International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 2015, 10, 112-116 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-0212 © 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
www.IJSPP-Journal.com INVITED COMMENTARY
Velocity Thresholds for Women’s Soccer Matches: Sex Specificity Dictates High-Speed-Running and Sprinting Thresholds—Female Athletes in Motion (FAiM) Paul S. Bradley and Jason D. Vescovi There is no methodological standardization of velocity thresholds for the quantification of distances covered in various locomotor activities for women’s soccer matches, especially for high-speed running and sprinting. Applying velocity thresholds used for motion analysis of men’s soccer has likely created skewed observations about high-intensity movement demands for the women’s game because these thresholds do not accurately reflect the capabilities of elite female players. Subsequently, a cohesive view of the locomotor characteristics of women’s soccer does not yet exist. The aim of this commentary is to provide suggestions for standardizing high-speed running and sprint velocity thresholds specific to women’s soccer. The authors also comment on using generic vs individualized thresholds, as well as age-related considerations, to establish velocity thresholds. Keywords: football, time–motion analysis, sex differences, standard Women’s soccer participation continues to grow worldwide, with a concomitant increase in our understanding of the physical demands of women’s matches.1–7 Attention is given to high-speedrunning and sprinting distances as important indicators of match physical performance.8 Currently there is no methodological standardization of velocity thresholds to quantify locomotor activities during women’s matches. This is problematic when attempting to assess high-speed demands because of large match-to-match variability (typical error and coefficient of variation for high-speed running, ~140 m and 8%, and sprinting, ~90 m and 13%; N = 41; unpublished data); thus, without standardized methodologies it is difficult to compare between studies and challenging to develop cohesive views about locomotor characteristics of women’s soccer (Table 1). An early time–motion analysis study of elite men’s matches identified velocities associated with various locomotor activities9; however, the velocities were means as opposed to thresholds. Still, the mean values for high-speed running (18 km/h) and sprinting (30 km/h) have been used in subsequent research as thresholds.10 Some researchers have lowered high-speed-running (19.8–25.1 km/h) and sprinting (>25.1 km/h) thresholds and applied them more consistently to elite men’s soccer11–16; however, universally agreed-upon values have not yet been established. Researchers transposed men’s thresholds onto initial studies describing elite women’s time–motion characteristics,2,4,17 but these do not accurately reflect the physical capabilities of elite female players. Examining sex differences will help develop more appropriate criteria for velocity thresholds used in locomotor analytics of women’s matches. There is recent evidence on the physical performance6,18 and time–motion characteristics19 of female soccer players that must be considered. The aim of this commentary is to highlight the limitations of applying thresholds from men’s soccer Bradley is with the Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, United Kingdom. Vescovi is with the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. Address author correspondence to Jason Vescovi at [email protected]. 112
to women’s matches and provide suggestions for standardizing high-speed-running and sprint velocity thresholds for women’s soccer. We will also comment on using generic versus individualized thresholds, as well as age-related considerations, to establish velocity thresholds.
Consideration of Sex Differences in Physical Performance There is disproportionately less high-speed-running and sprinting distance covered during women’s than men’s UEFA Champions League matches when using the same absolute velocity thresholds (ie, 18 to 25 km/h and >25 km/h, respectively).3 Match demands showed that female players covered 718 m (~7% total distance) and 59 m (~1%), whereas male players covered 986 m (~9%) and 200 m (~2%) within those respective velocity thresholds.3 These differences represent 37% and 238% more distance during men’s matches, compared with a 15 >15 >15 >18 >15 >13 >15 >15 15.5–20 15.5–20 15.5–20 15.5–20
1530 1330 1358 718 1310 1585 1680 1300 458 611 658 813
15.5 13.4 12.6 6.7 12.7 17.7 16.3 12.5 6.6 7.6 7.7 8.2
25 25 21 25 25 22 25 25 20 20 20 20
256 221 291 59 160 Not reported 460 380 76 185 235 267
2.6 2.3 2.7 0.5 1.6 4.5 3.6 1.1 2.3 2.7 2.7
Abbreviation: UEFA, Union of European Football Associations. Note: High-speed–individual locomotor category = 15.5–20 km/h. High-intensity–collapsed category = moderate-speed + high-speed + sprint.
than their male counterparts.4,10,30,31 However, when converted to the velocity associated with test termination, the mean sex difference is 12% for senior and youth players (17.0–17.5 vs 15.0–15.5 km/h).32 The laboratory and field-based testing results reveal that female players have lower physical capacities than male players across a range of fitness attributes,4,21,22,24,25,32–35 highlighting the importance of developing sex-specific velocity thresholds to accurately quantify high-speed-running and sprinting characteristics for women’s matches.
