Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus 18 The Nurse Practitioner • Vol. 40, No. 81
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
www.tnpj.com
2.0 CONTACT HOURS
1.0 CONTACT HOURS
Abstract: Type 2 diabetes mellitus is associated with significant cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Diabetic dyslipidemia is a major cause of cardiovascular complications and a key area for intervention. The blood cholesterol treatment guideline released in 2013 and strategies to reduce cardiovascular risk are outlined and addressed in this article.
By Michelle L. Frank, MSN, APRN, FNP-C and Annie M. Gerhardt, DNP, APRN, FNP-C
therogenic dyslipidemia is a key modifiable risk factor for macrovascular events and continues to be problematic. Prevention and treatment of dyslipidemia, as well as tight control of BP and glycemia, are part of the optimal approach to reducing residual vascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) released the new guideline for the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults.1 Lifestyle therapy and treatment with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) (according to the four major statin groups and a new global risk assessment tool) provide early interruption to the natural progression of atherosclerosis.1-5
3D4Medical/Phototake ©
A
www.tnpj.com
■ Significance of the problem Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the largest contributor to the direct and indirect costs of diabetes.6 Common conditions coexisting with T2DM, such as hypertension and dyslipidemia, are clear risk factors for CVD. Epidemiologic studies and clinical trials have demonstrated that patients with diabetes are at increased risk for CVD and that T2DM itself confers independent risk. Numerous studies have Keywords: cholesterol reduction, diabetes, dyslipidemia, endocrine, hyperlipidemia, macrovascular risk reduction, primary care, statin therapy, type 2 diabetes mellitus
The TheNurse NursePractitioner Practitioner • • January August 2015 19
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
demonstrated the importance of controlling individual cardiovascular risk factors and the positive impact of preventing or slowing CVD in patients with T2DM. Dyslipidemia is an important, modifiable risk factor in patients at risk for coronary events and represents a key area for intervention in patients with T2DM.1-3,6,7 ■ Pathophysiology Typical diabetic dyslipidemia includes hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and mildly elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) with a predominance of small, dense LDL particles.2,3,6,8 The smaller LDL particles can infiltrate the arterial wall more readily, are more easily oxidized, and do not bind as efficiently to the LDL receptor. This ultimately results in impaired hepatic clearance of cholesterol. The mechanisms leading to hypertriglyceridemia directly relate to insulin resistance and hyperglycemia. The end result is overproduction of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins from the liver, decreased clearance of triglyceriderich lipoproteins, and, in some cases, an altered postprandial lipoprotein metabolism. This complex dyslipidemia (termed atherogenic dyslipidemia, diabetic dyslipidemia, or dyslipidemia of insulin resistance) is indicative of underlying insulin resistance and plays a key role in the increased cardiovascular risk in patients with T2DM.6,9 ■ Current practice guidelines The updated American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA) guideline for the treatment of blood cholesterol was published in 2013.1 Recommendations include lowering LDL-C as the primary target followed by increasing HDL-C and lowering triglycerides (TG). The new guideline differs significantly from the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults in that the ACC/AHA makes no recommendation for specific LDL-C or non-HDL targets for the primary and secondary prevention of atherosclerotic CVD. Instead, the focus is on finding the appropriate intensity of statin therapy in order to achieve relative reductions in LDL-C.1,10 Four groups of primary and secondary prevention patients have been identified. The four major statin groups include: individuals with clinical atherosclerotic CVD; individuals with LDL-C levels at or above 190 mg/dL (such as those with familial hypercholesterolemia); individuals with diabetes ages 40 to 75 years with LDL-C levels between 70 and 189 mg/dL and without evidence of atherosclerotic CVD; and individuals without evidence of CVD or diabetes but who have LDL-C levels between 70 and 189 mg/dL and a 10-year risk of atherosclerotic CVD at or above 7.5%.1 For
patients with diabetes ages 40 to 75 years, a moderateintensity statin (defined as a drug that lowers LDL-C 30% to 49%) should be used. A high-intensity statin is a reasonable choice if the patient also has a 10-year risk of atherosclerotic CVD at or above 7.5%.1,10 ■ Interventions Lifestyle modification. The ACC/AHA guideline advocates for lifestyle modification as the first step toward improving the lipid profile in patients with T2DM.1 Lifestyle modifications, including reductions in dietary cholesterol, reductions in saturated and trans fatty acids, and increased physical activity remain central to any therapeutic program.3 Weight loss (if indicated) and increased physical activity are initially recommended to improve the lipid profile. Additionally, enhanced glycemic control can improve plasma lipid levels, especially in patients with T2DM who have very high TG levels.2,11 Effective lipid-lowering strategies in patients at high risk for CVD, such as those with T2DM, require the management of not only the LDL-C but also of the HDL-C and TG levels. The American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends medical nutrition therapy (MNT), which includes a reduction in saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol intake. 