Journal of Ethnopharmacology 168 (2015) 87–99

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Uses of plants, animal and mineral substances in Mediterranean ethno-veterinary practices for the care of small ruminants G. Piluzza, S. Virdis, F. Serralutzu, S. Bullitta n ISPAAM-CNR, Traversa La Crucca 3, località Baldinca, 07100 Sassari, Italy

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 23 December 2014 Received in revised form 23 March 2015 Accepted 25 March 2015 Available online 3 April 2015

Ethno-pharmacological relevance: The cultural heritage of Sardinian shepherds is rapidly vanishing and survives in the memory of elderly people. The objective of our study was not only to report the usage of plants and their preparation for administration but also the use of other remedies of different origin arising from traditional ethno-veterinary knowledge, as Sardinian shepherds were used to employ plants, animals, minerals and combinations of several substances to prepare remedies for prophylaxis or therapy on their animals. Materials and methods: The work was carried out in rural areas of the island of Sardinia (Italy) by interviewing shepherds and filling questionnaires in order to record ethno-veterinary practices traditionally used for animal health care. Results: Ethno-veterinary remedies traditionally utilised for treatments of small ruminants against ecto-and endo-parasites, gastrointestinal diseases, viral and bacterial diseases, wounds, sprains and bruises were identified. Non herbal remedies outnumbered the herbal ones, as usually plant species were mainly used for the care of cattle and equines. A total of 150 ethno-veterinary uses were documented for the treatment of 33 animal conditions, a detailed account of the formulations and their administration to sheep and goats was provided. Herbal remedies involved the use of twenty two spontaneous species and seven cultivated species. Conclusions: This study identifies remedies used in ethno-veterinary practices for small ruminants care in Sardinia, the second major Mediterranean island which has agro-pastoral activities dating back to Neolithic. Moreover, the danger of losing oral traditions, and the increasing attention towards traditional remedies as potential sources of natural products for improving animal health and welfare, support the interest of our survey. & 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Animal fats Copper sulphate Ethno-botanic field study Mediterranean ethno-veterinary Ovines

1. Introduction Ethno-botanical research is focused on the usage of plants in the folk tradition of various regions and countries, including also those for ethno-veterinary practices. Ethno-veterinary research deals with the systematic investigation and application of folk veterinary knowledge, theory, and practice (Mc Corkle, 1986). According to Mc Corkle and Mathias-Mundy (1992), looking ahead to the future, integrating ethno- and Western veterinary medicine, could well help saving money, energy and natural resources; the same authors claimed that local knowledge was receiving attention and respect by the conventional science and international development community and point out the need to study and underpin the valuable but endangered knowledge related n Correspondence to: Istituto per il sistema produzione animale in ambiente mediterraneo, ISPAAM-CNR, Traversa La Crucca 3, località Baldinca, 07100 Li Punti Sassari, Italy. Tel.: þ39 079 2841605. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Bullitta).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.03.056 0378-8741/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

to ethno-veterinary practices. Mc Corkle (1989) also underlines the importance of a “knowledge of local knowledge”. According to Quave and Pieroni (2013) animals and animal products were important in the Mediterranean pharmacopeia for millennia and many of those ancient therapies still persist nowadays in the traditional medical practice, and its use is documented in both ancient medical texts and recent ethno-biological studies. Lev (2003) reviews the animal healing by means of animal parts and products in the Middle East throughout history, he claims that investigations about the medicinal use of animal parts and products, as well as the use of inorganic materials, should not be neglected. The author also indicates that about 10% of the substances listed in Dioscoride's “Materia Medica” were parts of the body and products from animals. Nevertheless, few studies exist about remedies different from plants in traditional animal healthcare, as ethno-veterinary studies mainly report herbal remedies. Many plants traditionally used in ethno-veterinary practices are indicated in several studies, among which those of Pieroni et al., 2006; Bonet and Vallès, 2007; Bullitta et al., 2007; Schmid et al., 2012; Kalayou et al., 2012; Shang et al. 2012. Studies about

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ethno-veterinary remedies involving medications of mineral or animal origin are even less (Mootoosamy and Mahomoodally, 2014; Quave et al., 2008). Our main interest was to identify Sardinian ethno-veterinary practices and to account for these traditional usage prior to their disappearance, since like any other form of traditional knowledge, traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another are at risk of extinction, mainly due to their decreased use and the older age of shepherds that still keep these memories. The study of such traditional ethno-veterinary knowledge in Sardinia, is justified by its geographical isolation and high floristic diversity, as well as by its rich cultural traditions, because sheep farming in the Sardinian society has ancient origins with cultural, environmental and economic implications. Barbieri (1958) describes the economic importance of sheep rearing activities in Sardinia in the fifties of the last century, when permanent pastures were 44.6% of the Sardinian productive surfaces, transhumance was common, the number of sheep and goats were 2,378,000 and 417,000 respectively, the yearly milk production from sheep and goat was 1,079,000 hectolitres, and 134,016 quintals of cheese were exported. According to the 2010 Census (VI Censimento, 2010), sheep breeding farms are 12,669 units with 3,028,373 sheep. These data compared to the 2000 Census (V Censimento, 2000), show a 12.1% decrease in sheep breeding farms and an increase of 7.8% in the number of sheep. Within the Sardinian farms breeding animals, the sheep breeding farms are 61.6% while the cattle breeding farms are 38.3%, the swine breeding 23.6%, the horse breeding 18%, and the goat breeding 12.8% (http://www.sardegnas tatistiche.it/documenti/12_103_20130710170153.pdf). In 2013, according to a statement of the Sardinian Agency for Agricultural Extension Services (Laore, 2013), only 20.8% of shepherds are between 20 and 40 years old. Sardinia is the second largest island (24,089 km2 including minor isles) in the Mediterranean sea (after Sicily and before Cyprus) (Fig. 1) and according to Pungetti et al. (2008) its landscape mosaic confirms its transient position between Africa and Europe, being Sardinia almost equally distant from the coastline of both continents. Such centrality in the Mediterranean area and the history marked by several foreign dominations contribute to the Sardinian traditions and culture. The cultural heritage of Sardinian shepherds has been passed on orally for generations, but nowadays, it is rapidly disappearing because many practices are no longer in use and only survive in the memory of elderly people. Traditional pharmacopoeia and the use of wild and cultivated plant species in different areas of Sardinia have been investigated

by some authors, (Palmese et al., 2001; Ballero et al., 2001; Loi et al., 2004; Atzei, 2003; Atzei et al., 2004; Lancioni et al., 2007; Signorini et al., 2009), but these data are limited to specific areas. Further studies of ethnopharmacology, ethnobotanical uses, ethnoveterinary have been done in Italy (Viegi et al., 2003), and in specific regions such as Campania-Italy (Menale and Muoio, 2014; Di Novella et al., 2013), Calabria-Italy (Passalacqua et al., 2006), Sicily-Italy (Tuttolomondo et al., 2014), Liguria-Italy (Cornara et al., 2014); province of Granada, Andalusia, Spain (Benítez et al., 2012); Central Serbia (Jarić et al., 2007); Turkey (Polat et al., 2015; Hayta et al., 2014; Bulut and Tuzlaci, 2013), Tunisia and Italy (Viegi and Ghedira 2014); in eight Mediterranean areas (Pieroni et al., 2006). The aim of our study was not only to testify the use of plants and their formulation for administration but also to highlight the use of remedies of different nature arising from the popular ethnoveterinary knowledge, as Sardinian shepherds utilised plants, animals, minerals and other substances to prepare medicaments for prophylaxis or therapy for their animals.