Establishing Female-Specific High-SpeedRunning and Sprint Velocity Thresholds Given that maximum velocity, as well as anaerobic and aerobic characteristics, is consistently lower for elite female players than their male counterparts,4,6,36,37 sex-specific velocity thresholds should be established.6,18,19 Most sprints in men’s matches are about 5 m and occur from a moving (ie, leading) start.11,12 To maximize the number of sprints captured during matches, focus should be given to the minimum velocity achieved during leading 5-m sprints, which is ~20 km/h.6 Practitioners argue that the sprint threshold should be aligned with sex differences in sprint velocity (ie, 90% of 25 km/h = 22.5 km/h), but preference to a slightly lower value might be advantageous for several reasons. First, commercially available GPS systems have 0.5- to 1.0-second dwell times that must be exceeded above the defined threshold to confirm that a sprint has occurred; thus, peak velocity achieved for short sprints will likely reach a minimum of 21 to 22 km/h if the threshold is set at 20 km/h. Second, use of 20 km/h might better equate the relative amount of sprinting between men’s and women’s matches. The minimum and 10th-percentile velocities for a leading 5-m sprint in a group of subelite male players (N = 268) is approximately 22 to 23 km/h (unpublished data). Both 20 and 22 km/h were independently identified as sprint thresholds for elite female and male team sports, respectively, by other researchers using different methodology19 and align with the ~90% sex difference in sprint velocity.
Establishing a generic threshold for high-speed running poses challenges; however, there could be potential use for maximal aerobic velocity. Sex differences in maximal aerobic velocity (treadmill tests) are evident, with consistent outcomes for elite male (~17 km/h)24,28,29 and female players (~14.5 km/h).25–27 Elite male players achieve 17.0 to 17.5 km/h on the Yo-Yo IRT1,8,32 and a large-magnitude correlation (r = .71) exists between peak treadmill velocity and performance on the Yo-Yo IRT1 (distance).29 Yo-Yo IRT1 values for female athletes are scarce; available values range from 1000 to 1380 m,4,27 corresponding to velocities of 15.0 to 15.5 km/h, with many elite players achieving 16.0 to 16.5 km/h (n = 55 of 79; unpublished data). Differences in peak speeds achieved on a treadmill and the Yo-Yo IRT1 for female players could be due to specificity problems with laboratory assessments. Nevertheless, repeated, intermittent bouts of high-intensity running during matches are associated with large anaerobic contributions and elevations in blood lactate concentration.38 Thus, we could inductively reason that a generic high-speed-running threshold should be above the velocity associated with the onset of blood lactate accumulation (>90% velocity at VO2max) and be situated at maximal aerobic velocity—somewhere between 15 and 16 km/h for women’s soccer.
Individualized Velocity Thresholds Individualized velocity thresholds have received increasing attention and are a relevant discussion topic. 36,39,40 Individualizing high-speed-running and sprinting thresholds based on a player’s own physiological ability seems logical, but there is a drawback— namely, identifying tests that will provide appropriate performance outcomes to establish reliable thresholds. A simple approach to individualize the sprint threshold would be to use maximal velocity. However, maximal velocity occurs between 25 and 40 m, yet sprints of this distance, and consequently maximal velocity, rarely occur during matches.41 This would limit, but not eliminate, the use of maximal velocity when determining a sprint threshold. Sprints of 5 to 20 m are considered soccer-specific,
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114 Bradley and Vescovi
but distinguishing between ages with velocity over these distances is reduced, which seems to require longer distances.6,18 For example, mean sprint velocity during the first 9.1 m (of a 36.6-m test) is similar for female soccer players ranging in age 12 to 21 years, but differences between age groups during the final 9.1 m are notable up to age 16 years.18 Moreover, the difference between the fastest and slowest leading 5- to 10-m sprints is about 5.5 km/h in elite female players, whereas the difference for the final 15 m of a 35-m sprint is 7.5 km/h.6 This larger range might permit better resolution when identifying a threshold for an individual player. Leading 5-m velocity is 80% to 85% of final 15-m velocity,6 so an approach to individualize the sprint threshold could be to assess maximal velocity over longer distances (30–40 m) and adjust it according to this relationship. Normalizing all velocity thresholds for younger age groups based on values from senior players has also been proposed39; however, the challenge is the