Science of the Total Environment 485–486 (2014) 804–809
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Science of the Total Environment journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv
Towards sustainable management of groundwater: Policy developments in The Netherlands Johannes P.A. Lijzen a,⁎, Piet Otte a,1, Mari van Dreumel b,2 a b
National Institute of Public Health and Environment RIVM, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment, PO Box 20901, 2500 EX Den Haag, The Netherlands
H I G H L I G H T S • • • • •
The article was written to communicate developments on the groundwater management. The approach implies sustainable groundwater use by an ecosystem services approach. The national groundwater policy can set ambitions and generic goals and standards. This approach can help local authorities with a tailored area-oriented approach. Development of policy tools for subsoil planning and ecosystem services is needed.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 2 July 2013 Received in revised form 18 February 2014 Accepted 18 February 2014 Available online 14 March 2014 Keywords: Groundwater management Pollution prevention Ecosystem services Assessment framework
a b s t r a c t This article presents and discusses the main elements for a fundamental policy change for groundwater management in The Netherlands. The study analyzes the status and current use of groundwater, the increasing pressure in The Netherlands and many other countries on the natural soil–water system, the effects on quality and quantity of groundwater and the use of the subsoil. An overview is given of the current national and European regulations regarding groundwater and related policies for e.g. drinking water, soil policies and other interventions in the subsurface. The Dutch National Government is developing a new framework for groundwater management that aims a sustainable use of groundwater not only in environmental, but also in economic and social perspective. This framework for groundwater will benefit the Structure vision on the subsoil. The question is how ‘sustainable use’ can be a guiding principle in groundwater management, strengthening the relation between groundwater quantity and quality. It is proposed to define a generic National approach for the assessment of new and existing activities with potential effects on groundwater and for groundwater quality assessment. Additionally it is proposed to give local authorities the opportunity to set area-specific objectives on a regional or local scale to adjust for specific societal needs and areaspecific characteristics. For setting these objectives it is recommended to use the concept of ecosystem services as a leading principle for defining the groundwater quality and quantity (e.g. for use as source for drinking water, aquifer thermal storage and sustaining terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems). © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction In The Netherlands and many other countries, the pressure on the soil–water system and existing groundwater resources increases. This pressure is caused by socio-economic developments, impacts of climate change, extraction of drinking water, existing groundwater contamination and an increased use of the subsoil, such as for aquifer
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 30 2749111. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.P.A. Lijzen), [email protected] (P. Otte), [email protected] (M. van Dreumel). 1 Tel.: +31 30 2749111. 2 Tel.: +31 70 4560000.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.081 0048-9697/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
thermal energy storage (ATES), geothermal energy, or mining activities. The current policy for the management of groundwater quality and remediation of groundwater pollution does not seem to meet current and future needs. New policy goals for groundwater have to be formulated which take into account the costs and benefits of all these pressures on groundwater resources. The question is how groundwater policy can be formulated to meet the future needs including European and National regulations and ambitions. The European Water Framework Directive and the Groundwater Directive (EC, 2006) are in its implementation phase and national policies of EU member states now should match with European legislation. In general the Dutch government aims at an integral environmental assessment and simplification of existing legislation, resulting in a
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new integrated legislation for the living environment. In addition the government is developing the ‘Structure vision on the subsoil’ defining an integrated spatial planning framework for soil and substrate. In this vision, a layer approach is adapted making a distinction between the top soil, the groundwater layer, and, the deep subsoil (‘mining layer’). The vision includes the sustainable management of groundwater linked up with soil and surface water quality. In The Netherlands, groundwater policy is less specific than regulation and legislation for soil and surface water quality. In addition, the concept of quality over the years gradually broadened towards other aspects than chemical quality only. Groundwater quantity, biodiversity and physical aspects (temperature) of groundwater need to be considered equally important. Also important is the socalled Delta Program that comprises plans and provisions to guarantee flood safety and a sufficient supply of freshwater including groundwater, as well as climate resilient urban areas, including the relevant planning and cost-benefit analysis (Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment and the Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2013). The sustainable use of groundwater and its ecosystem services form the guiding principle for the groundwater management. Experiences with management of groundwater in areas with many contaminated groundwater sites contribute to discussions about the groundwater management in general. The authority (powers) of the groundwater is (are) assigned to various administrative bodies. Land owners in The Netherlands have a responsibility for the quantity and quality of the groundwater, but are not the owner of the groundwater below their lands. An instrument to stimulate the responsibility, is to give value to the ecosystem services of the groundwater, e.g. its value for abstraction of drinking water and irrigation water, aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES), and the natural water storage and supply of the soil. Another question that should be answered is if and how the elements of the Groundwater directive influence national and local policy. This in particular includes the application of the principle of ‘prevent and limit’ (EC, 2007). Currently, the National Government is working on an improved framework for groundwater assessment that, on one hand facilitates the use of groundwater and on the other hand protects the groundwater from non-sustainable use. Both the groundwater quantity and groundwater quality will be included in the development of a new policy; the main focus in this paper is on groundwater quality. The sustainable use of groundwater and its ecosystem services (ESS) forms the guiding principle for the groundwater management. This paper describes the elements and first step of this policy change. First, different elements of the current and future groundwater policy in The Netherlands will be described. Second, social-economic challenges around groundwater are described. Third, the first setup is given of a generic and area-specific National framework for the groundwater assessment of new and existing activities that might influence groundwater. This is followed by an overview of the activities and ecosystem services that are currently identified and will play an important role in combining the use and protection of groundwater. 2. Overview of policy frameworks for groundwater in The Netherlands In The Netherlands different policy frameworks have been developed. These frameworks focus on the prevention of groundwater pollution, on limiting the influence on the groundwater or on groundwater management. The following policy frameworks considering groundwater can be distinguished: -
groundwater protection; groundwater management and groundwater remediation; drinking water policy; implementation of European policy.