2. Materials and methods The field work was carried out in rural areas of Sardinia (Italy) and precisely Anglona, Barbagia, Campidano, Meilogu, Monte Acuto, Gallura, Goceano, Nurra and Sassarese, where shepherds were interviewed about the animal health care and questionnaires were filled. Among all the recorded remedies, only those adopted for small ruminants are presented. For the purpose of the study, it was paid particular attention to the elderly and to those farms having an extensive animal breeding. Methodology was according to Viegi et al. (1999), with some modifications as the questionnaire was developed to recover also those ancient remedies utilised for ethno-veterinary practices that did not imply plant usage. The questions concerned the type of illnesses and the animal species treated, the formulation and administration of the remedy, the eventual use of the remedy at present, the efficacy of the remedy, further eventual uses of the remedy in respect to livestock raising. The original filled forms are stored at CNR-ISPAAM. According to the people interviewed, the remedies mentioned were used from 1925 to 1985, however almost all them declared to have learnt them from their parents or elderly relatives. Some small surgical interventions made on sheep and generally avoided on other animal species were also mentioned by shepherds. When plants were indicated as remedies, specimens were collected in order to

Fig. 1. Map with location of Sardinia.

G. Piluzza et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 168 (2015) 87–99

identify the species and the correct classification according to Pignatti (1982) and Conti et al. (2005). The existence of several indices such as those of Reyes-García et al. (2006) and Tardío and Pardo-de-Santayana (2008) and the need to evaluate the cultural importance of the different species in our study led us to choose three suitable ethno-botanical indices to help to quantify the distribution and diversity of information for each species of plant and each interviewed. The local importance of each plant species was determined calculating the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) (Tardío and Pardo-de-Santayana 2008), dividing the use of the species also defined as frequency of citation (FC) by the number of the interviewees (N): RFCs ¼

FCs ¼ N

PiN

i ¼ i1

URi

N

where UR is the sum of the Use Report of the species given by the interviewees without considering the category use of the species. The used categories were 1) ecto and endo parasite diseases, 2) gastrointestinal diseases, 3) viral and bacterial disease, 4) wounds, sprains and bruises. The Relative Importance Index (RI) was calculated according to Pardo-de-Santayana (2003) taking into account the categories of use: RIs ¼

RFCsðmaxÞ þ RNUsðmaxÞ 2

where RFCs(max) is the relative frequency of citation over the maximum, obtained by dividing FCs by the maximum value in all the species in the survey and RNUs(max) is the relative number of categories of use over the maximum, obtained by dividing the number of uses of a given species by the maximum value in all the species in the survey. Such index varies from 0 (no mention) to 1 (the plant most frequently mentioned in the maximum number categories of use).

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The cultural importance index (CI), utilised to take into account the spread of use and the diversity of uses of each plant species, according to Tardío and Pardo-de-Santayana (2008) represents the sum of the proportion of interviewees that mention each species use: CIs ¼

uNC X iN X

URui =N;

u ¼ u 1 i ¼ i1

it represents the sum of all the use reports (UR) for the species divided by the number of interviewees (N). All the information collected were compared with available literature about ethno-veterinary practices in the Mediterranean area and in other areas devoted to small ruminant breeding. The survey was made considering the protection of biodiversity rights of local people and according to the principles stated by Fois et al. (2000) and Bullitta (2001). Some of the ethno-veterinary practices reported here do not comply with the current Italian national legislation about domestic animal welfare (D.L.146/2001) or European community regulations concerning the protection of animals kept for farming purposes (Council directive 98/58/EC) and are just reported and not endorsed by authors.

3. Results 3.1. Quantitative analysis We interviewed 69 informants, 59 men and 10 women, average age7standard deviation (71.8 713), and range of age 46–92 years, all men were shepherds and the women were only those wives that provided information because involved in the preparation of remedies.

Table 1 Evaluation of plant species by using the quantitative indices CI (Cultural Importance); RI (Relative Importance); RFC (Relative Frequency of Citation). Voucher specimen

GPE34 GPE13 GPE36 GPE16 GPE18 GPE11 GPE31 GPE20 GPE30 GPE32 GPE01 GPE28 GPE12 GPE21 GPE02 GPE25 GPE26 GPE06 GPE27 GPE29 GPE08 GPE09 GPE15 GPE17 GPE19 GPE33 GPE23 GPE24 GPE35

Species (Family)

Quercus suber L., (Fagaceae) Olea europaea L., (Oleaceae) Vitis vinifera L., (Vitaceae) Parietaria officinalis L., (Urticaceae) Pistacia lentiscus L., (Anacardiaceae) Malva sylvestris L. subsp. sylvestris, (Malvaceae) Nicotiana tabacum L., (Solanaceae) Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn, (Hypolepidaceae) Hordeum vulgare L., (Graminaceae) Pyrus spinosa Forssk,. (Rosaceae) Allium cepa L., (Liliaceae) Cynoglossum officinale L,. (Borraginaceae) Matricaria chamomilla L., (Compositae) Sambucus nigra L., (Caprifoliaceae) Allium sativum L., (Liliaceae) Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi, (Labiatae) Cicer arietinum L., (Leguminosae) Cistus creticus L. subsp. eriocephalus (Viv.) Greuter et Burdet, (Cistaceae) Crataegus monogyna Jacq., (Rosaceae) Daphne gnidium L., (Thymelaeaceae) Euphorbia characias L., (Euphorbiaceae) Ficus carica L. var. caprificus, (Moraceae) Opuntia ficus indica L., (Cactaceae) Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym., (Umbelliferae) Prunus spinosa L. subsp. spinosa, (Rosaceae) Quercus pubescens Willd., (Fagaceae) Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy, (Crassulaceae) Urtica dioica L. subsp. dioica, (Urticaceae) Vicia faba L., (Leguminosae)