current lack of standardized velocity thresholds for women’s soccer. A method for individualizing the high-speed-running threshold in elite male soccer players uses the second ventilatory threshold (VT2) obtained during an incremental treadmill test.36 The rationale was that exercise above VT2 is not sustainable for prolonged periods of time; however, this only relates to continuous exercise. The intermittent nature of soccer results in players performing moderate-, high-, and maximal-intensity efforts, which are inherently brief. Running at 100%, 120%, and 140% of velocity at VO2max is sustainable for 6, 2, and 1 minute, respectively42; these are much longer than bouts of higher-intensity running observed during matches. These data, in conjunction with the mean velocity at VT2 (~15 km/h)36 highlight that VT2 is too low to define high-speed running. We believe that maximal aerobic velocity is more appropriate for individualizing high-speed work, whereas VT2 could be ideal for classifying moderate-speed efforts. To avoid the requirement of gas analysis, a suggested practice would be to use 80% of maximal aerobic velocity since it is often aligned with VT2.36,43 Difference in peak speed are obtained from treadmill and intermittent tests, so it would be beneficial to have a field-based option to acquire maximal aerobic velocity, resulting in time-efficient assessments of squads without use of a laboratory. The Yo-Yo IRT1 is regarded as a good measure of aerobic–anaerobic indices and widely used in team sports.10 Moreover, a large-magnitude correlation exists between Yo-Yo IRT1 performance and maximal aerobic velocity on a treadmill.29 While the maximum velocities from these 2 tests have not been shown to be precisely interchangeable,44 we argue that the Yo-Yo IRT1 is soccer specific and the velocity obtained at test termination could be used as an individual high-speed threshold. Research is needed with female players across various standards to examine the association between maximal aerobic velocity and that at VT2 determined from a treadmill test against the peak velocity obtained during the Yo-Yo IRT1. Only then will more definitive procedures for individualizing high-speed velocity for women’s soccer be established.
Age-Related Factors for Defining Velocity Thresholds Differences in performance capacities across age groups are important considerations when deciding on locomotor thresholds. Maximal sprint velocity tends to plateau around 16 years of age in female players, as there was no observable increase for players 18 to 21 years of age.18 Similarly, no differences were observed for 15-m sprints between senior (23 y) and youth (17 y) female play-
ers.32 Therefore, a standardized generic sprint threshold could be used with female players ≥U16. In contrast to applying the sprint threshold to standards ³U16, adjustments are likely needed for highspeed running, as evidenced by progressively increasing maximal aerobic velocity from 17 years (~11 km/h)45 to 20 to 21 years (~14.5 km/h)26,27 and >24 years (14.7 km/h),25 as well as observations for mean Yo-Yo IRT1 scores in U17 (1070 m, 15 km/h, N = 26), U21 (1480 m, 16 km/h, N = 29), and senior-level (1630 m, 16 km/h, N = 22) female field hockey players (unpublished data).
Perspective Based on the literature and our experience we recommend that generic thresholds used to define high-speed running and sprinting in women’s soccer should be 15 to 16 km/h and 20 km/h, respectively, and be implemented for time–motion analysis studies with players U20 to U21 and older. The sprint threshold can be used for players to ≥U16; however, the high-speed-running threshold would need modification to reflect the lower physical abilities of players competing in age groups younger than U21. A word of caution: High-speed running and sprinting may be underestimated when based on absolute velocities, which can exclude short sprints (high acceleration but not exceeding velocity threshold).46,47 Therefore, methods that capture acceleration in conjunction with velocity would help strengthen women’s match analyses. Individualizing velocity thresholds based on established physiological capacities might be advantageous in certain circumstances, but standard protocols are required. We suggest using 80% to 85% of maximal velocity (tests >30 m) for the sprint threshold and either maximal aerobic velocity (laboratory-based) or the velocity achieved during the Yo-Yo IRT1 test (field-based) for the highspeed-running threshold. Our aim for this commentary was to provide the rationale for developing a unified approach to velocitythreshold selection for women’s soccer matches. More important, we hope that we will stimulate dialog and research in this area, because implementing consistent methods will ultimately assist in a more cohesive description and understanding of women’s soccer.
