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Towards a sustainable livestock production in developing countries and the importance of animal health strategy therein a

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G.A. Kaasschieter , R. de Jong , J.B. Schiere & D. Zwart

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Department of Tropical Animal Production , Agricultural University , P.O. Box 338, Wageningen, 6700 AH, The Netherlands Published online: 01 Nov 2011.

To cite this article: G.A. Kaasschieter , R. de Jong , J.B. Schiere & D. Zwart (1992) Towards a sustainable livestock production in developing countries and the importance of animal health strategy therein, Veterinary Quarterly, 14:2, 66-75, DOI: 10.1080/01652176.1992.9694333 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01652176.1992.9694333

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R EVIEW PAPERS TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL HEALTH STRATEGY THEREIN GA. Kaasschieter, R. de Jong, J.B. Schiere, and D. Zwart1 Veterinary Quarterly 1992: 14; 66-75

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SUMMARY

Livestock and animal health development projects have not always led to substantial increases in animal productivity or in farmers' welfare. Some have even resulted in unsustainable systems, when they were not based on an understanding of (livestock) production systems. The multipurpose functions of livestock and complex relationships between the biological, technical and social components require a systems approach, whereby nutrition, animal health, breeding, biotechnology knowhow, inputs and technologies are used to optimise resource use. The challenge for developed and developing countries is to reverse the current degradation of the environment, and arrive at sustainable increases in crop and livestock production to secure

present and future food supplies. For rural development, governments should show long term commitment and political will to support the rural population in developmentprogrammes, because smallholders (including women and landless livestock keepers) represent a large labour force in developing countries. Different systems need different approaches. Pastoral systems must focus on effective management of grazing pressure of the rangelands. Communal rangelands management involves not

only the development and application of technologies (e.g. feedlots, vaccination campaigns), but also land tenure policies, institutional development, economic return and a reduction in the number of people depending upon livestock Smallholder mixed farms must aim at intensification of the total production system, in which external inputs are indispensable, but with the emphasis on optimum input-output relationships by reducing resource losses due to poor management. Resource-poor far-

rangelands lead to soil degradation, which endangers food production. Especially the livestock sector is often blamed (6). Strategies for sustainable agricultural and livestock development are needed to meet the increasing demand for food and employment, and to reduce the degradation of the environment. This article elaborates strategies for sustainable livestock production and health in developing countries, based on an article prepared for the FAO/Netherlands conference on agriculture and environment (13). There are many definitions of sustainable agriculture and rural development (4, 14), but we use the one formulated by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations: ' The management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in

such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development (in the agriculture, forestry and fisheries sectors) conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable ' (8). Sustainability plays a role at different levels: individual/family, farm/household, community/village, region, nation, etc. (4). The strategies in this article are a general guide to development agencies/governments for the preparation of location specific

strategies. The implementation ot the strategies requires cooperation among countries and adjustments over time. Attention will be paid to the following aspects of sustainable livestock production and health in developing countries:

ming systems must aim at the improved management of the various livestock species in backyards and very small farms, and

proper packages for cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits and poultry should be developed Specialised commercial livestock farming systems (poultry, pigs, dairy or meat) can only be sustainable with adequate marketing, supply of quality feed, veterinary services, labour, management and control of pollution. Animal health programmes play a keyrole in the proposed system approach. INTRODUCTION

The sustainability of many crop and livestock production systems in many countries is threatened by population growth

and changes in consumption patterns. Increased cropping, changes in cropping pattern and intensity, and overgrazing of '

Department of Tropical Animal Production, Agricultural University, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands.

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LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES

TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS STRATEGIES AND POLICIES

systems, functions and constraints

demand and supply, feed and genetic resources, animal health, environment and biotechnology feed resource development, preservation of genetic resources production systems and policy considerations

CONCLUSIONS

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN DEVELOPING-COUNTRIES

Description of livestock production systems Livestock production systems in developing countries are determined by factors such as ecological zones, livestock species, desired products, functions, management, markets and government policy (32, 39). The classification of livestock production

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systems can be done based on the relative importance of livestock in the system (animal based, mixed crop-animal, crop

based), intensity of resource requirement (intensive versus extensive), scale of operation (large versus small), utilisation of outputs (subsistence versus commercial), level of development

(traditional versus modern) and source of feed (uncultivated lands versus cultivated lands). Broadly, the systems can also be

classified into migratory and sedentary systems. For further details the reader is referred to (3, 15, 32, 39). Functions of livestock in society Livestock plays an essential role in the agrarian economy of developing countries. More than half of the rural population depends at least in part on livestock for their livelihood, and 12%

of the world's population is entirely dependent on livestock production. The largest share of the world's livestock population is found in the developing countries: 61% cattle, 43% sheep, 79%

goats and 57% pigs (11). Latin America and the Far East account for 35% and 42%, respectively, of the bovine population

in the developing countries; the greatest population of poultry (33%) is also found in these regions. Most sheep and goats in the

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developing countries are found in Africa (10, 11).

On average, one quarter of the gross value of agricultural production is attributed to livestock production (Table 1). Livestock production as a percentage of gross value of agricultural output (*). Table 1.

