performance to improve as degree of visual knowledge for an answer’s true location increased. It is apparent that visually mediated spatial memory is a fundamental attribute when text material is encoded, and may be of mnemonic worth when retention of information is required. A.
INTRODUCTION
Adult Ss can reliably recall the location in a prose passage of answers to questions about the content of the material (3, 6). This fact raises the possibility that spatial knowledge is of mnemonic value when retention of information from text is tested. Evidence in favor of this proposition is that spatial knowledge is more likely to accompany correct than incorrect item recall (3, 6). According to an attribute theory of memory (4), spatial encoding aids differentiation among similar memory experiences. Further, it is a well known observation that spatial memory may serve as a highly effective retrieval scheme (2, 5). Threfore, several specific mnemonic functions of
* Received in the Editorial Office, Provincetown, Massachusetts, on February 6, 1974. Copyright, 1975, by The Journal Press. 43
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spatial knowledge of information from text can be considered. For example, discrimination of correct answers in a multiple-choice (MC) test may be aided if one or more alternatives can be dismissed because their text location is known to be incongruent with the location of the correct answer. Also, spatial encoding may be an aid to recall by providing a natural scheme for organizing a memory search. Reviewing available information from text in a spatial-temporal order may serve to reinstate salient retrieval cues. Furthermore, if memory of position in text is mediated by visual imagery, as has been suggested (6), then direct access to encoded information may be aided. For example, imagery might provide orthographic fragments of the to-be-remembered item (cf. 4) or contextual cues, such as a figure or picture that could elicit verbal associations which would mediate item recall. That some form of retrieval based on visually mediated spatial recall is at least attempted is suggested by the occasionally voiced remarks of students following a class exam. Students sometimes report that they could not answer a specific test question, but that they could “see” exactly where on the page the answer was located. The present experiment was designed to correlate Ss’ reported degree of visual representation of location information with both item and spatial recall for factual answers to questions over the content of text material. Also, the effect of cueing Ss to a subsequent test of item location was examined. Zimmerman and Underwood (7) have suggested that relating events to be memorized to a spatial-temporal dimension is a fundamental aspect of encoding. The question here is whether this process is altered when Ss are informed of a test for spatial knowledge. Finally, following attempted recall of item and spatial knowledge, all S s were given an MC test on the same material. It was of interest whether discrimination of items previously not recalled, but whose location was indicated, would vary as a function of the degree of reported spatial knowledge.
B. METHOD 1. Material Study material was the same as that used in a previous experiment (6) and consisted of a 3200-word, biographical passage taken from E. G. Boring’s A History of Experimental Psychology ( l ) . I The material was presented in booklets with the passage typed, single spaced, in two columns of prose on each page and triple spacing in the middle of each The authors are appreciative for the permission to use this material given by AppletonCentury-Crofts, Educational Division, Meredith Corporation.
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EUGENE B. ZECHMEISTER ET AL.
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column. Elite type was used with the result that the text appeared in four distinct “blocks” on a page, each approximately 150 words. Order of reading was as follows: top-left; bottom-left; top-right; through bottomright blocks. Booklets were six pages, or 2 1 blocks, long. Four forms of the study booklets were typed with each form having the initial block of text occupying a different quadrant of the first page. Test booklets were prepared with fill-in-the-blank questions requiring one- or two-word answers specific to a study block. One question was prepared for each of the 16 middle blocks of text. Each fill-in question appeared on a separate page together with a scale numbered 1 through 5, and a box with quadrants corresponding to the four comers of the text page. Two random orders of the test booklet were arranged with the restriction that no two consecutive blocks be tested contiguously and an equal number of questions from the first and last eight blocks appear in the first and second half of the 16 test questions. Also, 16 MC questions with four alternatives were prepared, with the same stem kept as the fill-in items. The MC questions were also presented in 16-page booklets, in a different order from that of the fill-in items. 2.