References 1. Vescovi JD, Favero TG. Motion characteristics of women’s college soccer matches: Female Athletes in Motion (FAiM) study. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2014;9(3):405–414. PubMed doi:10.1123/ IJSPP.2013-0526 2. Andersson HA, Randers MB, Heiner-Moller A, Krustrup P, Mohr M. Elite female soccer players perform more high-intensity running when playing in international games compared with domestic league games. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24:912–919. PubMed doi:10.1519/ JSC.0b013e3181d09f21 3. Bradley PS, Dellal A, Mohr M, Castellano J, Wilkie A. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Hum Mov Sci. 2014;33:159–171. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024 4. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Ellingsgaard H, Bangsbo J. Physical demands during an elite female soccer game: importance of training status. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37:1242–1248. PubMed doi:10.1249/01. mss.0000170062.73981.94 5. Vescovi JD. Sprint profile of professional female soccer players during competitive matches: Female Athletes in Motion (FAiM) study. J Sports Sci. 2012;30:1259–1265. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640414.20 12.701760
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6. Vescovi JD. Sprint speed characteristics of high-level American female soccer players: Female Athletes in Motion (FAiM) study. J Sci Med Sport. 2012;15:474–478. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2012.03.006 7. Vescovi JD. Motion characteristics of youth women soccer matches: Female Athletes in Motion (FAiM) study. Int J Sports Med. 2014;35:110–117. PubMed 8. Mohr M, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J. Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to development of fatigue. J Sports Sci. 2003;21:519–528. PubMed doi:10.1080/0264041031000071182 9. Bangsbo J, Norregaard L, Thorso F. Activity profile of competition soccer. Can J Sport Sci. 1991;16:110–116. PubMed 10. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Amstrup T, et al. The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test: physiological response, reliability, and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:697–705. PubMed doi:10.1249/01. MSS.0000058441.94520.32 11. Di Salvo V, Baron R, Gonzalez-Haro C, Gormasz C, Pigozzi F, Bachl N. Sprinting analysis of elite soccer players during European Champions League and UEFA Cup matches. J Sports Sci. 2010;28:1489–1494. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640414.2010.521166 12. Di Salvo V, Gregson W, Atkinson G, Tordoff P, Drust B. Analysis of high intensity activity in Premier League soccer. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30:205–212. PubMed doi:10.1055/s-0028-1105950 13. Bradley PS, Carling C, Archer D, et al. The effect of playing formation on high-intensity running and technical profiles in English FA Premier League soccer matches. J Sports Sci. 2011;29:821–830. PubMed doi :10.1080/02640414.2011.561868 14. Bradley PS, Carling C, Gomez Diaz A, et al. Match performance and physical capacity of players in the top three competitive standards of English professional soccer. Hum Mov Sci. 2013;32:808–821. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.humov.2013.06.002 15. Bradley PS, Di Mascio M, Peart D, Olsen P, Sheldon B. High-intensity activity profiles of elite soccer players at different performance levels. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24:2343–2351. PubMed doi:10.1519/ JSC.0b013e3181aeb1b3 16. Di Mascio M, Bradley PS. Evaluation of the most intense high-intensity running period in English FA Premier League soccer matches. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27:909–915. PubMed doi:10.1519/ JSC.0b013e31825ff099 17. Mohr M, Krustrup P, Andersson H, Kirkendal D, Bangsbo J. Match activities of elite women soccer players at different performance levels. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22:341–349. PubMed doi:10.1519/ JSC.0b013e318165fef6 18. Vescovi JD, Rupf R, Brown TD, Marques MC. Physical performance characteristics of high-level female soccer players 12–21 years of age. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011;21:670–678. PubMed doi:10.1111/ j.1600-0838.2009.01081.x 19. Dwyer DB, Gabbett TJ. Global positioning system data analysis: velocity ranges and a new definition of sprinting for field sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26:818–824. PubMed 20. Ingebrigtsen J, Brochmann M, Castagna C, et al. Relationships between field performance tests in high-level soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(4):942–949. PubMed doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182a1f861 21. Haugen TA, Tonnessen E, Seiler S. Anaerobic performance testing of professional soccer players 1995–2010. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8(2):148–156. PubMed 22. Haugen TA, Tonnessen E, Seiler S. Speed and countermovement-jump characteristics of elite female soccer players, 1995–2010. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2012;7(4):340–349. PubMed 23. Manzi V, Bovenzi A, Franco Impellizzeri M, Carminati I, Castagna C. Individual training-load and aerobic-fitness variables in premiership soccer players during the precompetitive season. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27:631–636. PubMed doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825dbd81