Local names

Suerzu Olìa Bide Pigulosa Chessa Pramuzza Tabaccu Filighe Ozu Pirastru Chibudda Limba e gane Caboniglia Sambuccu Azu Nebida Basolu tundu Mudeju Kalarighe Patteddu Lattorigu Crabufigu Figuindia Petrusimula Pruniskedda Chelcu Calighe de muru Pistija Fae

Indices

Ranking

CI

RI

RFC

CI

RI

RFC

0.19 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

0.88 0.88 0.96 0.72 0.64 0.72 0.44 0.52 0.24 0.37 0.20 0.20 0.33 0.33 0.16 0.20 0.16 0.16 0.28 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16

0.19 0.19 0.17 0.13 0.10 0.13 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

3 2 1 5 6 4 8 7 13 9 14 16 10 11 17 15 18 19 12 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

2 1 3 5 6 4 8 7 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 13 18 19 9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

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Traditional ethno-veterinary remedies were identified for treatments of small ruminants against ecto-and endo-parasites, gastrointestinal diseases, viral and bacterial diseases, wounds, sprains and bruises. Herbal remedies involved the use of 22 spontaneous plant species, quite diffuse in Sardinian pasturelands and 7 cultivated (onion, garlic, parsley, chickpea, tobacco, barley, faba bean). Products of plant origin such as olive oil, vinegar, beer, cork, were also used alone or in combination with other substances to prepare remedies. The ranking of the plant species according to each ethnobotanical index (Table 1), confirms a similar rank, particularly for the eight species Quercus suber L., Olea europaea L., Vitis vinifera L., Parietaria officinalis L, Pistacia lentiscus L., Malva sylvestris L., Nicotiana tabacum L., Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Quercus suber and Olea europaea were among the most used species, indicated by 14 interviewees, respectively for the treatment of 7 and 9 ailments and rank in the first two positions for RFC and CI index. While according to RI index, the species Vitis vinifera L. ranks first as it was indicated as a remedy for different ailments in all categories (ecto-and endo-parasites, gastrointestinal diseases, viral and bacterial diseases, wounds, sprains and bruises). Non herbal remedies outnumbered the herbal ones. Usually plant species were used for care of cattle and equines, while on sheep and goats, several remedies of non herbal origin were used. The remedies of non-herbal origin involved the use of substances such as rancid lard, dried peritoneum of sheep (ozzu seu), urine, earthworms (all produced or found on farm), cuttlefish bones (found on beaches or from bought cuttlefish), copper sulphate (bought), lime (bought), ashes (produced on farm), bleach (sodium hypochlorite) (bought), reused motor oil (from farm machinery). Copper sulphate, ash and fat from lard (ozzu porchinu) were the most utilised substances among non herbal remedies. As shown on Table 2, copper sulphate was indicated by 46 interviewees reporting 16 different remedies for the treatment of 5 diseases, ash was indicated by 12 interviewees reporting 9 different remedies for the treatment of 4 diseases, and, among the substances of animal origin, ozzu porchinu was indicated by 8 interviewees suggesting 5 different Table 2 Use of remedies of non-herbal origin. Components

Remedies (no)

Ailments (no)

Informants (no)

Copper sulphate Ozzu porchinu Ozzu casu Ozzu seu Lard Creolin Ash Lime Bleach Knife Salt Seawater Red hot tile Red hot iron Brewer's yeast Frammentalzu Brine Mud Honey Brooch Needle Urine Earthworm Little dog Milk of black sheep Cuttlefish bone Beeswax Clay

16 5 2 4 5 2 9 7 3 2 6 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5 5 4 4 2 3 4 1 1 6 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

46 8 5 4 6 3 12 6 4 7 6 1 1 7 7 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 1

remedies for 5 diseases. As shown in Fig. 2, only a few of the recorded ethno-veterinary remedies are still in use. The number of reported remedies still in use for treatment of small ruminants against ecto and endoparassite (Fig. 2A) are 7 over 16 for mange, and 7 over 15 for foot rot. Against gastrointestinal diseases (Fig. 2B) the remedies still in use are 2 over 7 for gastrointestinal infection, 1 over 12 for bloat and 1 over 3 for poisoning. Against viral and bacterial disease (Fig. 2C), remedies still in use are 1 over 5 for foot and mouth disease, 1 over 4 for eyes infection and 1 over 3 for respiratory diseases. Against wounds (Fig. 2D) the remedy in use is 1 over 13. Only three interviewees reported to have achieved, after several attempts, the formulation of some remedies themselves while other practising the traditional knowledge, kept in mind the remedies from parents or grandparents. A 75.4% of information gathered was reported by elderly interviewees (aged between 61 and 92 years old), while only 24.6% of the data were acquired from interviewees with an age ranging between 40 and 60 years old. 3.2. Ethno-veterinary treatments For the treatment of mange, eight non-herbal procedures were described (Table 3), involving copper sulphate alone or mixed with ozzu casu (fat obtained by boiling the cream of milk with flour), or with ozzu seu (dried peritoneum of sheep), or with ozzu porchinu (fat from lard) and these remedies are still in use. Sometimes reused motor oil (ozzu brujadu) was also used to treat mange, such remedy is common also on pigs. The preparations were scrubbed on skin. Among the remedies of plant origin against mange, lentisk or olive oil was scrubbed on the skin or tobacco extract was brushed after rubbing the nose with pumice stone. Sometimes, mineral and organic ingredients were mixed to prepare remedies, such as dregs of olive oil mixed with copper sulphate. For the treatment of wounds infected by maggots, a remedy still in use (Table 3), consisted in minced leaves of plum (Prunus spinosa L.) applied to the wounds, then wrapped with a bandage. Foot rot was treated in running animals in foot baths prepared in ten different ways, involving different mixtures having components such as brine, copper sulphate and lime, or lime, copper sulphate and bleach, a detailed list is given on Table 3. Copper sulphate, still used, was almost always present in the preparation of remedies for foot rot. The ethno-veterinary procedures against gastrointestinal diseases are listed in Table 4, filtered decoctions of plant species growing spontaneously such as mallow or chamomile were administered to treat gastrointestinal infections, abdominal pain and diarrhoea; brewer's yeast dissolved in water could be also administered to animals or berries from flax leaved daphne (Daphne gnidium L.) were mixed to forages. Bloat was treated in twelve different ways, as listed in Table 4, only the administration of beer to induce burping on animals is currently in use. Among the remedies against poisoning only the brewer's yeast is still given, as feed supplement. Remedies against viral and bacterial diseases (Table 5) were of different origins. Among the seven remedies against mastitis, eyes and hoof infections, respiratory diseases, derived from plant species belonging to seven different botanic families (Fagaceae, Rosaceae, Solanaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Malvaceae, Compositae, Urticaceae), only two are still employed: wild pear (Pyrus spinosa Forssk.) thorn for eyes infection and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) for respiratory diseases. Four remedies involved the use of vinegar, alone or in combination with salt, ash, honey. The use of vinegar alone as disinfectant for the foot and mouth disease is still ongoing. Further seven remedies consisted in the usage of animals (earthworm, little dog), animal parts (ozzu seu, ozzu porchinu, cuttlefish bone) or animal products (ozzu casu, milk of black sheep) for mastitis, eyes infection. Other four remedies