Procedure
The experimental manipulation was defined by two sets of study instructions. All Ss received written instructions that their memory would be tested for material in the study booklet and that they were to read the passage as if studying for a class examination. One half of the Ss received instructions informing them that, in addition to being tested for factual content in the passage, they would be asked questions concerning where on the page this information could be found (Condition C). It was emphasized, however, that their most important task was to remember as much factual material as possible. The other Ss received study instructions that contained no mention of a spatial test (Condition NC). All Ss read the material at their own pace but were advised not to go back over material once read. Wben S signalled that he had finished reading the passage, his reading time was recorded, and a test booklet with written instructions was given to him. The test instructions were the same for all Ss and outlined the three parts of the retention test. For every question S was to (a) attempt to answer the fill-in question; (b) mark an “X”in the box below the question cofrespondmg to the comer of the page where the answer was located (even if the correct item could not be recalled); and (c) circle a number 1
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through 5 which best corresponds to “your knowledge about the location of the answer.” The following series of five statements was given to Ss as part of the test instructions, corresponding to the five-pint scale on the test booklet page. All Ss were asked to read these statements carefully and keep these descriptions in front of them while working through the test questions: 1. I have no idea, whatsoever, of where the answer is on the page. 2. I have a feeling of knowing where the answer is on the page. 3. I have a feeling of knowing where the answer is on the page and I have a mental picture of the page. 4. I have a mental picture of the page on which the answer lies and I can visualize the specific corner. 5. I have a mental picture of the page on which the answer lies and I can visualize the specific corner including the typewritten answer.
Testing was self-paced, although Ss were asked not to go back to a question once they had turned the booklet page. After completing the fill-in portion of the test, Ss were given the 16 MC questions and asked to attempt all questions even if they had answered the same items correctly in the recall part of the experiment. Subjects The Ss were 64 introductory psychology students (32 male and 32 female) serving in the experiment as part of a class requirement. The four forms of the study booklets and two instruction conditions were randomized in blocks of eight and assigned to the Ss who signed up separately for the experiment. In addition, both orders of the fill-in test were used equally often in the eight conditions. The Ss were tested in small groups with both sexes present. 3.
C. RESULTS Both item and spatial recall were analyzed separately among groups corresponding to the factorial arrangement of instructions (NC and C) and sex of the Ss. Mean item recall was not influenced by cueing Ss to a subsequent test for spatial knowledge; nor was information recall significant for male and female Ss or the interaction of these variables (all Fs < 1, df = 1, 60). Item recall averaged 4.12 (SD = 2.25) for the 16 fill-in questions when considered over all 64 experimental Ss. When the proportion of item recall was examined as a function of position of the test question on the page, across all Ss proportion item recall for the four quadrants was, in order of reading, .26, . 2 7 , . 2 2 , and .25. Average reading
EUGENE B. ZECHMEISTER ET AL.
47
time was 15.9 minutes for NC Ss, and 16.1 minutes for C Ss (t = .22,
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df = 62, p > .05). Informing Ss of a subsequent test for spatial knowledge did not affect spatial retention (F < 1, df = 1, 60). Mean spatial recall, as indexed by the number of correct quadrants checked by Ss,was 6.16 for NC Ss and 6.72 for C Ss. Differences associated with male and female Ss and the interaction of Cueing and Sex were also not statistically reliable (both Fs < 1, df = 1,60). However, mean spatial recall was significantly different from chance (4.00) overall (t = 7.62, df = 63, p < .Ol); and separate t tests in each of the four cueing-sex groups showed that mean spatial retention was statistically different from chance for each of these groups (all p’s < .05). Across all Ss in each cueing condition, proportion spatial recall for the four corners of the page was, in order of reading, .42, .41, .44, and .27 in Condition NC; and .48, .44, .47, and .30 for the same quadrants in Condition C. The obvious poorer performance in the lower-right corner of the page for NC Ss is consistent with previous results (6). However, since spatial recall was also poorest in this location when Ss were informed of a spatial test (C Ss), an explanation for this finding in terms of lack of attention, perhaps by anticipating turning the page, is not supported. As reported elsewhere (3, 6), spatial retention was more likely for correct than incorrect fill-in items. Dependent t tests between mean proportion spatial recall for these two classes of responses were significant for both NC (t = 4.63, df = 28, p < .01) and C (t = 3.39, df = 30, p < .01) groups. (Three NC Ss and one C S were dropped from this comparison because no right items were present.) Average proportion spatial recall accompanying correct and incorrect fill-in items was .60 and .35, respectively, for C Ss; .55 and .33 for NC Ss for the same comparison. Individual t tests comparing mean proportion with that expected by chance ( . 2 5 ) were significant for each of the four comparisons. Figure 1 summarizes the relationship between item and spatial recall and the degree of reported knowledge concerning item location for each instruction condition. Proportion of both item and position recall increased directly with degree of reported knowledge. Also, at each level of spatial knowledge there was little difference in performance between instruction groups. Tests for differences associated with sample proportions indicated that all proportions shown in the lower half of Figure 1 were significantly above chance, except those associated with Statement #1, and that of Statement #2 for Condition NC. The latter proportion (.31) approached significance (2 = 1.67, p < .lo).