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2.1. Groundwater protection In the past 20 years, legislation was developed ensuring the quality of the soil–water system. Many regulations aim to protect the groundwater from inputs by different sources or activities. As such, the objectives of European Groundwater Directive for preventing and limiting inputs (EC, 2007) are already covered through the Dutch policy for groundwater. The following regulations are in force concerning the protection and use of the groundwater (not limitative): • Infiltration Decree (Staatsblad, 1993; Dutch Water Act): maximal concentrations for infiltration • Decree Discharge Outside Facilities (Staatsblad, 2011); • Soil Quality Decree (Staatsblad, 2007a; no 469): rules on recycling of building materials, on large-scale soil applications, and on soil; • Ministerial Circular on soil remediation 2013 (2013), under the Soil Protection Act (Staatsblad, 1986); • Decree on the application of fertilizers, under Dutch Fertiliser Act (Staatsblad, 1997); • Dutch Pesticides and Biocides Act (Staatsblad, 2007b). These regulations have different quality objectives and boundary conditions in preventing and limiting the inputs into groundwater. Some focus on specific measures to be taken, others on limiting the calculated maximal concentration in the top-layer of the groundwater, or the maximal influence of the groundwater it is in contact with (Verschoor and Swartjes, 2008). 2.2. Groundwater management and groundwater remediation The management of the groundwater quality and remediation of contaminated sites are defined in the Ministerial Circular on soil remediation and based on principles as set out in the Soil Protection Act. The current policy on contaminated groundwater aims to identify, restore and manage sites with seriously contaminated groundwater (Swartjes et al., 2012). For this objective, regulations, standards and instruments have been developed, including Target Values and Intervention Values (IVs) for frequently occurring substances in groundwater. Dutch Target Values for organic compounds are based on the so called negligible risk level. For inorganic compounds it is based on the negligible risk level added to the 90-percentile of background concentrations (for groundwater N10 m). For inorganic compounds in shallow groundwater other values apply. Exceedance of these values triggers further research looking for non-natural, anthropogenic sources. These values also form the default remediation objective in case of a contaminated site. The Dutch Intervention Value for groundwater is based on the serious risk level for humans and the ecosystem, including direct consumption of groundwater as drinking water. The value is a trigger for further investigation and a decision about the urgency for remediation of historical groundwater contamination. Many other European countries also have Intervention values as a trigger for remediation and threshold values in relation to the Groundwater Directive (Carlon, 2007). However, the exact levels and methodology for deriving these values differ between the countries. In the Circular (Ministry of IenM, 2013) an area-specific approach for large scale groundwater contamination is described next to the common ‘single source-plume’ approach. An area specific approach is recommended when the complexity of sources and plumes as well as the scale of contaminated groundwater impedes a case by case remediation. An area-specific approach preferably results in an integrated strategy for the groundwater management, including all relevant aspects. The new opportunity of setting areaspecific objectives could be extended to the groundwater management in general.
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2.3. The Dutch Decree on drinking water Ministry of IenM (2011) regulates the drinking water quality for public use and is based on the European Drinking water Directive (EC, 1998). For groundwater that will be used for drinking water no standards are available. Nevertheless the Decree is often used because the Groundwater Directive states that it should be able to use groundwater with only simple cleaning techniques. The guideline values for drinking water quality of the WHO (2011) do also not apply to groundwater, but indicate a potential use. The European Groundwater Directive (EC, 2006) prescribes the assessment of the chemical status and trend for groundwater. In The Netherlands, Groundwater Directive threshold values have been derived for nickel, cadmium, lead, arsenic, phosphate and chloride. In The Netherlands these threshold values are set by combining three elements: natural background levels, environmental effects and for human health drinking water standards (Verweij et al., 2008). Exceedance of the threshold values in the defined groundwater bodies is a trigger for further research on taking measures and estimating the impacts on man, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Impacts on these receptors should lead to measures described in the Riverbasin management plan to improve the groundwater quality. Currently protocols are developed to do these assessments. 3. Socio-economic issues for the use and quality of groundwater Socio-economic developments, climate change and the increasing scarcity of natural resources, along with the present economic crisis have an irreversible impact on the way we will manage and use the subsoil and groundwater. Otte et al. (2012) argue that the soil–water system, and in particularly the subsoil, offer a number of opportunities to contribute to solutions for these global and regional societal challenges by means of an effective and sustainable use of soil services. The question is if the current legislation is adequate to deal with the present and future groundwater issues and associated societal challenges. For an optimal application of the resources and services of subsoil, it is necessary to have insight in costs (risks) and benefits as well as fair distribution thereof. Moreover, it will be required to increase awareness, improve the knowledge level and to adjust existing regulations. In this way a transition towards sustainable use of ecosystem services of the soil–water system can be made. The use of, and pressure on the subsoil in urban environment are diverse. The shallow subsoil is used for water supply to plants and trees (and irrigation), a carrier for cables and pipelines, tunnels, car parks, shopping centers and a space for aquifer thermal energy storage (open and closed), remediation of soil and groundwater contamination, industrial water abstraction, and protection of archeological and geological values. Many of these uses relate to urban land use. In rural and nature areas, protection zones for drinking water often can be found as well as agricultural water abstraction. The deeper layers of the subsoil can be exploited to win fossil fuels, thermal energy or to store excess CO2 and nuclear waste. The intensified use of soil and subsoil requires spatial reservations (e.g. for drinking water) and a smart consideration of uses, functions and abstractions. Points of consideration for an optimal spatial planning are cost-benefit, potential risks as well as the possibility to combine or exclude different functions (de Nijs and Mesman, 2012). Important socio-economic issues that can be mentioned are: • The use of groundwater for open and closed aquifer thermal energy storages; • Emissions from agriculture and the effects on soil/groundwater; • The use and release of non-regulated new chemicals; • Industrial activities; • Desiccation of areas because of groundwater abstraction;