Region

The role of livestock is often multi-purpose: a source of subsistence (milk, meat, wool, eggs, hides), draught power, manure, additional income (from the selling of animal products), investment, security and social status. In pastoral and small-scale intensive systems, livestock utilises marginal lands and/or crop residues that cannot be used for human nutrition. Animals do not require fossil fuels or spare parts to provide transport or draught power. It is estimated that 20% of the world's population depends on animals for transport. In Asia and Africa, animals provide 28% and 10%, respectively, of the

power for agricultural production (9). Furthermore, draught animals are used for road transport, processing crops and irrigation. The labour requirement for livestock production is more regular than in arable farming. Livestock can therefore improve labour productivity, while the labour productivity of crop production can be improved further by the use of animal draught power. Manure is used as fertiliser, as fuel (dried or biogas), or as feed in fishponds. The latter can be integrated with duck or pig production (Asia). Livestock development is further linked to rural agro-industrial development through the demand for feed supply, product processing and marketing services.

Major constraints in livestock development Livestock development programmes up to now were hardly based on the understanding of the (livestock) production systems, multipurpose production and its complex relationships between the biological, technical and social components of these

1979/81

1984/86

2000

Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America Near East + North Africa Asia (excl. China)

24.9 39.8

24.5 37.9 29.2

26.0 40.4 22.5

been characterised by a lop-down approach', single commodity oriented, and a technology driven orientation with little or no participation of farmers, and formation of strong farmer-based

17.9

19.7

institutions. There has been an over-emphasis on large farms and

Total

26.1

25.9

28.2

28.1 16.6

* incl. non-food agricultural production Source: (9)

When considering the non-monetised contribution of livestock, e.g. the provision of draught power and manure, this percentage can amount to 46% (17). The sale of livestock products can account for as much as 80% of

the regular cash income of smallholders since basic food production is often for subsistence only. This income is reinvested in crop production (land, seed, fertilisers) or spent on

systems (17). International development programmes have

mono-disciplinary research rather than towards smallholder farms and interdisciplinary research. Therefore, livestock development projects have not always led to substantial or sustainable long-term increases in productivity or farmers' welfare. Milk and meat yield per cow tend to remain low, although total production has increased, mainly due to

increased animal numbers (9, 11) as shown in Table 2. The

increase in the number of animals has not always been accompanied by an improved availability of feed resources, resulting in overgrazing and erosion, or reduced health and performance. Feed quality and quantity, combined with low producers prices often force farmers to accept low levels of production, compensated by large numbers of animals.

food, clothing, school fees, medical expenses or used for survival in times of crop failure. Livestock production in developing countries is largely found on small mixed farms, with varying interactions between crops and

Breeding programmes fokthe last 20 years, such as importation of exotic dairy breeds, milk recording, artificial insemination

livestock and, in some regions, between crops, livestock,

and progeny testing, have been tried as important parts of

fisheries and forestry.

livestock development strategies in the tropics. They have often

Table 2. Milk yield (kg/cow/year) and growth rates (p.a.) for number of milking cows and total milk production per year.

MILK/COW (kg/y) REGION

Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America Near East/North Africa Asia (excl. China) Developing countries

1970

1980

1985

(I)

(2)

(3)

296 1,034 668

680 708

No. of MILKING COWS 2000

1970 1980

TOTAL MILK PRODUCTION

1980 1985

1985

2000

1970 1980

1980 1985

2.3 3.3

1.7

320

322

402

1.5

1.6

2.5

1,018 712 735

1,041 731

1,327 1,052

3.4

880

2.7 2.6

1.9 1.2

837 807

0.9 0.7 2.5

2.2

3.4 3.4

941

2.7

1.8

2.0

3.3

751

1985

2000 4.0 3.6 3.7

1.3

1.2

4.8 3.0

2.5 3.1

(1) average 1969-1971; (2) average 1979-1981; (3) average 1984-1986 Source: (9)

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failed, particularly when applied to small mixed-farming systems.

Demand and supply situation

Animal health programmes have been disease-oriented (Rinderpest, Foot-and- Mouth Disease, Trypanosomiasis) and without due consideration of the overall level of livestock management

Foods from animal origin are not indispensable in the diet, but they have a valuable, complementary function, especially for

('production-oriented' approach). There is a lack of adequate facilities and functions of animal health services, a lack of drug distribution networks and neglect of cost/benefit analysis (18). The great emphasis and the (mis)use of insecticides against tsetse

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to control Trypanosomiasis has diverted attention away from the necessary land use planning in tsetse control areas (23).

vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant and nursing women, sick and elderly people. On average, 23% of the supply of protein per person originates from animal products (energy 9%), with strong differences between and within regions. Human food preferences, partly based on religious prohibitions

and social customs, affect local demand patterns. Beef is the preferred product in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, while in East Asia the order of preference is pork, poultry and

Sustainable livestock development in the developing countries is also hampered by over-supply (from developed countries), low (subsidised) prices of animal products on the world market, and

beef.