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SPATIAL KNOWLEDGE FIGURE 1 SPATIAL RECALL AS A FUNCTION OF REPORTED SPATIAL EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION (NC AND c) Condition C = Ss were told that they would be tested for spatial knowledge. Condition NC = Instructions contained no mention of a spatial test.
PROPORTION
CORRECT ITEM
AND KNOWLEDGE AND
Table 1 summarizes MC performance of items which were previously incorrect in the fill-in task as a function of reported knowledge for the answers’ text location and the correctness of that knowledge. Two aspects of the data found in Table 1 are important. First, if only the frequency of
Frequency Proportion Frequency Proportion Frequency Proportion
NC
16/41 .39 18/35 .51 34/76 .45
R 51/118 .43 451109 .41 961227 .42
W 13/30 .43 22/41 .54 35/71 .49
R
2
32/78 .41 32/69 .46 64147 .44
W 13/23 .56 13/24 .54 26/47 .55
R
3
-
18/37 .49 14/32 .44 32/69 .46
W
SDatial knowledne
so
24/46 .52
13/24 .54 11/22
R
4
9/19 .47 12/27 .44 21/46 .46
W
519 .56 7/11 .64 12/20 .60
R
5
3/11 .27
.60
315
.oo
Oh
W
Note: Condition C = Ss were told that they would be tested for spatial knowledge. Condition NC = Instructions contained no mention of a spatial test.
Total
C
Measure
Condition
1
TABLE 1 MULTIPLE-CHOICE PERFORMANCE FOR INCORRECT FILL-IN ITEMS AS A FUNCTION OF REPORTEDSPATIALKNOWLEDGE AND RIGHT(R)OR WRONG(W) SPATIALRECALL
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P rg
F
2
B
3
g
m
N
8
2
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JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
correct spatial recall is examined for each level of reported knowledge (i.e., comparing the denominators for the R and W frequency totals), it can be seen that S s were more frequently wrong than right in their judgments of text location unless a very specific knowledge was reported. For example, the overall results associated with Statement #4 indicate that Ss were correct only SO% of the time (46 and 46 for R and W recall, respectively). This indicates that the overall relation between reported knowledge and proportion correct position judgments seen in Figure 1 is not the same for correct and incorrect fill-in items. A second important point to be made from the data in Table 1 concerns MC performance as a function of reported knowledge for the answer’s text position. If only MC performance associated with true spatial judgments (R columns) is considered, there is a general trend for discrimination performance to improve as greater specificity of the item’s text location is indicated. Since only spatial knowledge which is accurate may be considered a useful discriminative cure, this comparison seems appropriate. Nevertheless, since number of cases falling at the higher degrees of reported knowledge is relatively few, the trend must be considered tentative.
DISCUSSION That informing S s of a test for spatial knowledge did not significantly raise the level of position recall over that of an uninformed group is in agreement with the suggestion (7) that spatial-temporal features are a fundamental dimension of encoding. Since the task of remembering information from text is basic to our learning experience, there would seem to be a high probability that the normal S will attempt to use spatial-temporal information in attempting item recall. While the often heard remark by persons is one of having spatial knowledge but not being able to recall a n item, it is of obvious theoretical concern to demonstrate that having spatial information provides access to a momentarily unavailable item. Since spatial memory is consistently superior for correct than incorrect information answers, there exists corroborative evidence that spatial recall aids item retrieval. However, this relationship has several interpretations (3). For example, it is possible that the presence of a correct information answer serves as an additional and salient cue for location recall, or perhaps item and spatial recall benefit simultaneously because attention was somehow better for that portion of the text. Nevertheless, the evidence does not appear to support either of these alternatives. The former interpretation was examined in an experiment run subsequent to that reD.