6 Additionally, the 2013 AHA/ACC Guideline on Lifestyle Management to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk recommends therapeutic lifestyle changes, which include a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, use of plant stanols/sterols, and increased consumption of soluble fiber.11 In addition, the guideline emphasizes weight reduction and exercise/ increased physical activity. TG levels can be decreased and HDL-C levels can be increased with weight loss and increased physical activity. Lifestyle changes may also produce a modest lowering of LDL-C. Also of note, tighter glycemic control can improve plasma lipid levels, especially in patients with T2DM who have very high TG.2,5,7 ■ Pharmacologic management with statins The ADA recommends pharmacologic (primarily statin) therapy to reduce CVD risk and mortality.6 Multiple studies have shown significant primary and secondary prevention of CVD events in patients with diabetes who use statins. Meta-analyses from 14 randomized controlled trials of statin therapy demonstrate a 9% proportional reduction in all-cause mortality and 13% reduction in vascular mortality for each mmol/L reduction in LDL-C. There is evidence for significant LDL-C lowering from even extremely low, less than daily statin use.6 Statin use in patients with diabetes is associated with significant reductions in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality for both primary and secondary prevention.1,6 Statins inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, inhibiting the rate-limiting step in cholesterol
20 The Nurse Practitioner • Vol. 40, No. 8
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
www.tnpj.com
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
biosynthesis, and competitively inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase.2,12 Statins primarily lower LDL-C but also have secondary effects of lowering TG and increasing HDL-C levels. Furthermore, statins may increase the particle size of LDL-C to allow less circulation of smaller, dense LDL-C.5,12 Overall, statins are well tolerated. The more common adverse reactions are headache, nonspecific muscle and joint pain, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, and abdominal pain. Significant elevation of liver enzymes can occur, and discontinuation of statins is recommended when those values reach greater than three times the upper limit of normal. Because of the risk of myopathy and rhabdomyolysis with statin use, patients are encouraged to immediately report any unexplained muscle weakness, tenderness, pain, or fever to their healthcare provider.12 The benefits of statins outweigh the risks in patients with known CVD. However, new labeling recommended by the FDA, warns of a higher risk of diabetes or cognitive impairment.13 A slight increase in blood glucose levels and the development of T2DM has been reported in patients who are taking statins.13 If diabetes occurs or worsens, the statin should not be automatically stopped. It should be explained that statins’ cardiovascular benefits are even greater in patients with diabetes than those without.5 Regarding cognitive impairment, the FDA is investigating cognitive impairment associated with statin use.13 Again, each patient must be considered individually, with risks and benefits fully addressed. Examples of statins include: atorvastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, simvastatin, and pitavastatin. A baseline lipid profile, serum creatine kinase (CK), liver function tests, and serum creatinine should be obtained before starting statin therapy. Serum CK levels should be checked upon report of any muscle pain or discomfort. Fasting lipid profiles should be measured at least annually in most adult patients with diabetes.6 The measurement of LDL-C is an important marker of adherence to medication/statin use and one of the best methods of identifying the dose of statin each patient can tolerate.10 ■ Combination therapy The ADA and ACC/AHA recommendations state that when maximally tolerated, statin doses fail to significantly lower LDL-C (less than 30% reduction from patient’s baseline), there is no strong evidence that combination therapy should be used to achieve additional LDL-C lowering.1,6 The ADA and ACC/AHA further concur that niacin, fenofibrate, ezetimibe, and bile acid sequestrants all offer additional LDL-C lowering to statins alone; however, there is insufficient evidence that such combination therapy for LDL-C lowering provides a significant increment in CVD risk reduction over exclusive statin therapy.1,6 www.tnpj.com