health and trade barriers imposed by the developed countries. Most national governments in developing countries have an urban bias, preference for short-term benefits, such as large exports of raw materials for concentrates, and cheap (dairy) imports. The political commitment to stimulate the development of the rural livestock sector has been lacking, resulting in inadequate producers organisations, limited access of (small scale) farmers to markets and credit, high risk technologies, underdeveloped infrastructure, low and fluctuating producers prices and weak marketing organisations (15).

income elasticity of demand for livestock products is found in Africa and Asia, while milk exhibits a generally lower elasticity

Population growth, urbanisation and income growth determine

demands for agricultural and animal products. The highest

of demand than meat and eggs (34). Projections of meat consumption indicate that by the year 2000 poultry and pig meat will account for nearly 49% of the total consumption, with the largest shift towards poultry.

In the period 1982-2000, FAO estimates an average annual growth rate in demand for meat, milk and eggs in developing countries of 3.7, 3.1 and 4.3%, respectively (9). The growth of livestock production has been limited in the last decade in tropical countries in spite of the higher demands for milk and meat (and population growth), resulting in increased imports of animal products (Table 3).

Towards a sustainable livestock production The multiple functions of livestock underline the need for a systems approach in the elaboration of sustainable livestock development, because a modification in one function affects other functions. Many of the constraints mentioned in the previous paragraphs are now recognised, and in some cases have led to a re-orientation of policies. Non-governmental organisa-

tions (NG0s) and, to a lesser extent, research institutes and international development agencies have adopted a farming systems approach, emphasising the analysis of the whole farm in its socio-economic context, and participation of the farmers in

the research and development process. Contrary to prevalent, non-sustainable production systems that aim at expansion of areas or the mining of land, there is a consensus that interventions must be seen in the context of optimal resource develop-

Projections of future demand for and supplies of livestock products take into account many uncertainties, especially trade restrictions and income changes in developing countries. Projections for the year 2000 made by IFPRI show a much wider gap

than FAO between production and consumption of animal products (34). Current trends indicate a gradual reduction in subsidies (EEC, USA, Japan) and a more liberal market, which could result in substantial adjustments of prices. Some developing countries, provided the animal diseases situation permits (free of Foot-and Mouth Disease, carcasses free of Taenia spp.), would be able to enter the export market for meat and to a lesser extent for milk (41). It is evident that the expected population growth, future projections of demand for livestock products and also the increasing shortage of foreign exchange stress the need

for sustainable (rural) livestock development. Substantial

ment, aiming at restoring and maintaining soil fertility, to sustain present and future generations. The challenge for the developed

increases in production should be achieved by higher producti-

and the developing countries is to reverse the current trend of

animals.

environmental degradation and to arrive at sustainable increases in production. External inputs are indispensable, but need to be used more efficiently. As stated by the Brundtland committee 'more needs to be done by less' (21).

vity per animal rather than by an increase in the number of

Resources and Management Feed and animal genetic resources are highlighted below, followed by management aspects of animal health, environmen-

Table 3. Net trade (= import-export) of milk, meat and eggs as percentage of production

MILK Region

'

Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America Near East/North Africa Asia (excl. China) Developing countries

MEAT

1969

1979 1981

1984 1986

2000

1971

14.6 9.1 9.9 8.0 9.2

30.9

29.7

0.1

13.4

31.6 8.8

40.0 6.6

29.2 4.8 38.5 7.4

-2.8

13.3

-10.7 4.2 0.8

15.4

14.8

12.6

-5.4

-6.7 31.9 0.4 0.3

1969

1979

1971

1981

EGGS 1984 1986

2.2 -6.3 28.6 -0.4 1.0

2000

2.6 -5.1 19.6 -1.1 1.0

1969 1971

1979

1984 1986

2000

1981

0.0 0.2 3.7 0.3 0.4

0.6 0.4

0.4 0.0

0.3 -1.0

12.9 -0.1

5.6 -0.5 0.7

1.7

1.9

0.0 0.0

Source: (9)

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tal considerations, and the role of biotechnology in animal production. The availability of land, capital, water and human resources also determine the farming system and the possibilities for sustainable development, but they are not discussed in this article, thereby omitting important consequences of aspects of sustainability for training and institutional development.

uniform environment (pigs, poultry) where statistical methods can be used to correct for environmental effects. The infrastructure needed for performance testing in developing countries is rarely found, because herd/flock sizes are small and variability

between farms, farming systems and seasons is large. Here, breeding systems must be related to the existing or potential feed supplies and management practices.

Feed resources Inadequate feed quality and quantity impedes increased animal production in most developing countries. Tropical forages are de facto of lower quality than temperate forages. Perspectives for the future must be sought in expanding and improving the feed base, especially in qualitative terms. Most of the available feed energy supply for ruminants originates from rangelands, pastu-

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res and crop residues, which do not compete with human consumption. The distribution of permanent meadows and pasture in relation to the number of ruminant livestock units varies from 23 - 956 per km2 between the regions. The large differences show the importance of crop residues and agro-industrial products for the Far East, and the lack of water, the seasonal production of the rangelands and the presence of tsetse in large parts of Africa. Because most countries have limited potential to expand grazing

land, solutions must be found in the intensification of the production systems, and a better and more strategic use of the available feed resources within the herd.