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51
ported here. The material and procedures were the same as those for NC Ss in the present study except that half the Ss were provided the correct fill-in answers before attempting spatial recall. Spatial retention was not reliably changed by this manipulation as would be predicted if fill-in answers were cueing spatial recall. Further, the suggestion that conditions which fail to produce information recall also fail to enable spatial retention is not supported by the negative finding for instructions in the present experiment. Informing Ss of a test for location knowledge would presumably serve to direct Ss’ attention to a spatial dimension. Also, the attention hypothesis is not in agreement with the finding that differential spatial recall was obtained for the four positions on the page while item recall was generally the same for the four quadrants. An attention explanation would expect diminished item and spatial recall for the same quadrant. The Ss in the present experiment were remarkably accurate in monitoring their spatial knowledge in terms of the degree of visual representation for text location. It appears appropriate to characterize spatial retention as mediated by visual imagery of the text page. However, two findings should be emphasized. First, Ss are frequently confused as to their position judgments even though very specific visual representation is reported. This is particularly true when the information item has not been recalled and it is tempting to conclude a breakdown in an aspect of encoding that is common to both types of information. Second, spatial recall is apparently reliable when Ss report only a feeling of knowing for position (Statement #2), as well as when the position was not localized on the page (Statement #3). The possibility that subjectively experienced imagery is epiphenomend to processes which allow spatial recall must be considered. It is possible that kinesthetic cues involved in eye and head movement while reading may also be encoded and aid position recall. The MC data provide tentative evidence that spatial recall may aid in differentiation among similar memory experiences. A general increase in discrimination performance was obtained as a function of increasing veridical spatial knowledge. It is of course possible that position knowledge is correlated with other attributes which may aid discrimination (e.g., context); however, it is reasonable to assume that knowing a n item’s place on the page, or knowledge of position in the text as a whole (cf. 3), would allow Ss to dismiss certain MC alternatives. The marginal trend seen in the MC results must be considered against the fact that spatial knowledge is obviously a secondary attribute for discrimination, and that no systematic manipulation of location of incorrect MC alternatives was attempted.
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REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.
4.
5.
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6.
BORING, E. G. A History of Experimental Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts, 1950. BOWER,G. H. Analysis of a mnemonic device. Amer. Sci., 1970, 58, 496-510. ROTHKOPF,E. Z. Incidental memory for location of information in text. J. Verb. Learn. 6. Verb. Behav., 1971, 10, 608613. UNDERWOOD, B. J. Attributes of memory. Psychol. Rev., 1969, 76, 559-573. YATES, F. A. The Art of Memory. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1966. ZECHMEISTER, E. B.,& MCKILLIP, J. Recall of place on the page. J. Educ. Psychol., 1972, 63, 446-453.
7.
ZIMMERMAN, J., & UNDERWOOD, B. J. Ordinal position knowledge within and across lists as a function of instructions in free-recall learning. J. Cen. Psychol., 1968, 79, 301-307.
Department of Psychology Loyola University of Chicago 6525 North Sheridan Road Chicago, Illinois 60626
The Journal of General Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vgen20
Visual Memory for Place on the Page a
a
Eugene B. Zechmeister , Jack McKillip , Stan a
Pasko & Dale Bespalec
a
a
Loyola University of Chicago , USA Published online: 06 Jul 2010.
To cite this article: Eugene B. Zechmeister , Jack McKillip , Stan Pasko & Dale Bespalec (1975) Visual Memory for Place on the Page, The Journal of General Psychology, 92:1, 43-52, DOI: 10.1080/00221309.1975.9711326 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1975.9711326
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 14:35 08 February 2015
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
The journal of General Psychology, 1975, 92, 43-52.