■ Special populations and considerations Statins are contraindicated during pregnancy.1,6,7 Current guidelines recommend discontinuation of the medication immediately upon recognition of pregnancy or before conception if pregnancy is planned. Until more data are available, statins should be avoided during pregnancy, and pregnant women exposed to cholesterol-lowering drugs should be monitored closely. The 2013 ACC/AHA guideline applies to the geriatric population as well. Emphasis is placed on treating dyslipidemia with statins but not to target levels. MNT, supplemented Mediterranean diet, enhanced physical activity, and weight loss have also been shown to play a role in improving cardiovascular risk profiles in older adults with T2DM.1,14 The American Geriatrics Society guidelines update reinforces glycemic control recommendations customized to burden of comorbidity, functional status, and life expectancy.14 The update also emphasizes patient-centered recommendations for lifestyle modification because of increased evidence of its importance for healthy older adults with T2DM.1,6,14 Statin use is supported for lipid-lowering in older adults with T2DM who are younger than 75, but more data are needed for patients age 80 and older.14 ■ Patient education Providers must continue to educate patients with diabetes about how to manage the risk of macrovascular complications associated with their disease in addition to managing blood glucose and HbA1c. Patients must become actively involved in their care. Each patient’s desire to make lifestyle changes should be assessed. Patient education should focus on the importance of adhering to cholesterol-lowering lifestyle changes and medication therapy to help prevent the complications of diabetes that are seen in patients who do not have their lipid levels adequately managed.12 Motivational interviewing is an excellent technique to consider and utilizes these underlying principles: active listening, expressing empathy, developing discrepancy, avoiding argumentation, rolling with resistance, and supporting self-efficacy (motivationalinterviewing.org). Providers should help the patient identify his or her stage of change and should work as a team to accomplish step-by-step goals toward healthier living. ■ Discussion The prevalence of diabetes has increased dramatically in recent decades. Now is the time to implement prevention and appropriate therapy to reduce cardiovascular events in patients with T2DM. Aggressive treatment of diabetic dyslipidemia, a major modifiable risk factor, will reduce cardiovascular events in this patient population.1,6,12 The Nurse Practitioner • August 2015 21
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
The LDL-C appears to have the greatest role in premature and early atherosclerosis and the development of CVD. It must be treated as aggressively as hyperglycemia to reduce CVD risk in patients with T2DM. Statin therapy should be added to lifestyle therapy, regardless of baseline lipid levels, for patients with T2DM who have overt CVD or without CVD if they are over 40 years old and have one or more other CVD risk factors, such as a family history of CVD, hypertension, smoking, dyslipidemia, or albuminuria.6 Becoming familiar with lipid treatment goals/degree of stain intensity and the importance of individualized treatment will result in implementation of the most beneficial, therapeutic approach to dyslipidemia in patients with T2DM. REFERENCES 1. Stone NJ, Robinson J, Lichtenstein AH, et al. ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;129(25 suppl 2):S1-45. 2. Campbell J, Hilleman D. Reducing cardiovascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes: management of dyslipidemia. Formulary. 2010;45:124-134. 3. Ginsberg HN, MacCallum PR. The obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes mellitus pandemic: part I. Increased cardiovascular disease risk and the importance of atherogenic dyslipidemia in persons with the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Cardiometab Syndr. 2009;4(2): 113-119. 4. Khardori R. Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Medscape Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2013. http://www.medscape.com.
5. Wanner C, Krane V. Recent advances in the treatment of atherogenic dyslipidemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2011;34(4):209-217. 6. American Diabetes Association. Position statement. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(suppl 1). http://care.diabetesjournals.org. 7. Peters A. How do new statin guidelines affect diabetes care? Medscape Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2013. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/814664_print. 8. Parhofer K. Pathophysiology of diabetic dyslipidemia: implications for atherogenesis and treatment. Clin Lipidol. 2011;6(4):401-411. 9. McCance KL, Huether SE, Brashers VL, Rote NS, eds. Pathophysiology: The Biologic Basis for Disease in Adults and Children. 6th ed. Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby Elsevier; 2010. 10. O’Riordan M. New cholesterol guidelines abandon LDL targets. Medscape Cardiology. 2013. http://www.medscape.com. 11. Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD, et al. AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;129(25 suppl 2):S76-S99. 12. Daniel MJ. Lipid management in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am Health Drug Benefits. 2011;4(5):312-322. 13. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Expands Advice on Statin Risks. 2015. http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm293330.htm. 14. Cegelka A. Guidelines abstracted from the American Geriatrics Society Guidelines for improving the care of older adults with diabetes mellitus: 2013 update. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61(11):2020-2026. Michelle L. Frank is a family nurse practitioner student at University of Mary, Bismarck, N.D. Annie M. Gerhardt is adjunct faculty at the University of Mary, Bismarck, N.D. and a family nurse practitioner at Altru Clinic Lake Region, Devils Lake, N.D. The authors and planners have disclosed no potential conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise. DOI-10.1097/01.NPR.0000469253.13367.2c
For more than 169 additional continuing education articles related to advanced practice nursing topics, go to NursingCenter.com/CE. Earn CE credit online: Go to http://www.nursingcenter.com/CE/NP and receive a certificate within minutes.