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Fig. 2. Number of reported remedies and number of such remedies still in use for treatments of small ruminants against ecto-parasites and endo-parasites (a), gastrointestinal diseases (b), viral and bacterial diseases (c), wounds, sprains, bruises (d).

involved surgical intervention by means of different tools (brooch, needle, knife, red-hot iron) for foot and mouth disease, mastitis, septicaemia and carbuncle. Among the several remedies adopted for mastitis, only one was plant-derived, the cortex of downy oak (Quercus pubescens Willd.) was boiled until reddened and the resulting water used to wash the udder. Further remedies for mastitis included massaging the udder with either ash, or copper sulphate, or seawater, or vinegar and ash, or fat obtained by boiling the cream of milk with flour (ozzu casu). Less common remedies consisted in either frying earthworms with olive oil and spreading the resulting oil on the udder; or by mixing burnt cork and ozzu porchinu (fat from lard) and massaging the udder. Ash, or vinegar with ash medications have been used to treat mastitis in sheep, goats and cattle. The tongues of blue tongue affected sheep were first rinsed with a cloth soaked in vinegar and then honey was applied on the tongue, lips and nose. Eyes infections were treated with milk of black sheep drops into the eye, or with either cuttlefish bone powder or minced tobacco dry leaves rubbed into the eye or around it. Almost all ethno-veterinary procedures for wounds, sprains and bruises, involved the use of the plant parts or products of plant origin listed on Table 6. Thirteen plant species were indicated by the interviewees, belonging to 11 botanic families (Caprifoliaceae, Anacardiaceae, Borraginaceae, Crassulaceae, Malvaceae, Urticaceae, Oleaceae, Fagaceae, Leguminosae, Moraceae, Rosaceae). Five of the remedies for wounds were prepared with products from plants such as cork, olive oil, lentisk oil, while further five remedies utilised fresh leaves or bark from different species (Table 6), one was prepared as a decoction of mallow mixed with other ingredients, while other three remedies were prepared by making suspension of ashes or creolin (an antiseptic mixture of coal-tar hydrocarbons containing cresols) in water or by mixing copper sulphate with ozzu casu (fat obtained by boiling the cream of milk with flour). The ointments made by copper sulphate and ozzu casu are still in use. For the treatment of sprains, cork from cork oak (Quercus suber L.) was boiled with salt and

vinegar, crushed, mixed with clay, the compound was then applied to the area of pain and wrapped with a bandage. Nettle, pellitory of the wall and mallow plants after boiling were wrapped together in a bandage and put onto bruises. Only the use of boiled leaves of Parietaria officinalis wrapped in a bandage and put onto the wound, is still used to treat dog bites in sheep. Pimples were cured applying fresh leaves of hound stongue (Cynoglossum officinale L.) protected with a bandage, or, by applying onto the pimples either urine, or filtered water in which ashes were boiled. Another medication for pimples was prepared by mixing copper sulphate and fat from lard that was then applied to the skin and massaged. Fissures were treated with a mixture obtained boiling fat from lard (ozzu porchinu), dried peritoneum of sheep (ozzu seu) and beeswax, the use of this medication is still ongoing. Other remedies of plant origin were burnt cork scrubbed on the skin, necklaces of fig leaves. Incisions with hawthorn or wild pears thorns stuck in the ear were used to treat swelling throat, head or legs (Table 6). Additional traditional remedies adopted by shepherds are indicated in Table 7. Among them a series of plant species used as insect or rat repellents, such as thorns of thistle (Silybum marianum L. Gaertn.) employed to protect meat from flies, lesser calmint (Calamintha nepeta L. Savi.) or pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.) plants to eliminate insects from beans, cereals and grains, a bunch of thistles hanged in the barn to chase away flies. Olea europaea (L.) var. sylvestris Brot. was used also for weaning the lambs, and a tablespoon of olive oil offered to sheep after the birth of lambs.

4. Discussion During the shepherds interviews while filling the questionnaires, we observed that there was a generation gap in the knowledge of ethno-veterinary practices, even in Sardinia, where according to Wilkens (2004) agro-pastoral activities are common and date back to Neolithic. The 75.4% of information were gathered from elderly interviewees (shepherds above 61 years

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Table 3 Ethno-veterinary remedies against ecto-parasites and endo-parasites. Animals Mange

Components of remedy

Procedure

Areas

All domestic animals Sheep Goats Goats Sheep

Lentisk oil n Ozzu porchinu (fat from lard) Rancid lard n Copper sulphate n Copper sulphate, ozzu casu (fat obtained by boiling the cream of milk with flour) n Copper sulphate, ozzu seu (dried peritoneum of sheep) n Burnt cork Copper sulphate, Ozzu porchinu (fat from lard)

Scrubbed on skin Mixed, scrubbed on nose Scrubbed on infested skin Scrubbed on infested skin Mixed, scrubbed on skin

Gallura Monte Acuto Barbagia Anglona, Monte Acuto, Nurra, Barbagia Nurra

Mixed, scrubbed on nose

Goceano

Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep All domestic animals Sheep Goats, sheep Goats, ovinesa All domestic animals

Ticks Sheep Sheep, goats

Su solde (Wounds infected by maggots) All domestic animals

Scrubbed on nose Mixed, scrubbed on animals with a pumice stone Creolin (disinfectant made from tar oil, soap and Mixed, scrubbed on animals with a pumice caustic soda, water) stone Albanian spurge (Euphorbia characias) stems Stems of the plant clutched on infected skin Burnt cork, Ozzu porchinu (fat from lard) Scrubbed on skin n Burnt cork, copper sulphate Scrubbed on skin Olive oil Scrubbed on skin n Ozzu brujadu (Reused motor oil) Scrubbed on skin with a paintbrush Extract of tobacco (bought at the pharmacy), Nose rubbing with pumice stone and pumice stone, brush of wool thereafter brushing of tobacco extract Extract of tobacco, water Scrubbed on skin Dregs of olive oil, copper sulphate Scrubbed on skin