24. Tonnessen E, Hem E, Leirstein S, Haugen T, Seiler S. Maximal aerobic power characteristics of male professional soccer players, 1989–2012. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8(3):323–329. PubMed 25. Haugen TA, Tonnessen E, Hem E, Leirstein S, Seiler S. VO2max characteristics of elite female soccer players, 1989–2007. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2014;9(3):515–521. PubMed doi:10.1123/ IJSPP.2012-0150 26. Ingebrigtsen J, Dillern T, Shalfawi SA. Aerobic capacities and anthropometric characteristics of elite female soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:3352–3357. PubMed doi:10.1519/ JSC.0b013e318215f763 27. Sirotic AC, Coutts AJ. Physiological and performance test correlates of prolonged, high-intensity intermittent running performance in moderately trained women team sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21:138–144. PubMed doi:10.1519/00124278-200702000-00025 28. Labsy Z, Collomp K, Frey A, De Ceaurriz J. Assessment of maximal aerobic velocity in soccer players by means of an adapted Probst field test. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2004;44:375–382. PubMed 29. Castagna C, Impellizzeri FM, Chamari K, Carlomagno D, Rampinini E. Aerobic fitness and Yo-Yo continuous and intermittent tests performances in soccer players: a correlation study. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20:320–325. PubMed 30. Bradley PS, Bendiksen M, Dellal A, et al. The application of the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance level 2 test to elite female soccer populations. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(1):43–54. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01483.x 31. Bradley PS, Mohr M, Bendiksen M, et al. Sub-maximal and maximal Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test level 2: heart rate response, reproducibility and application to elite soccer. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011;111:969–978. PubMed doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1721-2 32. Mujika I, Santisteban J, Impellizzeri FM, Castagna C. Fitness determinants of success in men’s and women’s football. J Sports Sci. 2009;27:107–114. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640410802428071 33. Mujika I, Spencer M, Santisteban J, Goiriena JJ, Bishop D. Agerelated differences in repeated-sprint ability in highly trained youth football players. J Sports Sci. 2009;27:1581–1590. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640410903350281 34. Tamer K, Gunay M, Tiryaki G, Cicioolu I, Erol E. Physiological characteristics of Turkish female soccer players. In: Reilly T, Bangsbo J, Hughes M, eds. Science and Football III. London: E & Spon; 1997:37–39. 35. Rhodes E, Mosher R. Aerobic and anaerobic characteristics of elite female university players. J Sports Sci. 1992;10:143–144. 36. Abt G, Lovell R. The use of individualized speed and intensity thresholds for determining the distance run at high-intensity in professional soccer. J Sports Sci. 2009;27:893–898. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640410902998239 37. Sayers AL, Farley RS, Fuller DK, Jubenville CB, Caputo JL. The effect of static stretching on phases of sprint performance in elite soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22:1416–1421. PubMed doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e318181a450 38. Bangsbo J, Mohr M, Krustrup P. Physical and metabolic demands of training and match-play in the elite football player. J Sports Sci. 2006;24:665–674. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640410500482529 39. Harley JA, Barnes CA, Portas M, et al. Motion analysis of matchplay in elite U12 to U16 age-group soccer players. J Sports Sci. 2010;28:1391–1397. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640414.2010.510142 40. Lovell R, Abt G. Individualization of time–motion analysis: a casecohort example. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8(4):456–458. PubMed 41. Mendez-Villanueva A, Buchheit M, Simpson B, Peltola E, Bourdon P. Does on-field sprinting performance in young soccer play-
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ers depend on how fast they can run or how fast they do run? J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:2634–2638. PubMed doi:10.1519/ JSC.0b013e318201c281 42. Blondel N, Berthoin S, Billat V, Lensel G. Relationship between run times to exhaustion at 90, 100, 120, and 140% of vVO2max and velocity expressed relatively to critical velocity and maximal velocity. Int J Sports Med. 2001;22:27–33. PubMed doi:10.1055/s-2001-11357 43. Lourenço TF, Martins LE, Tessutti LS, Brenzikofer R, Macedo DV. Reproducibility of an incremental treadmill VO2max test with gas exchange analysis for runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:1994– 1999. PubMed doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e501d6 44. Clarke AC, Presland J, Rattray B, Pyne DB. Critical velocity as a measure of aerobic fitness in women’s rugby sevens. J Sci Med Sport. 2014;17:144–148. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2013.03.008
45. Berthoin S, Baquet G, Manteca F, Lensel G, Gerbeaux M. Maximal aerobic speed and running time to exhaustion for children 6 to 17 years old. Ped Exerc Sci. 1996;8:234–244. 46. Osgnach C, Poser S, Bernardini R, Rinaldo R, di Prampero PE. Energy cost and metabolic power in elite soccer: a new match analysis approach. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42:170–178. PubMed doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181ae5cfd 47. Varley MC, Fairweather IH, Aughey RJ. Validity and reliability of GPS for measuring instantaneous velocity during acceleration, deceleration, and constant motion. J Sports Sci. 2012;30:121–127. PubMed doi:10 .1080/02640414.2011.627941 48. McCormack WP, Stout JR, Wells AJ, et al. Predictors of high-intensity running capacity in collegiate women during a soccer game. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(4):964–970. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000000359