VISUAL MEMORY FOR PLACE ON T H E PAGE* Loyola University of Chicago
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 14:35 08 February 2015
EUGENEB. ZECHMEISTER,JACK MCKILLIP, STAN PASKO, DALE BESPALEC
AND
SUMMARY Sixty-four Ss were asked to read a lengthy prose passage and were subsequently tested for (a) information recall, (b) memory for location of information answers; and (c) discrimination of information answers in a multiple-choice (MC) task. In agreement with previous studies, spatial memory was highly reliable and significantly greater for correct than incorrect information answers. However, the present experiment showed that cueing Ss to a spatial test did not raise the level of spatial recall over that for a noncued group. Further, proportion of both item and spatial recall was found to increase directly with degree of visual memory for location as indexed by a five-point subjective knowledge scale. There was also a general trend for multiple-choice performance to improve as degree of visual knowledge for an answer’s true location increased. It is apparent that visually mediated spatial memory is a fundamental attribute when text material is encoded, and may be of mnemonic worth when retention of information is required. A.
INTRODUCTION
Adult Ss can reliably recall the location in a prose passage of answers to questions about the content of the material (3, 6). This fact raises the possibility that spatial knowledge is of mnemonic value when retention of information from text is tested. Evidence in favor of this proposition is that spatial knowledge is more likely to accompany correct than incorrect item recall (3, 6). According to an attribute theory of memory (4), spatial encoding aids differentiation among similar memory experiences. Further, it is a well known observation that spatial memory may serve as a highly effective retrieval scheme (2, 5). Threfore, several specific mnemonic functions of
* Received in the Editorial Office, Provincetown, Massachusetts, on February 6, 1974. Copyright, 1975, by The Journal Press. 43
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spatial knowledge of information from text can be considered. For example, discrimination of correct answers in a multiple-choice (MC) test may be aided if one or more alternatives can be dismissed because their text location is known to be incongruent with the location of the correct answer. Also, spatial encoding may be an aid to recall by providing a natural scheme for organizing a memory search. Reviewing available information from text in a spatial-temporal order may serve to reinstate salient retrieval cues. Furthermore, if memory of position in text is mediated by visual imagery, as has been suggested (6), then direct access to encoded information may be aided. For example, imagery might provide orthographic fragments of the to-be-remembered item (cf. 4) or contextual cues, such as a figure or picture that could elicit verbal associations which would mediate item recall. That some form of retrieval based on visually mediated spatial recall is at least attempted is suggested by the occasionally voiced remarks of students following a class exam. Students sometimes report that they could not answer a specific test question, but that they could “see” exactly where on the page the answer was located. The present experiment was designed to correlate Ss’ reported degree of visual representation of location information with both item and spatial recall for factual answers to questions over the content of text material. Also, the effect of cueing Ss to a subsequent test of item location was examined. Zimmerman and Underwood (7) have suggested that relating events to be memorized to a spatial-temporal dimension is a fundamental aspect of encoding. The question here is whether this process is altered when Ss are informed of a test for spatial knowledge. Finally, following attempted recall of item and spatial knowledge, all S s were given an MC test on the same material. It was of interest whether discrimination of items previously not recalled, but whose location was indicated, would vary as a function of the degree of reported spatial knowledge.
B. METHOD 1. Material Study material was the same as that used in a previous experiment (6) and consisted of a 3200-word, biographical passage taken from E. G. Boring’s A History of Experimental Psychology ( l ) . I The material was presented in booklets with the passage typed, single spaced, in two columns of prose on each page and triple spacing in the middle of each The authors are appreciative for the permission to use this material given by AppletonCentury-Crofts, Educational Division, Meredith Corporation.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 14:35 08 February 2015
EUGENE B. ZECHMEISTER ET AL.
45
column. Elite type was used with the result that the text appeared in four distinct “blocks” on a page, each approximately 150 words. Order of reading was as follows: top-left; bottom-left; top-right; through bottomright blocks. Booklets were six pages, or 2 1 blocks, long. Four forms of the study booklets were typed with each form having the initial block of text occupying a different quadrant of the first page. Test booklets were prepared with fill-in-the-blank questions requiring one- or two-word answers specific to a study block. One question was prepared for each of the 16 middle blocks of text. Each fill-in question appeared on a separate page together with a scale numbered 1 through 5, and a box with quadrants corresponding to the four comers of the text page. Two random orders of the test booklet were arranged with the restriction that no two consecutive blocks be tested contiguously and an equal number of questions from the first and last eight blocks appear in the first and second half of the 16 test questions. Also, 16 MC questions with four alternatives were prepared, with the same stem kept as the fill-in items. The MC questions were also presented in 16-page booklets, in a different order from that of the fill-in items. 2.