Creolin (disinfectant made from tar oil, soap water and caustic soda), water n Olive oil

n

Plum tree (Prunus spinosa), leaves

Gallura

Crushed fresh leaves pasted on wound Monte Acuto (wrapped with a bandage) The fresh plants were crushed into a glass then Monte Acuto, Meilogu the juice pasted on the wound Massaged on wound Monte Acuto

Sheep, goats

Ozzu casu (fat obtained by boiling the cream of the milk with flour) Extract of tobacco

Massaged on wound

Foot rot Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep

n Knife Lime and water Lime, copper sulphate, salt, bleach n Lime, copper sulphate, bleach Hot ozzu seu (dried peritoneum of sheep) n Copper sulphate, salt, lime n Copper sulphate, water

Needed to extract the worms Run animals through a foot bath Run animals through a foot bath Run animals through a foot bath Scrubbed on skin Scrubbed on skin Run animals through a foot bath

Sheep Sheep, goats Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep

Copper sulphate, salt Copper sulphate, water, salt n Copper sulphate, water, lime Bleach n Copper sulphate, lime Fruit of Pink rockrose (Cistus incanus), water Brine, copper sulphate, lime

Addine (Head maggots) Sheep Sheep, ovinesa

Red-hot tile Red-hot iron

Sheep

Knife

Liver flukes Sheep Ovines

a

Brandy Male fern (bought at the herbalist's shop)

Nurra, Monte Acuto Campidano di Oristano

Scrubbed on skin

All domestic animals

Copper sulphate

Sassarese Anglona Goceano, Nurra Sassarese Monte Acuto, Sassarese Monte Acuto

Monte Acuto

Lesser calmint (Calamintha nepeta)

n

Monte Acuto

Scrubbed on skin

All domestic animals

Sheep

Goceano Anglona, Monte Acuto

Monte Acuto

Monte Acuto Gallura Sassarese Sassarese Monte Acuto Monte Acuto Nurra, Goceano, Monte Acuto,Sassarese, Meilogu Copper sulphate was pounded and the powder Goceano, Nurra, Monte Acuto, Sassarese, was then scrubbed on foot Anglona, Barbagia di Nuoro, Meilogu Run animals through a foot bath Meilogu Run animals through a foot bath Goceano Run animals through a foot bath Monte Acuto, Nurra Foot inside the container with bleach Meilogu, Sassarese Run animals through a foot bath Campidano di Oristano Fruit boiled with water and pasted in the foot Gallura Run animals through a foot bath Monte Acuto

Used for cauterisation around the head Used for cauterisation between the nose and forehead or around the head The forehead was incised with a knife for bleeding

Monte Acuto Goceano, Monte Acuto, Sassarese, Nurra

Offered as a drink, administered as a preventive Administered as a drink to prevent illness

Monte Acuto, Nurra, Barbagia di Nuoro

Nurra

Goceano, Meilogu, Monte Acuto

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Table 3 (continued ) Animals Mange

Insecticide Ovinesa a n

Components of remedy

Procedure

Areas

Vinegar, olive oil

Mixed and massaged on the skin

Monte Acuto

Cure for sheep, rams and lambs; Remedies still in use.

old) while young shepherds ignored ethno-veterinary practices, clearly indicates the risk of loss of traditional ethno-veterinary knowledge in Sardinia. So it is important to record such information before it is definitely lost. The same serious concern has been expressed by Landau et al. (2014) in their report about the ethno-veterinary knowledge in Israel, which survives in no more than 50 individuals and may be lost in this generation. Sardinian shepherds utilised plants, animals, minerals and various substances to prepare infusions, decoctions, powders, creams and lotions for prophylaxis or therapy. Similarly, Landau et al. (2014) illustrated the methods used by shepherds in Israel to prepare remedies as plant decoctions, infusions, macerations and juices.

4.1. Use of animal body parts and/or mineral substances Lev (2003) argued that the use of animal extracts, products, and even secretions is a worldwide phenomenon, starting back in prehistoric times and it co-evolved with humans, reached its peak in medieval medicine, and still exists in folk medicine across the globe. Ethno-veterinary remedies including compounds derived from both animal and plant are indicated by Quave et al. (2008) for the topical treatment of skin diseases in Southern Italy. The authors reported aged pig fat as a key component of several remedies for skin conditions, in addition to its soothing properties was used to promote wound healings in both humans and animals. In Sardinia, the fat derived from boiling lard with some water (ozzu porchinu) was used alone or in combination with other substances (copper sulphate or cork) to treat mange, mastitis, pimples, fissures, swollen head and legs. Urine almost universally employed as a disinfectant and ashes and salt have been also quoted as remedies by Mc Corkle and Mathias Mundi (1992). In our survey, urine was used on sheep as disinfectant for pimples and dog bites. While cuttlefish bone powder was used in Sardinia as a remedy for eyes infections of sheep, rams and lambs, Lev (2003) describing traditional healing substances of animal origin, mentioned cuttlefish skeleton as a remedy for skin and tooth diseases in the early Muslim and Crusader periods and in the late Ottoman period.

Clark et al. (2012), reported a questionable remedy for foot rot in New Zealand consisting in running sheep through a foot bath of bluestone (copper sulphate) and arsenic. Bunn (2002) described how in XIX century in Australia, mercurial ointment containing lard was applied with bandage or, worked into the skin by hand. The same author also reported that sheep were sometimes dipped into strong limewater to soften the scabs before dressing, better results were achieved by dipping sheep into crude sulphuric acid (one part of acid to 80 parts of water), and a small portion of tobacco could also be added to the mixture. The acid helped the release of nicotine that when combined with the sulphate destroyed the mite. The treatment was later modified as mixture of sulphur and lime. The solution was heated in boilers to between 100–110 1F (37–43 1C) and poured in dipping tanks where sheep were totally immersed twice for up to a minute. According to Bezuidenhout (2011), Cato in 180 BC, formulated a treatment based on olive oil dregs, water, lupins and wine. Bezuidenhout (2011) also mentioned another similar ointment containing mercury and lard used in the middle ages, and described washes containing lime, mercury, nicotine turpentine or arsenic, applied by hand, as popular remedies until the end of the 18th century to control sheep scab. Olive oil or olive oil dregs were scrubbed on sheep skin by Sardinian shepherds as a treatment against mange. Gasoline but also kerosene and turpentine were used to kill maggots in a Rural Farm Directory of Genesee County – Michigan, USA dating back to 1919; equally reused motor oil painted with a brush on sheep was used by Sardinian shepherds for mange control, treatment which does not differ from the used motor oil scrubbed on skin of mange affected sheep in the traditional Arab ethno-veterinary practices reported by Landau et al. (2014). Flies repellent in 1880s New Zealand was made up by coarse whale oil to put off flies from sheep because of its strong smell (Clark et al., 2012), in Sardinia, insecticide was formulated mixing vinegar and olive oil that was then applied and massaged on ovine skin. In Spain, olive oil was used as detoxifying for internal use (Benítez et al., 2012) and to treat mastitis (González et al., 2011); other uses in Sardinia are against ticks (Table 1), indigestion (Table 4), wounds (Table 6). Brewer's yeast was used as a traditional remedy in case of poisoning according to Sardinian shepherds, according to Landau et al. (2014) baker's yeast was used for the same purpose in Arab ethno-veterinary practices.