INSTRUCTIONS
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus TEST INSTRUCTIONS • To take the test online, go to our secure website at http://www.nursingcenter.com/ce/NP. • On the print form, record your answers in the test answer section of the CE enrollment form on page 23. Each question has only one correct answer. You may make copies of these forms. • Complete the registration information and course evaluation. Mail the completed form and registration fee of $21.95 to: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, CE Group, 74 Brick Blvd., Bldg. 4, Suite 206, Brick, NJ 08723. We will mail your certificate in 4 to 6 weeks. For faster service, include a fax number and we will fax your certificate within 2 business days of receiving your enrollment form. • You will receive your CE certificate of earned contact hours and an answer key to review your results. There is no minimum passing grade. • Registration deadline is August 31, 2017.
DISCOUNTS and CUSTOMER SERVICE • Send two or more tests in any nursing journal published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins together and deduct $0.95 from the price of each test. • We also offer CE accounts for hospitals and other healthcare facilities on nursingcenter.com. Call 1-800-787-8985 for details. PROVIDER ACCREDITATION Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, publisher of The Nurse Practitioner journal, will award 2.0 contact hours for this continuing nursing education activity. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins is accredited as a provider of continuing nursing education by the American Nurses Credentialing Center’s Commission on Accreditation. This activity is also provider approved by the California Board of Registered Nursing, Provider Number CEP 11749 for 2.0 contact hours. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins is also an approved provider of continuing nursing education by the District of Columbia and Florida #50-1223. Your certificate is valid in all states. This activity has been assigned 1.0 pharmacology credit.
22 The Nurse Practitioner • Vol. 40, No. 8
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
www.tnpj.com
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
www.tnpj.com
2.0 CONTACT HOURS
1.0 CONTACT HOURS
Abstract: Type 2 diabetes mellitus is associated with significant cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Diabetic dyslipidemia is a major cause of cardiovascular complications and a key area for intervention. The blood cholesterol treatment guideline released in 2013 and strategies to reduce cardiovascular risk are outlined and addressed in this article.
By Michelle L. Frank, MSN, APRN, FNP-C and Annie M. Gerhardt, DNP, APRN, FNP-C
therogenic dyslipidemia is a key modifiable risk factor for macrovascular events and continues to be problematic. Prevention and treatment of dyslipidemia, as well as tight control of BP and glycemia, are part of the optimal approach to reducing residual vascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) released the new guideline for the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults.1 Lifestyle therapy and treatment with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) (according to the four major statin groups and a new global risk assessment tool) provide early interruption to the natural progression of atherosclerosis.1-5
3D4Medical/Phototake ©
A
www.tnpj.com
■ Significance of the problem Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the largest contributor to the direct and indirect costs of diabetes.6 Common conditions coexisting with T2DM, such as hypertension and dyslipidemia, are clear risk factors for CVD. Epidemiologic studies and clinical trials have demonstrated that patients with diabetes are at increased risk for CVD and that T2DM itself confers independent risk. Numerous studies have Keywords: cholesterol reduction, diabetes, dyslipidemia, endocrine, hyperlipidemia, macrovascular risk reduction, primary care, statin therapy, type 2 diabetes mellitus
The TheNurse NursePractitioner Practitioner • • January August 2015 19
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
demonstrated the importance of controlling individual cardiovascular risk factors and the positive impact of preventing or slowing CVD in patients with T2DM. Dyslipidemia is an important, modifiable risk factor in patients at risk for coronary events and represents a key area for intervention in patients with T2DM.1-3,6,7 ■ Pathophysiology Typical diabetic dyslipidemia includes hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and mildly elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) with a predominance of small, dense LDL particles.2,3,6,8 The smaller LDL particles can infiltrate the arterial wall more readily, are more easily oxidized, and do not bind as efficiently to the LDL receptor. This ultimately results in impaired hepatic clearance of cholesterol. The mechanisms leading to hypertriglyceridemia directly relate to insulin resistance and hyperglycemia. The end result is overproduction of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins from the liver, decreased clearance of triglyceriderich lipoproteins, and, in some cases, an altered postprandial lipoprotein metabolism. This complex dyslipidemia (termed atherogenic dyslipidemia, diabetic dyslipidemia, or dyslipidemia of insulin resistance) is indicative of underlying insulin resistance and plays a key role in the increased cardiovascular risk in patients with T2DM.6,9 ■ Current practice guidelines The updated American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA) guideline