www.IJSPP-Journal.com INVITED COMMENTARY
Velocity Thresholds for Women’s Soccer Matches: Sex Specificity Dictates High-Speed-Running and Sprinting Thresholds—Female Athletes in Motion (FAiM) Paul S. Bradley and Jason D. Vescovi There is no methodological standardization of velocity thresholds for the quantification of distances covered in various locomotor activities for women’s soccer matches, especially for high-speed running and sprinting. Applying velocity thresholds used for motion analysis of men’s soccer has likely created skewed observations about high-intensity movement demands for the women’s game because these thresholds do not accurately reflect the capabilities of elite female players. Subsequently, a cohesive view of the locomotor characteristics of women’s soccer does not yet exist. The aim of this commentary is to provide suggestions for standardizing high-speed running and sprint velocity thresholds specific to women’s soccer. The authors also comment on using generic vs individualized thresholds, as well as age-related considerations, to establish velocity thresholds. Keywords: football, time–motion analysis, sex differences, standard Women’s soccer participation continues to grow worldwide, with a concomitant increase in our understanding of the physical demands of women’s matches.1–7 Attention is given to high-speedrunning and sprinting distances as important indicators of match physical performance.8 Currently there is no methodological standardization of velocity thresholds to quantify locomotor activities during women’s matches. This is problematic when attempting to assess high-speed demands because of large match-to-match variability (typical error and coefficient of variation for high-speed running, ~140 m and 8%, and sprinting, ~90 m and 13%; N = 41; unpublished data); thus, without standardized methodologies it is difficult to compare between studies and challenging to develop cohesive views about locomotor characteristics of women’s soccer (Table 1). An early time–motion analysis study of elite men’s matches identified velocities associated with various locomotor activities9; however, the velocities were means as opposed to thresholds. Still, the mean values for high-speed running (18 km/h) and sprinting (30 km/h) have been used in subsequent research as thresholds.10 Some researchers have lowered high-speed-running (19.8–25.1 km/h) and sprinting (>25.1 km/h) thresholds and applied them more consistently to elite men’s soccer11–16; however, universally agreed-upon values have not yet been established. Researchers transposed men’s thresholds onto initial studies describing elite women’s time–motion characteristics,2,4,17 but these do not accurately reflect the physical capabilities of elite female players. Examining sex differences will help develop more appropriate criteria for velocity thresholds used in locomotor analytics of women’s matches. There is recent evidence on the physical performance6,18 and time–motion characteristics19 of female soccer players that must be considered. The aim of this commentary is to highlight the limitations of applying thresholds from men’s soccer Bradley is with the Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, United Kingdom. Vescovi is with the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. Address author correspondence to Jason Vescovi at [email protected]. 112
to women’s matches and provide suggestions for standardizing high-speed-running and sprint velocity thresholds for women’s soccer. We will also comment on using generic versus individualized thresholds, as well as age-related considerations, to establish velocity thresholds.
Consideration of Sex Differences in Physical Performance There is disproportionately less high-speed-running and sprinting distance covered during women’s than men’s UEFA Champions League matches when using the same absolute velocity thresholds (ie, 18 to 25 km/h and >25 km/h, respectively).3 Match demands showed that female players covered 718 m (~7% total distance) and 59 m (~1%), whereas male players covered 986 m (~9%) and 200 m (~2%) within those respective velocity thresholds.3 These differences represent 37% and 238% more distance during men’s matches, compared with a 15 >15 >15 >18 >15 >13 >15 >15 15.5–20 15.5–20 15.5–20 15.5–20
1530 1330 1358 718 1310 1585 1680 1300 458 611 658 813
15.5 13.4 12.6 6.7 12.7 17.7 16.3 12.5 6.6 7.6 7.7 8.2
25 25 21 25 25 22 25 25 20 20 20 20
256 221 291 59 160 Not reported 460 380 76 185 235 267
2.6 2.3 2.7 0.5 1.6 4.5 3.6 1.1 2.3 2.7 2.7
Abbreviation: UEFA, Union of European Football Associations. Note: High-speed–individual locomotor category = 15.5–20 km/h. High-intensity–collapsed category = moderate-speed + high-speed + sprint.
than their male counterparts.4,10,30,31 However, when converted to the velocity associated with test termination, the mean sex difference is 12% for senior and youth players (17.0–17.5 vs 15.0–15.5 km/h).32 The laboratory and field-based testing results reveal that female players have lower physical capacities than male players across a range of fitness attributes,4,21,22,24,25,32–35 highlighting the importance of developing sex-specific velocity thresholds to accurately quantify high-speed-running and sprinting characteristics for women’s matches.