4.2. Use of mineral substances 4.3. Use of plants or plant derived substances As reported by Quave et al. (2008), copper sulphate has been one of the most frequently traditional ethno-veterinary remedy employed in Southern Italy, as either ground powder on its own or dissolved in vinegar, or suspended in water and salt. The resulting compounds were applied to cracked hooves or chapped skin around the hooves of livestock. We found that copper sulphate was used alone or in combination with one of the following ozzu porchinu, ozzu casu, ozzu seu, as a remedy for skin diseases caused by mange; copper sulphate on its own or mixed with other compounds such as lime, salt, bleach was employed to treat foot rot.

The data collected in our survey indicate that some plants were traditionally used to control gastrointestinal infections, in particular two of them, Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn and Daphne gnidium L. are worthwhile investigating. In fact, in a survey of Moroccan traditional medicine (Bnouham et al., 2006) D. gnidium is included among the species dangerous if not used carefully. In Calabria (Southern Italy), the use of D. gnidium for papillomas seems to be more a magic remedy than a medical one. This plant was used to fight water snakes, achieved by putting it into lakes

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Table 4 Ethno-veterinary remedies against gastrointestinal diseases. Animal Components of remedy Gastrointestinal infection, colics, diarrhoea n

Sheep

Areas

Yeast mixed with water, offered to animals or offered with a syringe in the mouth

Hay Mallow (Malva sylvestris), water

Offered as feed Decoction of plants was filtered and offered as drink

Nurra, Meilogu, Sassarese, Nurra Gallura

Beans and barley flour boiled with water offered as feed

Anglona

The plant was collected on the night of St. John, dried, boiled, and the decoction was offered as a drink Root boiled with water and offered as feed Some berries mixed with forage and offered as feed

Monte Acuto

Sheep All domestic animals

Fababeans (Vicia faba), barley (Hordeum vulgare), water n Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), water Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) root Flax-leaved daphne (Daphne gnidium) berries

Bloat Ovinesa

Lard, parsley, onion

a

Ovines All domestic animals Ovinesa Sheep

Sheep Sheep Ovinesa Ovinesa Ovinesa Sheep Sheep All domestic animals Sheep Sheep Sheep

Poisoning Sheep

Brewer's yeast

Procedure

Sassarese Gallura

Onion bulbs, parsley and lard chopped, mixed, and offered as feed. Generally the animals Monte Acuto burped and then were fine. Brewer's yeast, water Mixed and offered as drink Nurra, Meilogu, Monte Acuto Lard, onion Mixed and offered as feed Monte Acuto Lard Crushed and offered as feed Meilogu, Gallura n Beer Offered as a drink, generally the animals burped and then were fine Nurra Olive oil, mulled wine Mixed and offered as drink Gallura Frammentalzu (mother yeast for bakery) Dissolved in water and offered as drink Monte Acuto Olive oil, lard Mixed and offered as feed Monte Acuto Lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus) wood Used to swab after incision of the vein under the belly Campidano di Oristano Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) root Root boiled with water and offered as feed Sassarese Pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis) Decoction of plants was filtered and offered as drink Nurra, Sassarese Dried mushroom, water Decoction was filtered and offered as drink Monte Acuto

Juice from prickly pear (Opuntia ficusindica) n Brewer's yeast Knife

Enema with juice extracted from the prickly pear

Sassarese

As feed supplement Bleeding after ingestion of ferule (Ferula communis)

Nurra Barbagia di Nuoro

Vinegar and olive oil

Mixed and offered as drink

Anglona

Mallow (Malva sylvestris), water

Decoction of plants was filtered and offered as drink

Pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis) Decoction of plants was filtered and offered as drink Lentisk fruit and leaves, water Decoction of fruit and some leaves offered as drink

Barbagia di Orgosolo Sassarese Monte Acuto

Collapse Sheep

Water

Belly up in the watering place

Sassarese

Lack of appetite Sheep

Barley flour with water or milk

Offered as a drink

Monte Acuto

Indigestion Sheep

Olive oil

Offered as a drink

Meilogu

Intestinal worms Ovinesa Sheep

Garlic, vinegar Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum)

Two cloves of crushed garlic in half a liter of vinegar offered as feed Root boiled in water and offered as feed

Anglona Sassarese

Ovinesa Ovinesa

Constipation All domestic animals All domestic animals Sheep All domestic animals

a n

Cure for sheep, rams and lambs. Remedies still in use.

where domestic animals were going to drink after the transhumance and it was also used by fishermen to capture eels of streams (Passalacqua et al., 2006). In Spain the stem of D. gnidium was put in splints of extremities bone fractures (González et al., 2011). In western Spain, the fronds of P. aquilinum were used for

animal bedding (González et al., 2011). P. aquilinum (bracken) is considered toxic for animals, although ovines are generally less susceptible than cattle (Vetter, 2009) nevertheless different sheep problems caused by bracken have been reported (Sundermann, 1987; Watson et al., 1965). The part of bracken below ground was

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Table 5 Ethno-veterinary remedies against viral and bacterial diseases. Animals Components of remedy Foot and mouth disease (aphtha)

Procedure

Areas

All domestic animals Ovinesa Ovinesa

Brooch

Cutting of the aphtha

Gallura

Vinegar and salt n Vinegar

Mouth washes Mouth washes

All domestic animals All domestic animals

Brine

Scrubbed on tongue

Anglona Campidano di Oristano, Meilogu Gallura

Mud

Scrubbed on tongue

Anglona

Blue tongue Sheep

Vinegar and honey

The tongue was rinsed with a cloth soaked in vinegar, then honey was smeared on the tongue, lips and nose

Sassarese

Mastitis Sheep

Ash, hot water

Cut of central vein of the udder and then massage with the mixture

Sheep

Needle

Goats

Ash, water

Sheep

Ash, soda, ozzu seu (dried peritoneum of sheep) Seawater Ash Ozzu casu (fat obtained by boiling the cream of the milk with flour) Copper sulphate, water Knife Vinegar and ash

Sheep Sheep, goats Sheep Sheep, goats Sheep Sheep, goats

Monte Acuto, Nurra, Meilogu The vein of the udder was incised, after the come out a bit of blood was sewn Nurra, Sassarese with a needle Ash boiled in water and applied with a bandage Gallura, Meilogu, Monte Acuto, Nurra Mixed and massaged on udder Monte Acuto Heated and massaged on udder Massaged on udder Massaged on udder