for the treatment of blood cholesterol was published in 2013.1 Recommendations include lowering LDL-C as the primary target followed by increasing HDL-C and lowering triglycerides (TG). The new guideline differs significantly from the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults in that the ACC/AHA makes no recommendation for specific LDL-C or non-HDL targets for the primary and secondary prevention of atherosclerotic CVD. Instead, the focus is on finding the appropriate intensity of statin therapy in order to achieve relative reductions in LDL-C.1,10 Four groups of primary and secondary prevention patients have been identified. The four major statin groups include: individuals with clinical atherosclerotic CVD; individuals with LDL-C levels at or above 190 mg/dL (such as those with familial hypercholesterolemia); individuals with diabetes ages 40 to 75 years with LDL-C levels between 70 and 189 mg/dL and without evidence of atherosclerotic CVD; and individuals without evidence of CVD or diabetes but who have LDL-C levels between 70 and 189 mg/dL and a 10-year risk of atherosclerotic CVD at or above 7.5%.1 For
patients with diabetes ages 40 to 75 years, a moderateintensity statin (defined as a drug that lowers LDL-C 30% to 49%) should be used. A high-intensity statin is a reasonable choice if the patient also has a 10-year risk of atherosclerotic CVD at or above 7.5%.1,10 ■ Interventions Lifestyle modification. The ACC/AHA guideline advocates for lifestyle modification as the first step toward improving the lipid profile in patients with T2DM.1 Lifestyle modifications, including reductions in dietary cholesterol, reductions in saturated and trans fatty acids, and increased physical activity remain central to any therapeutic program.3 Weight loss (if indicated) and increased physical activity are initially recommended to improve the lipid profile. Additionally, enhanced glycemic control can improve plasma lipid levels, especially in patients with T2DM who have very high TG levels.2,11 Effective lipid-lowering strategies in patients at high risk for CVD, such as those with T2DM, require the management of not only the LDL-C but also of the HDL-C and TG levels. The American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends medical nutrition therapy (MNT), which includes a reduction in saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol intake. 6 Additionally, the 2013 AHA/ACC Guideline on Lifestyle Management to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk recommends therapeutic lifestyle changes, which include a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, use of plant stanols/sterols, and increased consumption of soluble fiber.11 In addition, the guideline emphasizes weight reduction and exercise/ increased physical activity. TG levels can be decreased and HDL-C levels can be increased with weight loss and increased physical activity. Lifestyle changes may also produce a modest lowering of LDL-C. Also of note, tighter glycemic control can improve plasma lipid levels, especially in patients with T2DM who have very high TG.2,5,7 ■ Pharmacologic management with statins The ADA recommends pharmacologic (primarily statin) therapy to reduce CVD risk and mortality.6 Multiple studies have shown significant primary and secondary prevention of CVD events in patients with diabetes who use statins. Meta-analyses from 14 randomized controlled trials of statin therapy demonstrate a 9% proportional reduction in all-cause mortality and 13% reduction in vascular mortality for each mmol/L reduction in LDL-C. There is evidence for significant LDL-C lowering from even extremely low, less than daily statin use.6 Statin use in patients with diabetes is associated with significant reductions in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality for both primary and secondary prevention.1,6 Statins inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, inhibiting the rate-limiting step in cholesterol
20 The Nurse Practitioner • Vol. 40, No. 8
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
www.tnpj.com
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
biosynthesis, and competitively inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase.2,12 Statins primarily lower LDL-C but also have secondary effects of lowering TG and increasing HDL-C levels. Furthermore, statins may increase the particle size of LDL-C to allow less circulation of smaller, dense LDL-C.5,12 Overall, statins are well tolerated. The more common adverse reactions are headache, nonspecific muscle and joint pain, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, and abdominal pain. Significant elevation of liver enzymes can occur, and discontinuation of statins is recommended when those values reach greater than three times the upper limit of normal. Because of the risk of myopathy and rhabdomyolysis with statin use, patients are encouraged to immediately report any unexplained muscle weakness, tenderness, pain, or fever to their healthcare provider.12 The benefits of statins outweigh the risks in patients with known CVD. However, new labeling recommended by the FDA, warns of a higher risk of diabetes or cognitive impairment.13 A slight increase in blood glucose levels and the development of T2DM has been reported in patients who are taking statins.13 If diabetes occurs or worsens, the statin should not be automatically stopped. It should be explained that statins’ cardiovascular benefits are even greater in patients with diabetes than those without.5 Regarding cognitive impairment, the FDA is investigating cognitive