Much of the raw material for concentrates in developing countries is exported to developed countries to provide foreign

exchange earnings. In 1986, 79% of the world concentrates supply was used by developed countries. In Sub-Saharan Africa,

the export of concentrates, expressed as milk equivalents, amounted to 85% of the imports of milk products (43). For the small farmer, the wider use of raw materials is limited by the price, lack of feed credit, transport, distribution and packaging

of small quantities. The price and quality of vitamins and minerals are often a constraint and the stated composition on the label is often not in accordance with the chemical analysis.

Animal genetic resources Genetic improvement of livestock depends upon access to genetic variation and effective selection methods. Genetic diversity is the key to the selection and breeding of animals for adaptability and production in a range of environments. Loss of genetic variation will limit the capacity to respond to changes in

production caused by economic, environmental and social pressure (12). In tropical countries, indigenous genes are rapidly

disappearing due to the use of imported stock through breed substitution and crossbreeding. However, many indigenous breeds have special adaptive traits, including for example, disease resistance, climatic tolerance, ability to use poor quality feed and to survive with reduced and/or irregular supplies of feed and water. It is important that these indigenous breeds, including the minority species, are preserved for their genetic variation specific to their environment. Their contribution to present and future resource utilisation may be highly significant and important to sustainable development. The paradox is that while there is a urgent need for conservation of the indigenous

breeds, higher demands for animal products will probably justify a more rapid breed improvement, through the introduc-

tion of exotic purebreds or crossbreeding. Conservation of animal genetic resources must therefore be part of national breeding plans and should not be an isolated exercise. Breeding systems in the developed countries are based upon recording the performance of individual animals, in comparably

69

Animal health

The control of animal diseases still has a high priority in livestock production, mainly because infectious diseases can cause heavy losses. Some of these diseases can be controlled with relatively cheap vaccines. Veterinary services in developing

countries were originally started for the control of infectious diseases, and major achievements have been accomplished. Some infectious diseases, such as rabies and foot-and-mouth disease, have been eradicated from large areas. Other, new diseases, such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, are emerging and some have spread to other regions, but none have

been eradicated (38). Moreover, it must be realised that the control of infectious diseases with vaccines cannot be seen in isolation from other technical inputs such as breeding for resistance, better housing and hygiene, nutrition and proper marketing systems. The integration of these various inputs should be part of training in veterinary epidemiology. The

approach to improving animal health should follow the pathway of reducing disease occurrence by identifying and controlling the risk factors which contribute to the occurrence in a given region. Infectious diseases (e.g. foot-and-mouth disease) can have a

disastrous effect on an export market. Experience in the EC shows that even with proper legislation and good veterinary service, it is not always easy to keep the borders open to animals and animal products. Vaccines do not pollute the environment, nor do they leave a

residue in the animal body, unlike certain insecticides and systemic drugs. However, vaccines against helminths or trypanosome are not likely to be commercially available in the near future. This requires other control methods such as drugs, genetically resistant animals and more specific control of vectors by the use of attractants and sterile males. Cheap, thermo-stable vaccines can be developed against most bacterial and viral diseases. Biotechnology will, for instance, make it possible to use the vaccinia virus as a carrier for those genes of microorganisms which confer immunological protec-

tion to the vertebrate host (30). It is doubtful, however, that farmers will have such vaccinia cows in their herd as a source of

vaccine, given the dangers which are involved in involuntary transmission to man, or skin diseases to cattle. Moreover, the failure of some international eradication campaigns (e.g. rinderpest) was due not to a lack of a suitable vaccine, but to the poor veterinary infrastructure (18). A vaccine against ticks is being developed and was successful under experimental conditions against one species (Boophilus microplus) (31). It remains to be seen whether the same principles can also be applied to other tick species, which is a prerequisite for success in the control of tickborne diseases in Africa. It is likely that vaccines against all tickborne diseases will be available in the next 10-20 years, but it is unrealistic to think that we can do without acaricide for the next 20 years.

Environmental considerations Overgrazing of rangelands in semi-arid regions is caused by population pressure and a decline in traditional management

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systems, which forces farmers and nomads to cultivate increasingly marginal, often traditional, grazing lands. The problem is

associated with pastoralists who have no tenure rights, and farming communities whose privately owned herds exploit communal pastures. The situation is aggravated by the question

of livestock ownership by non pastoralists, e.g., government officials, businessmen, etc., who are not bound to the social norms of the local community and control of grazing. Another cause of degradation is incidental or deliberate fires,

particularly in the drier parts of the savanna in Africa. Controlled burning can, however, have some positive effects in

controlling ticks and helminths, and the encroachment of

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inedible shrubs.