• Rainwater discharge and drainage capacity, groundwater recharge, water buffering capacity; • Salinisation of groundwater. An increasing use of the subsoil will have an impact, among others, on groundwater resources and groundwater quality. A revised policy for the subsoil, including groundwater, should therefore consider all sectoral regulations. 4. Towards a new approach for groundwater quality management The new and integral policy on groundwater emphasizes the importance of groundwater as a valuable resource and the need for sustainable use. Policy objectives encompass the care for quality, use and functions of groundwater as well as the sustainable management of groundwater stocks. In addition, the groundwater policy should be embedded in spatial planning issues and the care for a healthy and sustainable living environment. This requires the development of an integral approach. In case the groundwater quality and quantity do not meet the criteria for sustainable use, measures should be taken. Given the above societal challenges, including the expected increasing pressure on the soil–water system, the Dutch government evaluates the current legislation for groundwater and associated standards. Currently it is aimed to develop a generic framework for the assessment of new and existing activities in groundwater and subsoil. Fig. 1 shows the main elements of the preliminary framework. This should facilitate most future possibilities for groundwater use and prevent negative impacts of activities on the surroundings. The national framework will be made effective with national standards or assessment tools. Moreover, the idea is to give the possibility to tailor the national approach in an area-specific approach to the local or regional needs and possibilities. 4.1. Generic approach groundwater assessment A generic approach could lead to revised quality standards (risk levels) for the groundwater management. The current Target Value might still fit into this framework as a generic acceptable background level. Next to management of the current groundwater quality, principles for regulating inputs from different activities in the groundwater should be set. This generic approach helps to interpret and implement the ‘prevent and limit’ principle of the Groundwater Directive as described in the European Guidance (EC, 2007) in a consistent way. Fig. 2 shows that a leading quality principle can be the generic ambition to facilitate some generic ecosystem services: good ecological quality for supporting the regulating function and biodiversity, and a quality that meets drinking water standards. It should be accepted that some substances can be present in high concentrations due to natural conditions. For the phreatic groundwater,
Fig. 1. Elements of Assessment Framework for the groundwater management and pollution prevention, consisting of a generic and area-specific approach (horizontal), assessment of groundwater (1st column); assessment of inputs (2nd column) and methods.
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Fig. 2. Proposal for generic quality standards for the groundwater management (1st column) and objectives for groundwater protection (negligible inputs) (2nd column) related to the location (3rd column).
influence of diffuse sources in the past is accepted. The Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment has the ambition to include chemical, biological and physical aspects in the groundwater quality assessment and, for the quantity of the groundwater, to balance the groundwater supply and discharge. A lack of water might lead to the effects on the quality of the groundwater when contaminated surface water is used. For the management of contaminated groundwater a study was done to assess the possibilities of developing standards depending on the desired use of groundwater (Otte et al., 2013).
groundwater (TCB, 2012b). The Soil protection Technical Committee supports the concept of a generic national framework with opportunities to differentiate for regional scale. They advise to involve the ecosystem services concept, to use the existing knowledge about the soil and water system, to include the understanding of the geohydrological and geochemical aspects of the groundwater to define the relevant areas and to relate the quality and quantity aspects of soil and groundwater to each other.
4.3. Ecosystem services of the groundwater 4.2. Area-specific assessment framework For the area-specific assessment it is proposed to give the opportunity to tailor the assessment of the groundwater quality and quantity on a regional or local scale (see Fig. 3). In such an assessment it would be possible to set area-specific objectives, in order to adjust the assessment for (natural) variation in the regional or local groundwater quality or quantity. When on one hand the different uses of the groundwater and on the other hand the different groundwater qualities are known, these can be optimized and contribute to a sustainable use of groundwater and subsoil. When the ecosystem services of the groundwater are defined, the use of groundwater and protecting the groundwater quality can be easier combined. Therefore it is recommended to describe the most common ecosystem services, how they can be measured and–or can be given socioeconomic value, and what their (boundary) conditions are. The Dutch Soil Protection Technical Committee advised on the ambitions to follow and elements to use in a framework for assessing the influence of different stressors on the quality and quantity of
In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment the concept of ecosystem services was launched on an international scale (see Fig. 4) (MEA, 2005; PBL, 2010; Breure et al., 2012). The ecosystem services (ESS) concept makes it possible to link the use of the ecosystem for human benefit with the protection of it. The Dutch Soil Protection Technical Committee described ESS for sustainable soil management with several leading principles (TCB, 2003, 2012a). The tailoring of the ecosystem services approach to the groundwater had less attention and an inventory was lacking. According to the TCB using the concept of ecosystem services of groundwater could also be a leading element for defining the groundwater quality and quantity (TCB, 2012b). In the 2013 AquaConsoil session ‘E1.3 — Tools for soil–water system policy and regulation’ the concept of ecosystem services for the groundwater was discussed. The definition of ecosystem services can play an important role in a framework for assessment of groundwater use and protection. Table 1 shows eleven ecosystem services of the groundwater and subsoil based on a first exploration of Broers and Lijzen (2014), using the CICES terminology (CICES, 2013). Many activities profit from
Fig. 3. The concept of ecosystem services can be used to define area-specific objectives for the groundwater management and sustainable use of groundwater.