impairment associated with statin use.13 Again, each patient must be considered individually, with risks and benefits fully addressed. Examples of statins include: atorvastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, simvastatin, and pitavastatin. A baseline lipid profile, serum creatine kinase (CK), liver function tests, and serum creatinine should be obtained before starting statin therapy. Serum CK levels should be checked upon report of any muscle pain or discomfort. Fasting lipid profiles should be measured at least annually in most adult patients with diabetes.6 The measurement of LDL-C is an important marker of adherence to medication/statin use and one of the best methods of identifying the dose of statin each patient can tolerate.10 ■ Combination therapy The ADA and ACC/AHA recommendations state that when maximally tolerated, statin doses fail to significantly lower LDL-C (less than 30% reduction from patient’s baseline), there is no strong evidence that combination therapy should be used to achieve additional LDL-C lowering.1,6 The ADA and ACC/AHA further concur that niacin, fenofibrate, ezetimibe, and bile acid sequestrants all offer additional LDL-C lowering to statins alone; however, there is insufficient evidence that such combination therapy for LDL-C lowering provides a significant increment in CVD risk reduction over exclusive statin therapy.1,6 www.tnpj.com
■ Special populations and considerations Statins are contraindicated during pregnancy.1,6,7 Current guidelines recommend discontinuation of the medication immediately upon recognition of pregnancy or before conception if pregnancy is planned. Until more data are available, statins should be avoided during pregnancy, and pregnant women exposed to cholesterol-lowering drugs should be monitored closely. The 2013 ACC/AHA guideline applies to the geriatric population as well. Emphasis is placed on treating dyslipidemia with statins but not to target levels. MNT, supplemented Mediterranean diet, enhanced physical activity, and weight loss have also been shown to play a role in improving cardiovascular risk profiles in older adults with T2DM.1,14 The American Geriatrics Society guidelines update reinforces glycemic control recommendations customized to burden of comorbidity, functional status, and life expectancy.14 The update also emphasizes patient-centered recommendations for lifestyle modification because of increased evidence of its importance for healthy older adults with T2DM.1,6,14 Statin use is supported for lipid-lowering in older adults with T2DM who are younger than 75, but more data are needed for patients age 80 and older.14 ■ Patient education Providers must continue to educate patients with diabetes about how to manage the risk of macrovascular complications associated with their disease in addition to managing blood glucose and HbA1c. Patients must become actively involved in their care. Each patient’s desire to make lifestyle changes should be assessed. Patient education should focus on the importance of adhering to cholesterol-lowering lifestyle changes and medication therapy to help prevent the complications of diabetes that are seen in patients who do not have their lipid levels adequately managed.12 Motivational interviewing is an excellent technique to consider and utilizes these underlying principles: active listening, expressing empathy, developing discrepancy, avoiding argumentation, rolling with resistance, and supporting self-efficacy (motivationalinterviewing.org). Providers should help the patient identify his or her stage of change and should work as a team to accomplish step-by-step goals toward healthier living. ■ Discussion The prevalence of diabetes has increased dramatically in recent decades. Now is the time to implement prevention and appropriate therapy to reduce cardiovascular events in patients with T2DM. Aggressive treatment of diabetic dyslipidemia, a major modifiable risk factor, will reduce cardiovascular events in this patient population.1,6,12 The Nurse Practitioner • August 2015 21
Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
The LDL-C appears to have the greatest role in premature and early atherosclerosis and the development of CVD. It must be treated as aggressively as hyperglycemia to reduce CVD risk in patients with T2DM. Statin therapy should be added to lifestyle therapy, regardless of baseline lipid levels, for patients with T2DM who have overt CVD or without CVD if they are over 40 years old and have one or more other CVD risk factors, such as a family history of CVD, hypertension, smoking, dyslipidemia, or albuminuria.6 Becoming familiar with lipid treatment goals/degree of stain intensity and the importance of individualized treatment will result in implementation of the most beneficial, therapeutic approach to dyslipidemia in patients with T2DM. REFERENCES 1. Stone NJ, Robinson J, Lichtenstein AH, et al. ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;129(25 suppl 2):S1-45. 2. Campbell J, Hilleman D. Reducing cardiovascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes: management of dyslipidemia. Formulary. 2010;45:124-134. 3. Ginsberg HN, MacCallum PR. The obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes mellitus pandemic: part I. Increased cardiovascular disease risk and the importance of atherogenic dyslipidemia in persons with the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Cardiometab Syndr. 2009;4(2): 113-119. 4. Khardori R. Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Medscape Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2013. http://www.medscape.com.