Anglona Monte Acuto Nurra, Sassarese

Sheep

Burnt cork, Ozzu porchinu (fat from lard) Downy oak (Quercus pubescens) cortex, water Earthworm

Sheep

Little dog (puppy)

Monte Acuto Nurra, Monte Acuto Monte Acuto, Sassarese Mixed and massaged on udder Anglona Cortex boiled with water until reddish, then the water was used to wash the Barbagia di Nuoro udder Earthworm fried with olive oil and the oil was spread on the udder Campidano di Oristano Sucking milk from the udder Monte Acuto

Ovinesa, goats

Milk of black sheep Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) bone n Wild pear (Pyrus spinosa) thorn, leather string oiled Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaves

Inserted into the eye Powder inserted into the eye or massaged around the eyes The ear was pierced with the thorn, then was passed through the hole a leather string oiled and left stuck until it dried out powdered dry leaves were massaged around the eyes

Monte Acuto Monte Acuto, Meilogu Campidano di Oristano Monte Acuto

Hoof infection Sheep, goats

Elderberry (Sambucus nigra), leaves

Pounded fresh leaves applied to the wound

Anglona

Blood poisoning (septicaemia) Ovinesa

Knife

Cut the neck veins

Monte Acuto

Carbuncle Ovinesa

Red-hot iron

Cauterisation of the vesicles

Monte Acuto

Mallow (Malva sylvestris)

Decoction of plants offered as drink

Anglona, Meilogu

n Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), water Pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis), water

The plant was collected on the night of St. John, dried, boiled, offered as a drink Monte Acuto

Sheep Sheep, goats

Eyes infection Sheep Ovinesa Ovinesa

Respiratory diseases All domestic animals Sheep Sheep

a n

Cure for sheep, rams and lambs. Remedies still in use.

Mixed and massaged on udder Vein incision and drain Mixed and massaged on udder

Decoction of leaves offered as drink

Meilogu

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Table 6 Ethno-veterinary remedies relative to wounds, sprains, contusions. Animals Wounds

Components of remedy

Procedure

Areas

Goats Sheep All domestic animals All domestic animals Sheep All domestic animals All domestic animals Sheep Sheep

Creolin, water Ash, hot water Elderberry (Sambucus nigra)

Massaged on wound Mixed and rubbed on wound Pounded fresh leaves applied to the wound

Nurra Monte Acuto Gallura

Powder from stem (without bark) or bark from stem of Powder or bark pulped applied on the wound lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus) Hound stongue (Cynoglossum officinale) leaves Fresh leaves were placed on the wound, and wrapping with a bandage Navelwort (Umbilicus rupestris ) leaves Pounded fresh leaves applied to the wound

Meilogu Gallura

Wound washed with soap and water, then decoction of plants applied on the wound, which was then wrapped with a bandage Fresh plant crushed and placed in the wound Mixed, scrubbed on animals

Nsurra, Sassarese, Gallura Sassarese Nurra

Applied on the wound

Anglona, Gallura

Olive oil, ash

Mixture for the preparation of emollient creams for wound treatment

Burnt cork, copper sulphate Lentisk oil

Applied on the wound Applied on the wound

Campidano di Oristano Goceano, Nurra Anglona, Gallura

Cork oak (Quercus suber), salt, vinegar, clay

The cork was boiled with salt and vinegar, crushed, and mixed with clay, Monte Acuto put in the painful area, wrapped with a bandage

Decoction and plants wrapped in a bandage on the sore part

Anglona

Sheep

Nettle (Urtica dioica), pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis), mallow (Malva sylvestris), water Pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis)

The leaves were crushed and put in the contusion

Monte Acuto

Wounds from fox or dog bites Sheep Sheep, lambs

n Pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis) Ash, water

Decoction and plants wrapped in a bandage and put on the wound Ash in water and wrapped with a cloth around the wound

Sassarese Monte Acuto

Pimples (Furuncles) Sheep Sheep Sheep Sheep

Hound stongue (Cynoglossum officinale) leaves Chijnada (ash and water) Urine Copper Sulphate, Ozzu porchinu (fat from lard)

Fresh leaves placed on pimples, which was wrapped with a bandage Boiling the ash in water and then the filtrate was placed on the pimple As disinfectant Mixed and massaged on skin

Meilogu Monte Acuto Monte Acuto Monte Acuto

n

Ozzu porchinu (fat from lard), ozzu seu (dried peritoneum of sheep), beeswax

The mixture was boiled and kept in a jar to be used when necessary

Monte Acuto

Swelling throat Sheep

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

Grazed in a field of chickpeas

Meilogu

Swelling head Sheep

Burnt cork

Animal locked up in the dark and scrubbed on the skin

Ovinesa

Burnt cork, knife

Sheep

Necklace of leaves of wild fig (Ficus carica L. var. caprificus) Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) thorn

All domestic animals All domestic animals Sheep Sheep

Sprains Sheep

Bruises Sheep

Fissures Sheep

Sheep

Swelling head and legs Ovinesa Sheep

Mallow (Malva sylvestris), water

Anglona, Nurra

Pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis) n Copper sulphate, ozzu casu (fat obtained by boiling the cream of milk with flour) Olive oil

Wild pear thorn, burnt cork, oil or Ozzu porchinu (fat from lard), Mallow (Malva sylvestris), water, olive oil Pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis) leaves

Meilogu, Sassarese, Monte Acuto Ears tied and etched with a knife tip, for the come out of greenish liquid Goceano and then the burnt cork passed over ears Animal locked up in the dark and scrubbed on the skin Sassarese

Incision of swollen part with thorn

Meilogu, Monte Acuto

Thorn to cut into swollen parts, smeared a with oil and then rubbed with burnt cork Decoction of plants applied on the wound, which was then wrapped with a bandage with olive oil The leaves were crushed and put in the swollen part

Campidano di Oristano Anglona Monte Acuto

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Table 6 (continued ) Animals Wounds

Components of remedy

Procedure

Areas

Swelling head and ear Sheep

Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna ) thorn

The thorns (4 or 5) were stuck in the ear and left until it deflated

Sheep

Wild pear (Pyrus spinosa) thorn

The thorn were stuck in the ear

Monte Acuto, Meilogu Meilogu

All domestic animals

a n

Cure for sheep, rams and lambs. Remedies still in use.