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Fig. 4. Overview of ecosystem services according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005) (source PBL, 2010; Otte et al., 2012).
groundwater ecosystem services (use) and have impact on ecosystem services. This illustrates the dependency of, and the interaction between activities. At least for the following activities the ecosystem services should be explored. Activities using provisioning services are: • • • • • •
Public and private drinking water abstraction; Irrigation water for agricultural use; Groundwater for food processing industry; Industrial process and cooling water (not for consumption); Groundwater for aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES); Strategic groundwater reserves (as potential future use). Activities using mainly regulation services and storage services are:
• Water resources storage; • Artificial Infiltration for drinking water production; • Management of groundwater seepage to terrestrial and aquatic nature; • Water level management for crop production and for prevention of soil subsidence; • Degradation of nutrients and contaminants from agriculture;
• • • • •
Preservation of organic matter in the subsoil; Degradation of (historical) soil and groundwater contamination; Groundwater level for stability of constructions; Water retention and water drainage; Brine discharge. Activities using mainly cultural services are:
• Conservation of cultural or archeological values in the subsoil; • Reservation because of the intrinsic value of clean groundwater; • Conservation of biodiversity of the subsoil or groundwater. The proposed framework should provide guidance with the most relevant ecosystem services for the groundwater in relation with quality and quantity aspects. These services can be used in an assessment framework for the groundwater management on a regional or local scale. 5. Outlook A generic groundwater assessment framework will be developed according to the lines and concepts given in this article. This framework
Table 1 Proposed ecosystem services (ESS) of the groundwater and subsoil and examples of activities that use these ESS (based on Broers and Lijzen (2014)). Type of ecosystem service
Ecosystem service of the groundwater and subsoil
Example of activity using ESS
Provisioning services
1. Availability of sufficient water with specific quality; 2. Energetic content 3. Attenuation capacity of the subsoil 4. Soil bearing capacity 5. Storage capacity 6. Bio-geochemical cycles (material and water cycles) 7. Temperature regulation 8. Aquiferous capacity and surface water quality 9. Upward seepage to groundwater dependent nature 10.Cultural–historical values 11. Biodiversity and habitat
Drinking water abstraction Groundwater for aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) Degradation of (historical) soil and groundwater contamination Groundwater level for stability of constructions Water resources storage Preservation of organic matter in the subsoil Groundwater for aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) Availability of surface water in summer Nature conservation Conservation of cultural or archeological values in the subsoil Conservation of biodiversity of the subsoil or groundwater.
Regulating services
Cultural services
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should include generic goals for the groundwater quality and groundwater quantity. For the area-specific assessment differentiation should be made possible on the basis of the concepts, instruments and within the boundaries described in the article. How the sustainability of activities and choices between activities can be made by (local) authorities is subject of further development. We conclude that this framework for the groundwater management helps to assess the groundwater and the use of groundwater ecosystem services. Currently it is clear that it will contribute to the policy framework of the ‘Structure vision on the subsoil’, in particular for the groundwater layer. This framework will also be a further implementation of the provisions of the Groundwater directive, in particular with those on the ‘prevent and limit’ principle. The elements might also be implemented in other policy frameworks. For example the planned Dutch Act on the ‘living environment’, in which existing sectoral laws for e.g. environmental protection, land use, water, nature protection etc. will be integrated in the future. References Breure AM, de Deyn GB, Dominati E, Eglin E, Hedlund K, Van Orshoven J, et al. Ecosystem services: a useful concept for soil policy making! Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2012; 2012:578–85. Broers HP, Lijzen JPA. Afwegingen bij het gebruik van grondwater en de ondergrond. Een verkenning op basis van ecosysteemdiensten (Assessments for the use of groundwater and the subsoil; a exploration based on ecosystemservices)Deltares report 1207762–016; RIVM report 607710010; 2014. Carlon C, editor. Derivation methods of soil screening levels in Europe. A review and evaluation of national procedures towards harmonizationIspra: EC, JRC; 2007. [EUR 22805-EN]. CICES. Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES): consultation on Version 4, August–December 2012. In: Haines-Young R, Potschin M, editors. EEA Framework Contract No EEA/IEA/09/003; 2013. [Download at www.cices.eu or www.nottingham.ac.uk/cem]. de Nijs ACM, Mesman M. Bodem, ecosysteemdiensten en ruimtelijke keuzen, Een eerste inventarisatie (Soil, ecosystem services and spatial choices, A first inventory; in Dutch). RIVM report 607050015/2012. the Netherlands: RIVM Bilthoven; 2012. EC. Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption; 1998. EC. Directive 2006/118/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 12 December 2006, on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration; 2006.