5. Wanner C, Krane V. Recent advances in the treatment of atherogenic dyslipidemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2011;34(4):209-217. 6. American Diabetes Association. Position statement. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(suppl 1). http://care.diabetesjournals.org. 7. Peters A. How do new statin guidelines affect diabetes care? Medscape Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2013. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/814664_print. 8. Parhofer K. Pathophysiology of diabetic dyslipidemia: implications for atherogenesis and treatment. Clin Lipidol. 2011;6(4):401-411. 9. McCance KL, Huether SE, Brashers VL, Rote NS, eds. Pathophysiology: The Biologic Basis for Disease in Adults and Children. 6th ed. Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby Elsevier; 2010. 10. O’Riordan M. New cholesterol guidelines abandon LDL targets. Medscape Cardiology. 2013. http://www.medscape.com. 11. Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD, et al. AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;129(25 suppl 2):S76-S99. 12. Daniel MJ. Lipid management in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am Health Drug Benefits. 2011;4(5):312-322. 13. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Expands Advice on Statin Risks. 2015. http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm293330.htm. 14. Cegelka A. Guidelines abstracted from the American Geriatrics Society Guidelines for improving the care of older adults with diabetes mellitus: 2013 update. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61(11):2020-2026. Michelle L. Frank is a family nurse practitioner student at University of Mary, Bismarck, N.D. Annie M. Gerhardt is adjunct faculty at the University of Mary, Bismarck, N.D. and a family nurse practitioner at Altru Clinic Lake Region, Devils Lake, N.D. The authors and planners have disclosed no potential conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise. DOI-10.1097/01.NPR.0000469253.13367.2c
For more than 169 additional continuing education articles related to advanced practice nursing topics, go to NursingCenter.com/CE. Earn CE credit online: Go to http://www.nursingcenter.com/CE/NP and receive a certificate within minutes.
INSTRUCTIONS
Treating dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus TEST INSTRUCTIONS • To take the test online, go to our secure website at http://www.nursingcenter.com/ce/NP. • On the print form, record your answers in the test answer section of the CE enrollment form on page 23. Each question has only one correct answer. You may make copies of these forms. • Complete the registration information and course evaluation. Mail the completed form and registration fee of $21.95 to: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, CE Group, 74 Brick Blvd., Bldg. 4, Suite 206, Brick, NJ 08723. We will mail your certificate in 4 to 6 weeks. For faster service, include a fax number and we will fax your certificate within 2 business days of receiving your enrollment form. • You will receive your CE certificate of earned contact hours and an answer key to review your results. There is no minimum passing grade. • Registration deadline is August 31, 2017.
DISCOUNTS and CUSTOMER SERVICE • Send two or more tests in any nursing journal published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins together and deduct $0.95 from the price of each test. • We also offer CE accounts for hospitals and other healthcare facilities on nursingcenter.com. Call 1-800-787-8985 for details. PROVIDER ACCREDITATION Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, publisher of The Nurse Practitioner journal, will award 2.0 contact hours for this continuing nursing education activity. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins is accredited as a provider of continuing nursing education by the American Nurses Credentialing Center’s Commission on Accreditation. This activity is also provider approved by the California Board of Registered Nursing, Provider Number CEP 11749 for 2.0 contact hours. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins is also an approved provider of continuing nursing education by the District of Columbia and Florida #50-1223. Your certificate is valid in all states. This activity has been assigned 1.0 pharmacology credit.
22 The Nurse Practitioner • Vol. 40, No. 8
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