Procedure
The experimental manipulation was defined by two sets of study instructions. All Ss received written instructions that their memory would be tested for material in the study booklet and that they were to read the passage as if studying for a class examination. One half of the Ss received instructions informing them that, in addition to being tested for factual content in the passage, they would be asked questions concerning where on the page this information could be found (Condition C). It was emphasized, however, that their most important task was to remember as much factual material as possible. The other Ss received study instructions that contained no mention of a spatial test (Condition NC). All Ss read the material at their own pace but were advised not to go back over material once read. Wben S signalled that he had finished reading the passage, his reading time was recorded, and a test booklet with written instructions was given to him. The test instructions were the same for all Ss and outlined the three parts of the retention test. For every question S was to (a) attempt to answer the fill-in question; (b) mark an “X”in the box below the question cofrespondmg to the comer of the page where the answer was located (even if the correct item could not be recalled); and (c) circle a number 1
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JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
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through 5 which best corresponds to “your knowledge about the location of the answer.” The following series of five statements was given to Ss as part of the test instructions, corresponding to the five-pint scale on the test booklet page. All Ss were asked to read these statements carefully and keep these descriptions in front of them while working through the test questions: 1. I have no idea, whatsoever, of where the answer is on the page. 2. I have a feeling of knowing where the answer is on the page. 3. I have a feeling of knowing where the answer is on the page and I have a mental picture of the page. 4. I have a mental picture of the page on which the answer lies and I can visualize the specific corner. 5. I have a mental picture of the page on which the answer lies and I can visualize the specific corner including the typewritten answer.
Testing was self-paced, although Ss were asked not to go back to a question once they had turned the booklet page. After completing the fill-in portion of the test, Ss were given the 16 MC questions and asked to attempt all questions even if they had answered the same items correctly in the recall part of the experiment. Subjects The Ss were 64 introductory psychology students (32 male and 32 female) serving in the experiment as part of a class requirement. The four forms of the study booklets and two instruction conditions were randomized in blocks of eight and assigned to the Ss who signed up separately for the experiment. In addition, both orders of the fill-in test were used equally often in the eight conditions. The Ss were tested in small groups with both sexes present. 3.
C. RESULTS Both item and spatial recall were analyzed separately among groups corresponding to the factorial arrangement of instructions (NC and C) and sex of the Ss. Mean item recall was not influenced by cueing Ss to a subsequent test for spatial knowledge; nor was information recall significant for male and female Ss or the interaction of these variables (all Fs < 1, df = 1, 60). Item recall averaged 4.12 (SD = 2.25) for the 16 fill-in questions when considered over all 64 experimental Ss. When the proportion of item recall was examined as a function of position of the test question on the page, across all Ss proportion item recall for the four quadrants was, in order of reading, .26, . 2 7 , . 2 2 , and .25. Average reading
EUGENE B. ZECHMEISTER ET AL.