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EC. Common implementation strategy for the water framework directive (2000/60/ec), Guidance document no. 17. Guidance on preventing or limiting direct and indirect inputs in the context of the groundwater directive 2006/118/ec; 2007. MEA. Millennium ecosystem assessment. http://www.maweb.org/en/synthesis.aspx, 2005. Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment. Ministerial Circular on soil contamination. Staatscourant. Juli 1st 2013, nr. 16675; 2013. Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment and the Ministry of Economic Affairs, The Ministry of Economic Affairs. Delta program 2014. Working on the Delta. http:// www.deltacommissaris.nl/english/topics/, 2013. Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment. Decree on drinking water. Staatsblad 2011, no 293; 2011. Otte PF, Maring L, De Cleen M, Boekhold S. Transition in soil policy and associated knowledge development. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2012;4(5):565–72. [November, Terrestrial systems. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2012.09.006]. Otte PF, et al. Functiespecifieke risicogrenswaarden voor grondwaterkwaliteit: verkenning en argumenten voor discussie. RIVM report 607050012/2013. The Netherlands (in Dutch): Bilthoven; 2013. PBL. Wat natuur de mens biedt. Ecosysteemdiensten in Nederland. PBL-publication number 500414002, 2010 (in Dutch). PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency; 2010. Staatsblad. Soil Protection Act. Staatsblad 1986; 1986. p. 374 [http://wetten.overheid.nl/ BWBR0003994/geldigheidsdatum_13-02-2014/informatie]. Staatsblad. Decree No. 233 of 1993 containing rules relative to infiltration of surface water into the soil. No. 233, 29 April 1993; 1993. p. 1–14 [20 April 1993]. Staatsblad. Decree on the use of fertilisers. Staatsblad 1997, no 601; 1997. Staatsblad. Soil Quality Decree. Staatsblad 2007, no 469; 2007a. Staatsblad. Dutch Pesticides and Biocides Act. Staatsblad 2007, no 125; 2007b. Staatsblad. Decree discharge outside facilities. Staatsblad 2011; 2011 [March 2011]. Swartjes FA, Rutgers M, Lijzen JPA, Janssen PJ, Otte PF, Wintersen A, et al. State of the art of contaminated site management in The Netherlands: policy framework and risk assessment tools. Sci Total Environ 2012;427–428:1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2012.02.078. [Jun 15]. TCB. Beter besluiten met ecosyteemdiensten. Better decision making with ecosystem services; in Dutch. the Netherlands: The Hague; 2012a. p. A073. TCB. Advies Grondwater (S04, 2012). the Netherlands: The Hague; 2012b. TCB (Soil Protection Technical Committee). Advies A33 Duurzamer bodemgebruik op ecologische grondslag; 2003. Verschoor AJ, Swartjes FA. Emissions to groundwater. Overview of policy starting points and procedures for assessment. RIVM report 711701070; in Dutch: Emissies naar grondwater. Overzicht van beleidsuitgangspunten en procedures voor beoordeling; 2008. Verweij W, Reijnders HFR, Prins HF, Boumans LJM, Janssen MPM, Moermond CTA, de Nijs ACM, Pieters BJ, Verbruggen EMJ, Zijp MC. Advice for threshold values. RIVM report 607300005/2008. The Netherlands (in Dutch): Bilthoven; 2008. WHO. Guidelines for drinking-water quality4th ed. 978 92 4 154815 1; 2011.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Science of the Total Environment journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv
Towards sustainable management of groundwater: Policy developments in The Netherlands Johannes P.A. Lijzen a,⁎, Piet Otte a,1, Mari van Dreumel b,2 a b
National Institute of Public Health and Environment RIVM, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment, PO Box 20901, 2500 EX Den Haag, The Netherlands
H I G H L I G H T S • • • • •
The article was written to communicate developments on the groundwater management. The approach implies sustainable groundwater use by an ecosystem services approach. The national groundwater policy can set ambitions and generic goals and standards. This approach can help local authorities with a tailored area-oriented approach. Development of policy tools for subsoil planning and ecosystem services is needed.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 2 July 2013 Received in revised form 18 February 2014 Accepted 18 February 2014 Available online 14 March 2014 Keywords: Groundwater management Pollution prevention Ecosystem services Assessment framework
a b s t r a c t This article presents and discusses the main elements for a fundamental policy change for groundwater management in The Netherlands. The study analyzes the status and current use of groundwater, the increasing pressure in The Netherlands and many other countries on the natural soil–water system, the effects on quality and quantity of groundwater and the use of the subsoil. An overview is given of the current national and European regulations regarding groundwater and related policies for e.g. drinking water, soil policies and other interventions in the subsurface. The Dutch National Government is developing a new framework for groundwater management that aims a sustainable use of groundwater not only in environmental, but also in economic and social perspective. This framework for groundwater will benefit the Structure vision on the subsoil. The question is how ‘sustainable use’ can be a guiding principle in groundwater management, strengthening the relation between groundwater quantity and quality. It is proposed to define a generic National approach for the assessment of new and existing activities with potential effects on groundwater and for groundwater quality assessment. Additionally it is proposed to give local authorities the opportunity to set area-specific objectives on a regional or local scale to adjust for specific societal needs and areaspecific characteristics. For setting these objectives it is recommended to use the concept of ecosystem services as a leading principle for defining the groundwater quality and quantity (e.g. for use as source for drinking water, aquifer thermal storage and sustaining terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems). © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction In The Netherlands and many other countries, the pressure on the soil–water system and existing groundwater resources increases. This pressure is caused by socio-economic developments, impacts of climate change, extraction of drinking water, existing groundwater contamination and an increased use of the subsoil, such as for aquifer
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 30 2749111. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.P.A. Lijzen), [email protected] (P. Otte), [email protected] (M. van Dreumel). 1 Tel.: +31 30 2749111. 2 Tel.: +31 70 4560000.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.081 0048-9697/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
thermal energy storage (ATES), geothermal energy, or mining activities. The current policy for the management of groundwater quality and remediation of groundwater pollution does not seem to meet current and future needs. New policy goals for groundwater have to be formulated which take into account the costs and benefits of all these pressures on groundwater resources. The question is how groundwater policy can be formulated to meet the future needs including European and National regulations and ambitions. The European Water Framework Directive and the Groundwater Directive (EC, 2006) are in its implementation phase and national policies of EU member states now should match with European legislation. In general the Dutch government aims at an integral environmental assessment and simplification of existing legislation, resulting in a
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new integrated legislation for the living environment. In addition the government is developing the ‘Structure vision on the subsoil’ defining an integrated spatial planning framework for soil and substrate. In this vision, a layer approach is adapted making a distinction between the top soil, the groundwater layer, and, the deep subsoil (‘mining layer’). The vision includes the sustainable management of groundwater linked up with soil and surface water quality. In The Netherlands, groundwater policy is less specific than regulation and legislation for soil and surface water quality. In addition, the concept of quality over the years gradually broadened towards other aspects than chemical quality only. Groundwater quantity, biodiversity and physical aspects (temperature) of groundwater need to be considered equally important. Also important is the socalled Delta Program that comprises plans and provisions to guarantee flood safety and a sufficient supply of freshwater including groundwater, as well as climate resilient urban areas, including the relevant planning and cost-benefit analysis (Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment and the Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2013). The sustainable use of groundwater and its ecosystem services form the guiding principle for the groundwater management. Experiences with management of groundwater in areas with many contaminated groundwater sites contribute to discussions about the groundwater management in general. The authority (powers) of the groundwater is (are) assigned to various administrative bodies. Land owners in The Netherlands have a responsibility for the quantity and quality of the groundwater, but are not the owner of the groundwater below their lands. An instrument to stimulate the responsibility, is to give value to the ecosystem services of the groundwater, e.g. its value for abstraction of drinking water and irrigation water, aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES), and the natural water storage and supply of the soil. Another question that should be answered is if and how the elements of the Groundwater directive influence national and local policy. This in particular includes the application of the principle of ‘prevent and limit’ (EC, 2007). Currently, the National Government is working on an improved framework for groundwater assessment that, on one hand facilitates the use of groundwater and on the other hand protects the groundwater from non-sustainable use. Both the groundwater quantity and groundwater quality will be included in the development of a new policy; the main focus in this paper is on groundwater quality. The sustainable use of groundwater and its ecosystem services (ESS) forms the guiding principle for the groundwater management. This paper describes the elements and first step of this policy change. First, different elements of the current and future groundwater policy in The Netherlands will be described. Second, social-economic challenges around groundwater are described. Third, the first setup is given of a generic and area-specific National framework for the groundwater assessment of new and existing activities that might influence groundwater. This is followed by an overview of the activities and ecosystem services that are currently identified and will play an important role in combining the use and protection of groundwater. 2. Overview of policy frameworks for groundwater in The Netherlands In The Netherlands different policy frameworks have been developed. These frameworks focus on the prevention of groundwater pollution, on limiting the influence on the groundwater or on groundwater management. The following policy frameworks considering groundwater can be distinguished: -
groundwater protection; groundwater management and groundwater remediation; drinking water policy; implementation of European policy.