Table 7 Other uses of shepherds' traditional remedies. Materials

Uses

Areas

Tablespoon of olive oil Olea europaea L. var. sylvestris leaves Shoots of oak (Quercus suber) Burnt oil Thorns of thistle (Silybum marianum) Bunch of thistle (Silybum marianum) Lesser calmint (Calamintha nepeta) Pennyroyal plant (Mentha pulegium) Bulb of sea squill (Charybdis maritima) Olive oil Ozzu seu (dried peritoneum of sheep)

Offered to sheep after the birth of the lambs Weaning of lambs Weaning of lambs To eliminate the flies Collection on the day of St. John's, pricked the meat against the flies Hanging in the barn to chase away the flies To eliminate insects from dried beans The fresh plant to repel worms from cereals, grains and beans Rat repellent Excipients for many unguents manufactured by shepherds Cleaning leather boots of the shepherd

Monte Acuto Barbagia di Nuoro Barbagia di Nuoro Barbagia di Nuoro Barbagia di Nuoro Barbagia di Nuoro Monte Acuto Monte Acuto Meilogu All areas Monte Acuto

utilised by Sardinian shepherds, as this part of the plant contains a lower concentration of bioactive compounds than the above ground biomass (Piluzza and Bullitta, 2011). Pistacia lentiscus oil, wood, leaves, fruits, stems or bark were indicated by Sardinian sheperds as remedies for the treatment of several diseases (Piluzza and Bullitta, 2011). Among many uses those concerning gastrointestinal disorders, wound healing in all domestic animals, and skin diseases of animals and humans are worth investigating further. P. lentiscus also showed an higher antioxidant capacity (Bullitta et al., 2013). Scientific evidences linking the use of P. lentiscus to the traditional ethno-veterinary field has been provided by Landau et al. (2014). In Sardinia, lentisk oil was employed to promote wound healing and to treat sheep mange (Atzei et al., 2004). In Spain, the leaves of P. lentiscus were used to treat canine distemper (Benítez et al., 2012) whereas in Sardinia the decoction of fruit and leaves was used against constipation. The decoction of fruit of Prunus spinosa was reported in Spain to treat diarrhoea (González et al., 2011), while we found that leaves were and still are used to treat wounds infected by maggots. The decoction of the aerial part of Parietaria officinalis helps calf birth in Campania-Southern Italy (Menale and Muoio, 2014), the Sardinia usage was quite diverse ranging from respiratory diseases, to constipation, wounds, bruises, swelling head and legs, dog bites and the latter use is still ongoing. In the North-Western Ligurian Alps-Italy, the decoction of Matricaria chamomilla was given to livestock for dyspepsia (Cornara et al., 2014), Sardinia shepherds used it for gastrointestinal diseases, abdominal cramping, diarrhoea and respiratory diseases. In Calabria-Italy, it was used instead as repellent for woodworms and other insects (Passalacqua et al., 2006). Maphosa and Masika (2010) employed structured questionnaires to examine ethno-veterinary usage of plants in Southern Africa for the control of gastro-intestinal parasites of goats. They discovered that 28 species mainly belonging to the Asphodelaceae family were used and concluded that providing validation of the safety and the efficacy, such plants could well be an alternative

cost-effective strategy in managing helminthiasis in the Eastern Cape Province. Tobacco is a common folk remedy in many parts of Africa, especially as ecto- and endo-parasiticide (Mc Corkle and Mathias Mundi, 1992). Feeding sheep with tobacco dust, tobacco leaves and salt as a preventive measure to control gastrointestinal worms, was seen in a Rural Farm Directory of Genesee County –Michigan, USA and dated back to 1919. In New Zealand at the end of XIX century scab was treated by deeping the sheep in boiled tobacco water, sometimes with the addition of salt, salpetre, sulphur or arsenic (Clark et al., 2012). In Sardinia tobacco extract was employed to scrub the skin of the sheep to cure mange or to rub wounds infected by maggots, while powdered dried leaves of tobacco were used as a remedy for sheep eyes infections. In line with what reported by González et al. (2011) in Spain, we also found that in Sardinia Umbilicus rupestris leaves are used to heal wounds. Seeds of Cicer arietinum, in Spain, were used to facilitate the expulsion after birth of the placenta, while the root as purgative (González et al., 2011), in our study it was used against swelling throat. In Calabria-Italy, gastritis was cured drinking a decoction of Malva sylvestris (Passalacqua et al., 2006), while the same herbal tea was used by Sardinian shepherds for gastrointestinal diseases and also for respiratory diseases and in Spain for gastrointestinal diseases bruises, wounds and broken bones (González et al., 2011). The leaves of Sambucus nigra in Calabria-Italy, having insecticide properties, were put into small bunches in the houses to attract the flies that were killed (Passalacqua et al., 2006), while Sardinian shepherds applied pounded fresh leaves to the wounds. In Spain the dried flowers were used to treat meteorism (González et al., 2011) whereas in Tunisia, fruit, stem and bark were used as laxative (Viegi and Ghedira, 2014). Bulbs of Charybdis maritima (L.) Speta are used in Sicily-Italy as a repellent for insects and mice in granaries, silos and broad beans containers, or as rat poison (Lentini and Aleo, 1991; Lentini et al.,

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1988; Barbagallo et al., 1979); similarly we reported their use as rat repellent while in Tunisia its use is quite different being employed for fowl diseases (Viegi and Ghedira, 2014). The ethno-veterinary data in the Mediterranean region could offer an extraordinary background for conducting serious studies aiming to improve the quality of animal-derived products and to implement phytotherapy for animal healthcare and the use of plant-derived nutraceuticals for animal wellbeing (Pieroni et al., 2006). Ethno-veterinary surveys can contribute promoting the controlled use of suitable phytochemical extracts from Mediterranean plants in animal healthcare, adding further value to local products in many Mediterranean areas.

5. Conclusion Although ethno-veterinary studies in the literature mainly concern plants and plant derived products, our results suggest that also animal derived products played an essential role in traditional care of sheep and goats, confirming the theory recently expressed by Quave and Pieroni (2013) that believe that animals and animal products have been an important portion of Mediterranean pharmacopeia for millennia, as their use is documented in ancient medical text and recent ethno-biology studies. Animal based remedies (ozzu seu, ozzu casu, ozzu porchinu), mineral substance (copper sulphate) have a key role in the preparation of traditional remedies for skin diseases in Sardinian local ethnoveterinary practices. Only very few of the described remedies are in use at present, mainly due to easier access to synthetic drugs. The interest of our survey can be also related to the increasing attention towards traditional remedies as potential sources of natural products, which could potentially lead to new therapeutics to improve animal health and welfare.

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Uses of plants, animal and mineral substances in Mediterranean ethno-veterinary practices for the care of small ruminants.

The cultural heritage of Sardinian shepherds is rapidly vanishing and survives in the memory of elderly people. The objective of our study was not onl...
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