Establishing Female-Specific High-SpeedRunning and Sprint Velocity Thresholds Given that maximum velocity, as well as anaerobic and aerobic characteristics, is consistently lower for elite female players than their male counterparts,4,6,36,37 sex-specific velocity thresholds should be established.6,18,19 Most sprints in men’s matches are about 5 m and occur from a moving (ie, leading) start.11,12 To maximize the number of sprints captured during matches, focus should be given to the minimum velocity achieved during leading 5-m sprints, which is ~20 km/h.6 Practitioners argue that the sprint threshold should be aligned with sex differences in sprint velocity (ie, 90% of 25 km/h = 22.5 km/h), but preference to a slightly lower value might be advantageous for several reasons. First, commercially available GPS systems have 0.5- to 1.0-second dwell times that must be exceeded above the defined threshold to confirm that a sprint has occurred; thus, peak velocity achieved for short sprints will likely reach a minimum of 21 to 22 km/h if the threshold is set at 20 km/h. Second, use of 20 km/h might better equate the relative amount of sprinting between men’s and women’s matches. The minimum and 10th-percentile velocities for a leading 5-m sprint in a group of subelite male players (N = 268) is approximately 22 to 23 km/h (unpublished data). Both 20 and 22 km/h were independently identified as sprint thresholds for elite female and male team sports, respectively, by other researchers using different methodology19 and align with the ~90% sex difference in sprint velocity.
Establishing a generic threshold for high-speed running poses challenges; however, there could be potential use for maximal aerobic velocity. Sex differences in maximal aerobic velocity (treadmill tests) are evident, with consistent outcomes for elite male (~17 km/h)24,28,29 and female players (~14.5 km/h).25–27 Elite male players achieve 17.0 to 17.5 km/h on the Yo-Yo IRT1,8,32 and a large-magnitude correlation (r = .71) exists between peak treadmill velocity and performance on the Yo-Yo IRT1 (distance).29 Yo-Yo IRT1 values for female athletes are scarce; available values range from 1000 to 1380 m,4,27 corresponding to velocities of 15.0 to 15.5 km/h, with many elite players achieving 16.0 to 16.5 km/h (n = 55 of 79; unpublished data). Differences in peak speeds achieved on a treadmill and the Yo-Yo IRT1 for female players could be due to specificity problems with laboratory assessments. Nevertheless, repeated, intermittent bouts of high-intensity running during matches are associated with large anaerobic contributions and elevations in blood lactate concentration.38 Thus, we could inductively reason that a generic high-speed-running threshold should be above the velocity associated with the onset of blood lactate accumulation (>90% velocity at VO2max) and be situated at maximal aerobic velocity—somewhere between 15 and 16 km/h for women’s soccer.