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2.1. Groundwater protection In the past 20 years, legislation was developed ensuring the quality of the soil–water system. Many regulations aim to protect the groundwater from inputs by different sources or activities. As such, the objectives of European Groundwater Directive for preventing and limiting inputs (EC, 2007) are already covered through the Dutch policy for groundwater. The following regulations are in force concerning the protection and use of the groundwater (not limitative): • Infiltration Decree (Staatsblad, 1993; Dutch Water Act): maximal concentrations for infiltration • Decree Discharge Outside Facilities (Staatsblad, 2011); • Soil Quality Decree (Staatsblad, 2007a; no 469): rules on recycling of building materials, on large-scale soil applications, and on soil; • Ministerial Circular on soil remediation 2013 (2013), under the Soil Protection Act (Staatsblad, 1986); • Decree on the application of fertilizers, under Dutch Fertiliser Act (Staatsblad, 1997); • Dutch Pesticides and Biocides Act (Staatsblad, 2007b). These regulations have different quality objectives and boundary conditions in preventing and limiting the inputs into groundwater. Some focus on specific measures to be taken, others on limiting the calculated maximal concentration in the top-layer of the groundwater, or the maximal influence of the groundwater it is in contact with (Verschoor and Swartjes, 2008). 2.2. Groundwater management and groundwater remediation The management of the groundwater quality and remediation of contaminated sites are defined in the Ministerial Circular on soil remediation and based on principles as set out in the Soil Protection Act. The current policy on contaminated groundwater aims to identify, restore and manage sites with seriously contaminated groundwater (Swartjes et al., 2012). For this objective, regulations, standards and instruments have been developed, including Target Values and Intervention Values (IVs) for frequently occurring substances in groundwater. Dutch Target Values for organic compounds are based on the so called negligible risk level. For inorganic compounds it is based on the negligible risk level added to the 90-percentile of background concentrations (for groundwater N10 m). For inorganic compounds in shallow groundwater other values apply. Exceedance of these values triggers further research looking for non-natural, anthropogenic sources. These values also form the default remediation objective in case of a contaminated site. The Dutch Intervention Value for groundwater is based on the serious risk level for humans and the ecosystem, including direct consumption of groundwater as drinking water. The value is a trigger for further investigation and a decision about the urgency for remediation of historical groundwater contamination. Many other European countries also have Intervention values as a trigger for remediation and threshold values in relation to the Groundwater Directive (Carlon, 2007). However, the exact levels and methodology for deriving these values differ between the countries. In the Circular (Ministry of IenM, 2013) an area-specific approach for large scale groundwater contamination is described next to the common ‘single source-plume’ approach. An area specific approach is recommended when the complexity of sources and plumes as well as the scale of contaminated groundwater impedes a case by case remediation. An area-specific approach preferably results in an integrated strategy for the groundwater management, including all relevant aspects. The new opportunity of setting areaspecific objectives could be extended to the groundwater management in general.