Pollution Two gasses require special attention: methane and ammonia. The methane concentration in the atmosphere is currently increasing at a rate of approximately 1% per year, and methane emissions contribute about 19% of the greenhouse warming effect (16). Ruminants, animal wastes, rice paddies, biomass burning, etc. account for about 60% of the methane emission, of which ruminants alone contribute 15% to 20%, depending upon the quality of the feed and energy intake of the animal (16, 29). The largest ruminant population is found in the developing countries, but only 40% of the methane is emitted in these countries, because of the low energy intake and low digestibility

of the roughage-based rations. Proper supplementation of animals with dietary deficiencies could reduce methane production.

The effect of ammonia on greenhouse warming is generally

unimportant but ammonia is a major air pollutant in the developed countries, indirectly causing soil acidification and pollution of ground and surface water. The sustainability of many production systems in developing countries is threatened by the net export of minerals from the system and by the reduction in soil organic matter content due to

the high cropping intensity. To assure adequate levels of crop production, high mineral fertiliser inputs are required but their use is limited for the small (subsistence) farmer. The re-cycling of manure as fertiliser and soil organic matter supplier should be

stressed, although nitrogen losses from urine and dung can be

high through volatilisation, leaching or denitrification. Recycling can also be limited by the availability of labour. Lowcost technologies for proper on-farm storage and application are required (compost). Other environmental problems in developing countries may be the effluent from milk factories, abattoirs and meat processing

facilities. PartiCularly slaughter slabs, which do not provide sufficient material (blood, ruminal content, manure, carcasses, feathers) to justify its adequate processing, or slaughterhouses located in urban areas can be sources of pollution. Animal health aspects have implications for meat and milk products (zoonoses such as tuberculosis, brucellosis and salmonellosis), and veterinary inspection is a particularly important aspect in the handling and processing of meat and milk. The growing problem of food quality requires more attention. The

first step in this process is the establishment of monitoring systems.

The role of biotechnology in animal production Biotechnology, defined as the integrated use of molecular genetics, biochemistry, microbiology and process technology employing (parts of) micro-organisms, or cells and tissues of higher organisms to supply goods and services, will play an

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increasing role in animal production in the developed countries (2). The major research activities for animal production include

the production of diagnostic reagents, safe and heat stable vaccines, production-stimulating hormones, embryo transfer, in vitro fertilisation, genetic engineering and transgenic animals (2).

The rDNA technology theoretically seems to be the most promising one. With this technology it is possible to produce certain hormones, such as the hormone bovine somatotropin (BST), diagnostic reagents and antigens which can be used as

vaccines, and to develop high-yielding bacteria for use in fermentation processes. The application of production-stimulating hormones in developing countries will be limited, as most animals cannot express their genetic potential due to poor nutrition and diseases related to management. Moreover, it still remains to be seen whether

the use of these hormones in the developed countries will be legalised.

The rDNA technology is a highly sophisticated, time-consuming technology and requires extensive financial and technical input, which limits the capability of developing countries to build up their own research capacity. The development of a single rDNA vaccine has been estimated to cost more than ten times the price of conventional vaccines. Moreover, problems of heat-stability and safety remain to be solved (2).

The monoclonal antibody (MAb) technology, through the production of diagnostic reagents, is more promising for developing countries. These diagnostic reagents will be used in

the field of animal health (diagnosis of diseases) and animal reproduction (heat detection, pregnancy diagnosis), although problems regarding the stability of the reagents in hot, tropical conditions still have to be solved (2). Embryo transfer will have a limited role to play in developing countries. It is too costly for the conservation of genetic material

or the improvement of the genetic potential of a commercial herd. The whole process of embryo transfer requires not only veterinary knowledge and experience (e.g. proper methods for

cryo-preservation), but also a clear breeding strategy and dissemination of superior genetic material. For most countries embryo transfer will be too difficult and too costly to implement

on a national scale: cost per embryo transfer have been estimated to vary between US$ 100-500 (2). Future areas of implementation of frozen embryos can be for the establishment of nucleus herds of superior (exotic) stock for crossbreeding purposes, or where only a limited number of animals with a desired trait are available, e.g. Sahiwal for milk production in the

tropics, or N'Dama for their resistance to trypanosomiasis. Embryo transfer is still not possible in swine and buffaloes.

Genetic engineering and gene transfer from one animal to another animal will theoretically open possibilities for disease resistance, production performance, etc. There may be some place for the production of human serum factors in the milk of genetically manipulated animals. However, these techniques are

still in their infancy and require much more research on the mechanisms involved before they become operational.

Further development of biotechnology for the developing countries could have negative long-term results, since it could widen the gap between developing and developed countries. Substitution of animal products, such as milk proteins and fat,

by alternative raw material of plant origin can be another negative development. A biotechnological product is not a short

cut to a higher animal productivity, and its use must be embedded in a veterinary infrastructure and technical improvements, such as nutrition and good management.

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practised by tropical smallholders. Ensiling is limited by the small quantities involved and high investment costs. Positive examples of ensiling are found in Kenya, where cooperation

natural resources. Biotechnology, breeding programmes, calf rearing schemes, animal traction, etc. are some of the technolo-

between smallholders in sharing equipment and pooling resources enables silage pits to be filled quickly. Sown pastures and fodders as crop choices within the farming

gical options for sustainable livestock production, but the options discussed here will be limited to the natural resource base: feed and animal genetic resources.