47
time was 15.9 minutes for NC Ss, and 16.1 minutes for C Ss (t = .22,
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df = 62, p > .05). Informing Ss of a subsequent test for spatial knowledge did not affect spatial retention (F < 1, df = 1, 60). Mean spatial recall, as indexed by the number of correct quadrants checked by Ss,was 6.16 for NC Ss and 6.72 for C Ss. Differences associated with male and female Ss and the interaction of Cueing and Sex were also not statistically reliable (both Fs < 1, df = 1,60). However, mean spatial recall was significantly different from chance (4.00) overall (t = 7.62, df = 63, p < .Ol); and separate t tests in each of the four cueing-sex groups showed that mean spatial retention was statistically different from chance for each of these groups (all p’s < .05). Across all Ss in each cueing condition, proportion spatial recall for the four corners of the page was, in order of reading, .42, .41, .44, and .27 in Condition NC; and .48, .44, .47, and .30 for the same quadrants in Condition C. The obvious poorer performance in the lower-right corner of the page for NC Ss is consistent with previous results (6). However, since spatial recall was also poorest in this location when Ss were informed of a spatial test (C Ss), an explanation for this finding in terms of lack of attention, perhaps by anticipating turning the page, is not supported. As reported elsewhere (3, 6), spatial retention was more likely for correct than incorrect fill-in items. Dependent t tests between mean proportion spatial recall for these two classes of responses were significant for both NC (t = 4.63, df = 28, p < .01) and C (t = 3.39, df = 30, p < .01) groups. (Three NC Ss and one C S were dropped from this comparison because no right items were present.) Average proportion spatial recall accompanying correct and incorrect fill-in items was .60 and .35, respectively, for C Ss; .55 and .33 for NC Ss for the same comparison. Individual t tests comparing mean proportion with that expected by chance ( . 2 5 ) were significant for each of the four comparisons. Figure 1 summarizes the relationship between item and spatial recall and the degree of reported knowledge concerning item location for each instruction condition. Proportion of both item and position recall increased directly with degree of reported knowledge. Also, at each level of spatial knowledge there was little difference in performance between instruction groups. Tests for differences associated with sample proportions indicated that all proportions shown in the lower half of Figure 1 were significantly above chance, except those associated with Statement #1, and that of Statement #2 for Condition NC. The latter proportion (.31) approached significance (2 = 1.67, p < .lo).
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SPATIAL KNOWLEDGE FIGURE 1 SPATIAL RECALL AS A FUNCTION OF REPORTED SPATIAL EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION (NC AND c) Condition C = Ss were told that they would be tested for spatial knowledge. Condition NC = Instructions contained no mention of a spatial test.
PROPORTION
CORRECT ITEM
AND KNOWLEDGE AND
Table 1 summarizes MC performance of items which were previously incorrect in the fill-in task as a function of reported knowledge for the answers’ text location and the correctness of that knowledge. Two aspects of the data found in Table 1 are important. First, if only the frequency of
Frequency Proportion Frequency Proportion Frequency Proportion
NC
16/41 .39 18/35 .51 34/76 .45
R 51/118 .43 451109 .41 961227 .42
W 13/30 .43 22/41 .54 35/71 .49
R
2
32/78 .41 32/69 .46 64147 .44
W 13/23 .56 13/24 .54 26/47 .55
R
3
-
18/37 .49 14/32 .44 32/69 .46
W
SDatial knowledne
so
24/46 .52
13/24 .54 11/22
R
4
9/19 .47 12/27 .44 21/46 .46
W
519 .56 7/11 .64 12/20 .60
R
5
3/11 .27
.60
315
.oo
Oh
W
Note: Condition C = Ss were told that they would be tested for spatial knowledge. Condition NC = Instructions contained no mention of a spatial test.
Total
C
Measure
Condition
1
TABLE 1 MULTIPLE-CHOICE PERFORMANCE FOR INCORRECT FILL-IN ITEMS AS A FUNCTION OF REPORTEDSPATIALKNOWLEDGE AND RIGHT(R)OR WRONG(W) SPATIALRECALL
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P rg
F
2
B
3
g
m
N
8
2
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correct spatial recall is examined for each level of reported knowledge (i.e., comparing the denominators for the R and W frequency totals), it can be seen that S s were more frequently wrong than right in their judgments of text location unless a very specific knowledge was reported. For example, the overall results associated with Statement #4 indicate that Ss were correct only SO% of the time (46 and 46 for R and W recall, respectively). This indicates that the overall relation between reported knowledge and proportion correct position judgments seen in Figure 1 is not the same for correct and incorrect fill-in items. A second important point to be made from the data in Table 1 concerns MC performance as a function of reported knowledge for the answer’s text position. If only MC performance associated with true spatial judgments (R columns) is considered, there is a general trend for discrimination performance to improve as greater specificity of the item’s text location is indicated. Since only spatial knowledge which is accurate may be considered a useful discriminative cure, this comparison seems appropriate. Nevertheless, since number of cases falling at the higher degrees of reported knowledge is relatively few, the trend must be considered tentative.