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2.3. The Dutch Decree on drinking water Ministry of IenM (2011) regulates the drinking water quality for public use and is based on the European Drinking water Directive (EC, 1998). For groundwater that will be used for drinking water no standards are available. Nevertheless the Decree is often used because the Groundwater Directive states that it should be able to use groundwater with only simple cleaning techniques. The guideline values for drinking water quality of the WHO (2011) do also not apply to groundwater, but indicate a potential use. The European Groundwater Directive (EC, 2006) prescribes the assessment of the chemical status and trend for groundwater. In The Netherlands, Groundwater Directive threshold values have been derived for nickel, cadmium, lead, arsenic, phosphate and chloride. In The Netherlands these threshold values are set by combining three elements: natural background levels, environmental effects and for human health drinking water standards (Verweij et al., 2008). Exceedance of the threshold values in the defined groundwater bodies is a trigger for further research on taking measures and estimating the impacts on man, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Impacts on these receptors should lead to measures described in the Riverbasin management plan to improve the groundwater quality. Currently protocols are developed to do these assessments. 3. Socio-economic issues for the use and quality of groundwater Socio-economic developments, climate change and the increasing scarcity of natural resources, along with the present economic crisis have an irreversible impact on the way we will manage and use the subsoil and groundwater. Otte et al. (2012) argue that the soil–water system, and in particularly the subsoil, offer a number of opportunities to contribute to solutions for these global and regional societal challenges by means of an effective and sustainable use of soil services. The question is if the current legislation is adequate to deal with the present and future groundwater issues and associated societal challenges. For an optimal application of the resources and services of subsoil, it is necessary to have insight in costs (risks) and benefits as well as fair distribution thereof. Moreover, it will be required to increase awareness, improve the knowledge level and to adjust existing regulations. In this way a transition towards sustainable use of ecosystem services of the soil–water system can be made. The use of, and pressure on the subsoil in urban environment are diverse. The shallow subsoil is used for water supply to plants and trees (and irrigation), a carrier for cables and pipelines, tunnels, car parks, shopping centers and a space for aquifer thermal energy storage (open and closed), remediation of soil and groundwater contamination, industrial water abstraction, and protection of archeological and geological values. Many of these uses relate to urban land use. In rural and nature areas, protection zones for drinking water often can be found as well as agricultural water abstraction. The deeper layers of the subsoil can be exploited to win fossil fuels, thermal energy or to store excess CO2 and nuclear waste. The intensified use of soil and subsoil requires spatial reservations (e.g. for drinking water) and a smart consideration of uses, functions and abstractions. Points of consideration for an optimal spatial planning are cost-benefit, potential risks as well as the possibility to combine or exclude different functions (de Nijs and Mesman, 2012). Important socio-economic issues that can be mentioned are: • The use of groundwater for open and closed aquifer thermal energy storages; • Emissions from agriculture and the effects on soil/groundwater; • The use and release of non-regulated new chemicals; • Industrial activities; • Desiccation of areas because of groundwater abstraction;
• Rainwater discharge and drainage capacity, groundwater recharge, water buffering capacity; • Salinisation of groundwater. An increasing use of the subsoil will have an impact, among others, on groundwater resources and groundwater quality. A revised policy for the subsoil, including groundwater, should therefore consider all sectoral regulations. 4. Towards a new approach for groundwater quality management The new and integral policy on groundwater emphasizes the importance of groundwater as a valuable resource and the need for sustainable use. Policy objectives encompass the care for quality, use and functions of groundwater as well as the sustainable management of groundwater stocks. In addition, the groundwater policy should be embedded in spatial planning issues and the care for a healthy and sustainable living environment. This requires the development of an integral approach. In case the groundwater quality and quantity do not meet the criteria for sustainable use, measures should be taken. Given the above societal challenges, including the expected increasing pressure on the soil–water system, the Dutch government evaluates the current legislation for groundwater and associated standards. Currently it is aimed to develop a generic framework for the assessment of new and existing activities in groundwater and subsoil. Fig. 1 shows the main elements of the preliminary framework. This should facilitate most future possibilities for groundwater use and prevent negative impacts of activities on the surroundings. The national framework will be made effective with national standards or assessment tools. Moreover, the idea is to give the possibility to tailor the national approach in an area-specific approach to the local or regional needs and possibilities. 4.1. Generic approach groundwater assessment A generic approach could lead to revised quality standards (risk levels) for the groundwater management. The current Target Value might still fit into this framework as a generic acceptable background level. Next to management of the current groundwater quality, principles for regulating inputs from different activities in the groundwater should be set. This generic approach helps to interpret and implement the ‘prevent and limit’ principle of the Groundwater Directive as described in the European Guidance (EC, 2007) in a consistent way. Fig. 2 shows that a leading quality principle can be the generic ambition to facilitate some generic ecosystem services: good ecological quality for supporting the regulating function and biodiversity, and a quality that meets drinking water standards. It should be accepted that some substances can be present in high concentrations due to natural conditions. For the phreatic groundwater,
Fig. 1. Elements of Assessment Framework for the groundwater management and pollution prevention, consisting of a generic and area-specific approach (horizontal), assessment of groundwater (1st column); assessment of inputs (2nd column) and methods.
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Fig. 2. Proposal for generic quality standards for the groundwater management (1st column) and objectives for groundwater protection (negligible inputs) (2nd column) related to the location (3rd column).
influence of diffuse sources in the past is accepted. The Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment has the ambition to include chemical, biological and physical aspects in the groundwater quality assessment and, for the quantity of the groundwater, to balance the groundwater supply and discharge. A lack of water might lead to the effects on the quality of the groundwater when contaminated surface water is used. For the management of contaminated groundwater a study was done to assess the possibilities of developing standards depending on the desired use of groundwater (Otte et al., 2013).
groundwater (TCB, 2012b). The Soil protection Technical Committee supports the concept of a generic national framework with opportunities to differentiate for regional scale. They advise to involve the ecosystem services concept, to use the existing knowledge about the soil and water system, to include the understanding of the geohydrological and geochemical aspects of the groundwater to define the relevant areas and to relate the quality and quantity aspects of soil and groundwater to each other.