Feed resources Technological options for quantitative and qualitative improve-

ments in feed supply are available but must be placed in the broader context of livestock and rural development. Sustainable livestock systems, which depend on the degraded communal rangelands for their feed supply, require a balance between stocking rates and the carrying capacity of the range. In

pastoral societies, communal control of grazing pressure, together with measures to increase the offtake of stock by marketing, are essential before technical measures and invest-

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ments to improve the range (e.g. rotational grazing, fodder banks) can be successful. The development of watershed management or restrictions on indiscriminate burning are some of the technical measures that can be undertaken. The pressure on communal rangelands in the semi-arid areas can be reduced,

particularly in the dry season, by providing supplementary feeding of existing fodder trees and shrubs, fodder banks, mineral blocks or by access to cultivated lands (stubble grazing and crop residues). Even feed storage at the end of the rainy season can be considered. However, without control of stock numbers, supplementation will only lead to further increases in stocking rates. The feasibility of improving communal grazed rangelands in the semi-arid or sub-humid areas through the introduction of improved grasses, pasture and tree legumes, and shrubs is doubtful. Forage legumes require good management,

cannot withstand burning and require fertilisation with small amounts of phosphorus for good establishment. Research results on the production of salt-tolerant fodder crops or shrubs on saline irrigated land in the arid zones in the Near East are promising and need further attention. However, this must not lead to the acceptance and aggravation of the salinity problem. Improved pasture and fodder production has a role to play on mixed crop-livestock farms, although land is the limiting factor. Technologies for pasture and fodder production are available, and include legume fodder banks and/or the inclusion of a forage legume or improved pasture in the (cereal) crop rotation or on fallow land (ley farming). They provide a feed reserve in

the dry season, when the quantity and quality of the natural pasture is at minimum. The introduction of forage legumes into

the crop rotation may break crop disease cycles, provide nitrogen through atmospheric nitrogen fixation, raise soil

organic matter content and reduce soil erosion by providing more effective ground cover. In the more humid zones, the ley farming and alley cropping technologies are examples of an integrated plant nutrient system

(IPNS). IPNS is based on a nutrient cycle involving the soil, crops and livestock. The productivity of the soil is increased by using the correct nutrient balance in (organic) fertilisers including trace elements, biological nitrogen fixation (legume trees and shrubs), matching of nutrient supply to the cropping system

(including livestock) as a whole rather than the need for a specific crop, and return of organic matter to the soil (21). Pasture and forage conservation through hay or silage-making, although common on large commercial farms, is not generally

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systems must be economically attractive to the farmer, and require the availability and timely supply of pasture and legume seeds of suitable varieties at reasonable prices. Adaptive research and extension to demonstrate technical and economic feasibility in the farming system is a prerequisite. Burning of crop-residues should be limited to increase the feed base and to avoid biomass and nitrogen losses from the system. However, crop residues have low nutritional value and digestibility. Chopping and/or chemical treatment of straw with urea, supplementation of straw rations with green forages (legumes),

molasses-urea blocks, by-pass protein and/or agro-industrial by-products are some of the technological options to improve intake and sometimes digestibility, and therefore animal performance. Implementation of straw treatment or supplementation techniques will depend mainly on farm(er) economics (straw availability, treatment costs, milk price, cattle productivity, etc.) and on the availability of labour (35). Non-ruminant production needs the development of feeding systems based upon on-farm produced feeds such as cassava (7, 33, 37) and sugar cane (28), and on supplementation with

limiting nutrients, such as proteins, essential amino-acids, minerals and vitamins.

To improve the local use of agro-industrial by-products, problems of milling, keeping quality and mycotoxins have to be

solved. The dehydration of by-products such as fruit pulps is decreasingly economically viable due to the cost of fossil fuels. Simple and cheaper methods use solar drying or conservation by microbiological and chemical ensiling. Slaughterhouse wastes,

except rumen and intestinal contents, can be transformed into high-quality protein feeds, especially for monogastric animals (25, 26). Similarly, it is technically possible to utilise poultry litter in ruminant rations. In some regions there is a lack of knowledge regarding byproducts, and studies are required into the potential supply,

seasonal availability and level of consumption of the byproducts. The same observation can be made regarding medicinal herbs (24).

Animal genetic resources The two main technological options available for the preservation of animal genetic resources are in-situ preservation of live animals and ex-situ preservation of germ-plasm in cryogenic storage. Live animal preservation has the advantage that the breed can gradually respond to changing external influences, but the high costs, the number of animals required and disease risks

make this method less attractive. Cryogenic preservation of semen and embryos generally implies an initial investment in storage equipment and, although semen is cheap, relatively high collection costs, which are largely compensated by subsequent

low annual storage costs. However, it does not allow for the

adaptation of genotypes to a changing environment, for continuous performance evaluation or for historic and cultural interest. Some developing countries (e.g. Argentine, Brazil, China, India) have established animal genetic resource preservation programmes. These large countries have many indigenous breeds, a good

administrative and scientific infrastructure, trained staff and laboratory resources.