DISCUSSION That informing S s of a test for spatial knowledge did not significantly raise the level of position recall over that of an uninformed group is in agreement with the suggestion (7) that spatial-temporal features are a fundamental dimension of encoding. Since the task of remembering information from text is basic to our learning experience, there would seem to be a high probability that the normal S will attempt to use spatial-temporal information in attempting item recall. While the often heard remark by persons is one of having spatial knowledge but not being able to recall a n item, it is of obvious theoretical concern to demonstrate that having spatial information provides access to a momentarily unavailable item. Since spatial memory is consistently superior for correct than incorrect information answers, there exists corroborative evidence that spatial recall aids item retrieval. However, this relationship has several interpretations (3). For example, it is possible that the presence of a correct information answer serves as an additional and salient cue for location recall, or perhaps item and spatial recall benefit simultaneously because attention was somehow better for that portion of the text. Nevertheless, the evidence does not appear to support either of these alternatives. The former interpretation was examined in an experiment run subsequent to that reD.
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EUGENE B. ZECHMEISTER ET AL.
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ported here. The material and procedures were the same as those for NC Ss in the present study except that half the Ss were provided the correct fill-in answers before attempting spatial recall. Spatial retention was not reliably changed by this manipulation as would be predicted if fill-in answers were cueing spatial recall. Further, the suggestion that conditions which fail to produce information recall also fail to enable spatial retention is not supported by the negative finding for instructions in the present experiment. Informing Ss of a test for location knowledge would presumably serve to direct Ss’ attention to a spatial dimension. Also, the attention hypothesis is not in agreement with the finding that differential spatial recall was obtained for the four positions on the page while item recall was generally the same for the four quadrants. An attention explanation would expect diminished item and spatial recall for the same quadrant. The Ss in the present experiment were remarkably accurate in monitoring their spatial knowledge in terms of the degree of visual representation for text location. It appears appropriate to characterize spatial retention as mediated by visual imagery of the text page. However, two findings should be emphasized. First, Ss are frequently confused as to their position judgments even though very specific visual representation is reported. This is particularly true when the information item has not been recalled and it is tempting to conclude a breakdown in an aspect of encoding that is common to both types of information. Second, spatial recall is apparently reliable when Ss report only a feeling of knowing for position (Statement #2), as well as when the position was not localized on the page (Statement #3). The possibility that subjectively experienced imagery is epiphenomend to processes which allow spatial recall must be considered. It is possible that kinesthetic cues involved in eye and head movement while reading may also be encoded and aid position recall. The MC data provide tentative evidence that spatial recall may aid in differentiation among similar memory experiences. A general increase in discrimination performance was obtained as a function of increasing veridical spatial knowledge. It is of course possible that position knowledge is correlated with other attributes which may aid discrimination (e.g., context); however, it is reasonable to assume that knowing a n item’s place on the page, or knowledge of position in the text as a whole (cf. 3), would allow Ss to dismiss certain MC alternatives. The marginal trend seen in the MC results must be considered against the fact that spatial knowledge is obviously a secondary attribute for discrimination, and that no systematic manipulation of location of incorrect MC alternatives was attempted.
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REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.
4.
5.
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6.
BORING, E. G. A History of Experimental Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts, 1950. BOWER,G. H. Analysis of a mnemonic device. Amer. Sci., 1970, 58, 496-510. ROTHKOPF,E. Z. Incidental memory for location of information in text. J. Verb. Learn. 6. Verb. Behav., 1971, 10, 608613. UNDERWOOD, B. J. Attributes of memory. Psychol. Rev., 1969, 76, 559-573. YATES, F. A. The Art of Memory. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1966. ZECHMEISTER, E. B.,& MCKILLIP, J. Recall of place on the page. J. Educ. Psychol., 1972, 63, 446-453.
7.
ZIMMERMAN, J., & UNDERWOOD, B. J. Ordinal position knowledge within and across lists as a function of instructions in free-recall learning. J. Cen. Psychol., 1968, 79, 301-307.
Department of Psychology Loyola University of Chicago 6525 North Sheridan Road Chicago, Illinois 60626