4.3. Ecosystem services of the groundwater 4.2. Area-specific assessment framework For the area-specific assessment it is proposed to give the opportunity to tailor the assessment of the groundwater quality and quantity on a regional or local scale (see Fig. 3). In such an assessment it would be possible to set area-specific objectives, in order to adjust the assessment for (natural) variation in the regional or local groundwater quality or quantity. When on one hand the different uses of the groundwater and on the other hand the different groundwater qualities are known, these can be optimized and contribute to a sustainable use of groundwater and subsoil. When the ecosystem services of the groundwater are defined, the use of groundwater and protecting the groundwater quality can be easier combined. Therefore it is recommended to describe the most common ecosystem services, how they can be measured and–or can be given socioeconomic value, and what their (boundary) conditions are. The Dutch Soil Protection Technical Committee advised on the ambitions to follow and elements to use in a framework for assessing the influence of different stressors on the quality and quantity of
In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment the concept of ecosystem services was launched on an international scale (see Fig. 4) (MEA, 2005; PBL, 2010; Breure et al., 2012). The ecosystem services (ESS) concept makes it possible to link the use of the ecosystem for human benefit with the protection of it. The Dutch Soil Protection Technical Committee described ESS for sustainable soil management with several leading principles (TCB, 2003, 2012a). The tailoring of the ecosystem services approach to the groundwater had less attention and an inventory was lacking. According to the TCB using the concept of ecosystem services of groundwater could also be a leading element for defining the groundwater quality and quantity (TCB, 2012b). In the 2013 AquaConsoil session ‘E1.3 — Tools for soil–water system policy and regulation’ the concept of ecosystem services for the groundwater was discussed. The definition of ecosystem services can play an important role in a framework for assessment of groundwater use and protection. Table 1 shows eleven ecosystem services of the groundwater and subsoil based on a first exploration of Broers and Lijzen (2014), using the CICES terminology (CICES, 2013). Many activities profit from
Fig. 3. The concept of ecosystem services can be used to define area-specific objectives for the groundwater management and sustainable use of groundwater.
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Fig. 4. Overview of ecosystem services according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005) (source PBL, 2010; Otte et al., 2012).
groundwater ecosystem services (use) and have impact on ecosystem services. This illustrates the dependency of, and the interaction between activities. At least for the following activities the ecosystem services should be explored. Activities using provisioning services are: • • • • • •
Public and private drinking water abstraction; Irrigation water for agricultural use; Groundwater for food processing industry; Industrial process and cooling water (not for consumption); Groundwater for aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES); Strategic groundwater reserves (as potential future use). Activities using mainly regulation services and storage services are:
• Water resources storage; • Artificial Infiltration for drinking water production; • Management of groundwater seepage to terrestrial and aquatic nature; • Water level management for crop production and for prevention of soil subsidence; • Degradation of nutrients and contaminants from agriculture;
• • • • •
Preservation of organic matter in the subsoil; Degradation of (historical) soil and groundwater contamination; Groundwater level for stability of constructions; Water retention and water drainage; Brine discharge. Activities using mainly cultural services are:
• Conservation of cultural or archeological values in the subsoil; • Reservation because of the intrinsic value of clean groundwater; • Conservation of biodiversity of the subsoil or groundwater. The proposed framework should provide guidance with the most relevant ecosystem services for the groundwater in relation with quality and quantity aspects. These services can be used in an assessment framework for the groundwater management on a regional or local scale. 5. Outlook A generic groundwater assessment framework will be developed according to the lines and concepts given in this article. This framework
Table 1 Proposed ecosystem services (ESS) of the groundwater and subsoil and examples of activities that use these ESS (based on Broers and Lijzen (2014)). Type of ecosystem service
Ecosystem service of the groundwater and subsoil
Example of activity using ESS
Provisioning services
1. Availability of sufficient water with specific quality; 2. Energetic content 3. Attenuation capacity of the subsoil 4. Soil bearing capacity 5. Storage capacity 6. Bio-geochemical cycles (material and water cycles) 7. Temperature regulation 8. Aquiferous capacity and surface water quality 9. Upward seepage to groundwater dependent nature 10.Cultural–historical values 11. Biodiversity and habitat
Drinking water abstraction Groundwater for aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) Degradation of (historical) soil and groundwater contamination Groundwater level for stability of constructions Water resources storage Preservation of organic matter in the subsoil Groundwater for aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) Availability of surface water in summer Nature conservation Conservation of cultural or archeological values in the subsoil Conservation of biodiversity of the subsoil or groundwater.
Regulating services
Cultural services
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should include generic goals for the groundwater quality and groundwater quantity. For the area-specific assessment differentiation should be made possible on the basis of the concepts, instruments and within the boundaries described in the article. How the sustainability of activities and choices between activities can be made by (local) authorities is subject of further development. We conclude that this framework for the groundwater management helps to assess the groundwater and the use of groundwater ecosystem services. Currently it is clear that it will contribute to the policy framework of the ‘Structure vision on the subsoil’, in particular for the groundwater layer. This framework will also be a further implementation of the provisions of the Groundwater directive, in particular with those on the ‘prevent and limit’ principle. The elements might also be implemented in other policy frameworks. For example the planned Dutch Act on the ‘living environment’, in which existing sectoral laws for e.g. environmental protection, land use, water, nature protection etc. will be integrated in the future. References Breure AM, de Deyn GB, Dominati E, Eglin E, Hedlund K, Van Orshoven J, et al. Ecosystem services: a useful concept for soil policy making! Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2012; 2012:578–85. Broers HP, Lijzen JPA. Afwegingen bij het gebruik van grondwater en de ondergrond. Een verkenning op basis van ecosysteemdiensten (Assessments for the use of groundwater and the subsoil; a exploration based on ecosystemservices)Deltares report 1207762–016; RIVM report 607710010; 2014. Carlon C, editor. Derivation methods of soil screening levels in Europe. A review and evaluation of national procedures towards harmonizationIspra: EC, JRC; 2007. [EUR 22805-EN]. CICES. Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES): consultation on Version 4, August–December 2012. In: Haines-Young R, Potschin M, editors. EEA Framework Contract No EEA/IEA/09/003; 2013. [Download at www.cices.eu or www.nottingham.ac.uk/cem]. de Nijs ACM, Mesman M. Bodem, ecosysteemdiensten en ruimtelijke keuzen, Een eerste inventarisatie (Soil, ecosystem services and spatial choices, A first inventory; in Dutch). RIVM report 607050015/2012. the Netherlands: RIVM Bilthoven; 2012. EC. Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption; 1998. EC. Directive 2006/118/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 12 December 2006, on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration; 2006.
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