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The best way to conserve indigenous breeds will be by management and breeding programmes, where local stock can

compete with exotic stock or crosses under often harsh environmental conditions. The most appropriate breeding option will be the use of nucleus breeding herds, which supplies farmers with male breeding stock or semen. The basic nucleus

breeding programmes are easier to realise than traditional breeding programmes. In multi-purpose cattle, beef cattle and small ruminants, nucleus breeding plans might be the only way to supply small farmers with performance-tested males. Data banks are required to store and disseminate information on local stock because one reason for the neglect of indigenous breeds is the lack of knowledge and appreciation of the qualities of local stock. STRATEGIES AND POLICIES Strategies for sustainable livestock production systems must be

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part of a broader strategy of rural development, including

scale animal health campaigns (rinderpest, trypanosomiasis). Tsetse control must be part of proper land use programmes, and attention should be paid to alternative ways of tsetse control in the form of traps and targets (23). Several technical problems have to be solved before the method can be applied in different ecological zones. This includes the care and maintenance of the targets by pastoralists. The use of anti-parasitic drugs should be based on epidemiologi-

cal evidence and cost/benefit analysis, e.g. prophylactic drugs against trypanosomiasis in cattle of low economic value may be questionable in some areas (1, 22). Communal rangeland management, coupled with animal health

programmes, require policies for land tenure, institutional development and economic returns, besides the development and application of technologies.

Small mixed-farming systems The development strategy for the (resource-poor) subsistence farmer should emphasise the improvement of farm management, and in the long run the incorporation of these groups into the market system. Livestock development plans must take into

generating off-farm employment where possible and considering the interactions of biological, physical and socio-economic production factors. Within the livestock sector the strategies must involve the vertical integration of the production column: inputs and services, producers, markets, consumers. Priority

account the diversity of livestock species and therefore appropriate packages for cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat, rabbits, poultry,

must be given to livestock systems which make the largest

etc. must be developed. These packages include aspects of

contribution to national gain; for most developing countries this

feeding, health and hygiene, housing and breeding and should be relatively small scale. The income of these subsistent farmers is too low to justify large investments.

implies that livestock development programmes should be focused on the mixed-farming system of the (resource-poor) small holder. Investments must therefore be capital extensive and must provide rural employment. Strategies for livestock development must incorporate the role

women play in livestock activities, such as small livestock rearing, on-farm processing and marketing of livestock products. Women should have equal access to education, credit

The challenge of intensification of livestock production of smallholder mixed farms is to improve the efficiency of the production system, by reducing the losses from the system, by improving soil management (i.e. improvement of soil structure

and fertility) and by making better use and management of

schemes and extension, and development programmes should

locally available resources (27), through low-cost technological improvements and a low/moderate level of external inputs. The

never lead to non-rewarding increases in the workload of women. The training of female farmers and extension staff

strategy involves a change in cropping pattern through the

should have priority (40).

The viability of technological interventions depends on the social and economic environment. The participation of the individual farmer (man and woman), groups of farmers, or the community is essential in the planning and implementation of the development plans, as is the political will and long term commitment of governments.

selection of crops which will maximise biomass production and nitrogen fixation with minimum imported inputs (ley farming, alley cropping, integrated plant nutrient system) supported by remunerative prices.

Matching the feed availability with the requirements of the livestock population is important for both the subsistent and the commercial small farmer. This can be achieved through a better use of feeds, (chemical) treatment or supplementation of crop

residues, and by making more effort to benefit from agroindustrial by-products, forage production and feed conserva-

Pastoral systems Strategies for pastoral societies must focus on controlling grazing pressure on rangelands, and slowing or even reversing desertification in the sahelian region of Africa (5). Strong commitment,

tion.

community awareness and involvement to keep stocking rates

animal traction. Constraints in animal traction have been

under control' depends on the creation or strengthening of pastoral groups. The main strategy is to regulate grazing pressure

identified by ILCA, and the research priorities are defined, e.g. the use of cows, dry season feeding strategies (20). The use of

to the seasonal feed availability, integrated with the land-use systems, marketing, livestock services and animal health pro-

multipurpose animals (cattle and buffaloes) that provide draught power, milk and meat, and the incorporation of non-

The competing demand for labour in livestock and crop production can be reduced by the intensification of the use of

grammes. Fattening units (feedlots) can be developed to

ruminant species into the production systems, animals which are

increase the offtake of stock. Drought risks can be reduced by improving marketing facilities: mobile abattoirs, early warning systems, stable prices and by building-up emergency stocks of feed (and food). More research attention should be given to

well adapted to available forage resources, by-products and

camels.