Individualized Velocity Thresholds Individualized velocity thresholds have received increasing attention and are a relevant discussion topic. 36,39,40 Individualizing high-speed-running and sprinting thresholds based on a player’s own physiological ability seems logical, but there is a drawback— namely, identifying tests that will provide appropriate performance outcomes to establish reliable thresholds. A simple approach to individualize the sprint threshold would be to use maximal velocity. However, maximal velocity occurs between 25 and 40 m, yet sprints of this distance, and consequently maximal velocity, rarely occur during matches.41 This would limit, but not eliminate, the use of maximal velocity when determining a sprint threshold. Sprints of 5 to 20 m are considered soccer-specific,
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but distinguishing between ages with velocity over these distances is reduced, which seems to require longer distances.6,18 For example, mean sprint velocity during the first 9.1 m (of a 36.6-m test) is similar for female soccer players ranging in age 12 to 21 years, but differences between age groups during the final 9.1 m are notable up to age 16 years.18 Moreover, the difference between the fastest and slowest leading 5- to 10-m sprints is about 5.5 km/h in elite female players, whereas the difference for the final 15 m of a 35-m sprint is 7.5 km/h.6 This larger range might permit better resolution when identifying a threshold for an individual player. Leading 5-m velocity is 80% to 85% of final 15-m velocity,6 so an approach to individualize the sprint threshold could be to assess maximal velocity over longer distances (30–40 m) and adjust it according to this relationship. Normalizing all velocity thresholds for younger age groups based on values from senior players has also been proposed39; however, the challenge is the current lack of standardized velocity thresholds for women’s soccer. A method for individualizing the high-speed-running threshold in elite male soccer players uses the second ventilatory threshold (VT2) obtained during an incremental treadmill test.36 The rationale was that exercise above VT2 is not sustainable for prolonged periods of time; however, this only relates to continuous exercise. The intermittent nature of soccer results in players performing moderate-, high-, and maximal-intensity efforts, which are inherently brief. Running at 100%, 120%, and 140% of velocity at VO2max is sustainable for 6, 2, and 1 minute, respectively42; these are much longer than bouts of higher-intensity running observed during matches. These data, in conjunction with the mean velocity at VT2 (~15 km/h)36 highlight that VT2 is too low to define high-speed running. We believe that maximal aerobic velocity is more appropriate for individualizing high-speed work, whereas VT2 could be ideal for classifying moderate-speed efforts. To avoid the requirement of gas analysis, a suggested practice would be to use 80% of maximal aerobic velocity since it is often aligned with VT2.36,43 Difference in peak speed are obtained from treadmill and intermittent tests, so it would be beneficial to have a field-based option to acquire maximal aerobic velocity, resulting in time-efficient assessments of squads without use of a laboratory. The Yo-Yo IRT1 is regarded as a good measure of aerobic–anaerobic indices and widely used in team sports.10 Moreover, a large-magnitude correlation exists between Yo-Yo IRT1 performance and maximal aerobic velocity on a treadmill.29 While the maximum velocities from these 2 tests have not been shown to be precisely interchangeable,44 we argue that the Yo-Yo IRT1 is soccer specific and the velocity obtained at test termination could be used as an individual high-speed threshold. Research is needed with female players across various standards to examine the association between maximal aerobic velocity and that at VT2 determined from a treadmill test against the peak velocity obtained during the Yo-Yo IRT1. Only then will more definitive procedures for individualizing high-speed velocity for women’s soccer be established.
Age-Related Factors for Defining Velocity Thresholds Differences in performance capacities across age groups are important considerations when deciding on locomotor thresholds. Maximal sprint velocity tends to plateau around 16 years of age in female players, as there was no observable increase for players 18 to 21 years of age.18 Similarly, no differences were observed for 15-m sprints between senior (23 y) and youth (17 y) female play-
ers.32 Therefore, a standardized generic sprint threshold could be used with female players ≥U16. In contrast to applying the sprint threshold to standards ³U16, adjustments are likely needed for highspeed running, as evidenced by progressively increasing maximal aerobic velocity from 17 years (~11 km/h)45 to 20 to 21 years (~14.5 km/h)26,27 and >24 years (14.7 km/h),25 as well as observations for mean Yo-Yo IRT1 scores in U17 (1070 m, 15 km/h, N = 26), U21 (1480 m, 16 km/h, N = 29), and senior-level (1630 m, 16 km/h, N = 22) female field hockey players (unpublished data).
Perspective Based on the literature and our experience we recommend that generic thresholds used to define high-speed running and sprinting in women’s soccer should be 15 to 16 km/h and 20 km/h, respectively, and be implemented for time–motion analysis studies with players U20 to U21 and older. The sprint threshold can be used for players to ≥U16; however, the high-speed-running threshold would need modification to reflect the lower physical abilities of players competing in age groups younger than U21. A word of caution: High-speed running and sprinting may be underestimated when based on absolute velocities, which can exclude short sprints (high acceleration but not exceeding velocity threshold).46,47 Therefore, methods that capture acceleration in conjunction with velocity would help strengthen women’s match analyses. Individualizing velocity thresholds based on established physiological capacities might be advantageous in certain circumstances, but standard protocols are required. We suggest using 80% to 85% of maximal velocity (tests >30 m) for the sprint threshold and either maximal aerobic velocity (laboratory-based) or the velocity achieved during the Yo-Yo IRT1 test (field-based) for the highspeed-running threshold. Our aim for this commentary was to provide the rationale for developing a unified approach to velocitythreshold selection for women’s soccer matches. More important, we hope that we will stimulate dialog and research in this area, because implementing consistent methods will ultimately assist in a more cohesive description and understanding of women’s soccer.
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