Improved veterinary facilities (diagnostic centre, transport, veterinary supplies) at strategic points can increase the efficiency

of range utilisation. The veterinary services should aim at the prevention and control of diseases, with active participation of pastoralist groups in the planning and implementation of large-

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wastes, could also be part of the strategy. Milk production has benefits to the producer because a regular income can be maintained, which has advantages over irregular cash flows of meat and crop production. Intensification for the commercial small mixed-farming systems involves more zero-grazing systems to ensure a more effective control of (ecto- and endo-)parasites, the collection and strategic application of manure and urine, and the reduction of damage to crops. Commitment to large capital investment (e.g. stables) can

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decrease sustainability since the investor is committed to the investment whatever the long-term consequences. Investments in housing, an increased use of manure and animal draught, a higher demand of labour for fodder production and feeding should accompany higher animal productivity and technologies that reduce losses in manure and urine during collection, storage and use. Increased production per animal is to be achieved by better feed, animal health, genetic improvements, management and remunerative producer prices. Infectious diseases (foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, haemorrhagic septicaemia, Newcastle disease) are more or less under

control through vaccination, depending on the region. The emphasis must shift to disease-causing 'risk' factors, such as under-nutrition, poor hygiene and management, that affect the productivity of the herd, and towards the curative aspects of animal health. Individual treatment of an animal is not always economically justified, but it serves to gain the confidence of the

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farmer. Such confidence can be used to promote extension messages on nutrition, housing, breeding, etc. This approach requires a different attitude of the personnel engaged in animal health and renewed thinking on the task of veterinary services, the role of farmer's organisations and the curricula on animal production and health at all levels. It also requires even more

than with infectious diseases, data collection on inputs and outputs. Assistance will be required from farmer's organisations,

cooperatives, etc. to obtain such data. Epidemiology requires these data for individual farmers to obtain a regional insight for intervention packages. Cost/benefit analysis and in-service training are, certainly at the beginning, the only justification for a modern epidemiological approach of increasing animal production.

The strategy for tick control should aim at reducing the use of acaricide by strategic dipping, and to concentrate on animals with genetic resistance (42). Preservation of a gene pool of such animals, good knowledge of tick ecology, development of nonabsorbent acaricide (e.g. the pour on acaricide) are prerequisites for obtaining endemic stability and hence a reduction in the use of acaricide. There is evidence from some countries that farmer oriented market and price policies largely determine the sustainability of technical inputs. Access can be improved by privatisation and by the creation or strengthening of farmers' groups or associations, both of which require active encouragement by extension services and governments. Extension programmes must concentrate on guidance in animal nutrition, including forage conservation, reproduction, animal health and breeding, and record keeping.

Dairy systems may offer the greatest scope for social and economic development in many countries. In order to generate

rural employment and added value in the rural area, the emphasis should be on small scale processing for the rural population (especially acidified, fermented products, which have better keeping quality) and on producer-shared processing

and marketing, oriented towards production of value-added products for the urban areas. Specialised livestock farming Specialised commercial livestock farming systems (poultry, pigs,

milk or meat) can only be sustainable if there is adequate marketing, a good price policy, infrastructure, continuous supply of quality feed and concentrates, adequate veterinary services (vaccines, medicines, cost recovery) availability of skilled labour, management and control of pollution. The contribution of these farms to national annual output is

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generally small. Specialised commercial livestock production systems, based on subsidies for concentrates or drugs, tax relief,

cheap credit, are not sustainable in the long run for reasons of cost. Moreover these systems increase the shift of feed, soil nutrients and labour opportunities to urban centres and neglect rural development. Technical support from government and/or private services can be justified where these systems contribute substantially to animal production output and/or to full processing capacity, providing ample labour in the processing and marketing sector. Control of pollution is essential at the farm level and in the processing industry. Biogas is feasible in these intensive production systems when enough water and manure is available, and where temperatures are conducive.

The control of infectious diseases and the upkeep of strict hygienic standards is important, especially if the export of animals and animal products is the aim. Generally, difference in

standards between the quality requirements for the foreign market and home consumption reduce export chances, and exporting countries should carefully consider which demands they can fulfil and choose their market accordingly. Several countries in which livestock plays a minor role, such as the Middle East, have less stringent (hygienic) requirements than the EC. There is a regrettable tendency to replace tariff barriers

by extra demands as far as hygiene is concerned. Better international legislation is required in this respect. POLICY CONSIDERATIONS

Technological options to improve sustainability are available and increasingly developed, but their application depends on the economic attractiveness to the (small) farmer, his wife and their

families. Policies and services need to be supportive to allow measures for sustainability to take hold at various levels of the farming system: farm level, regional and (inter) national level. Difficult choices have to be made, often complicated by the fact that an improvement in one aspect implies an disadvantage elsewhere in the system, so called trade-offs (4). Infamous trade-

offs include short- versus long-term advantages, and those of

cheap food for the urban population versus remunerative producer prices. The export of concentrate ingredients for quick foreign exchange is almost invariably at the expense of local dairy development. Producer-oriented price policies mean that in most countries other means need to be found for supporting the urban poor than through imposed reductions in prices paid

to the producer. Government support in planning projects means more coordination (but not increased bureaucracy) and cooperation across divisional and departmental boundaries of

national governments as well as of international donors. Government budgets for the implementation of projects should

reflect the economic role of livestock, and producers should contribute through direct cost recovery of delivered inputs and services.

A long list of policy issues is elaborated in the original report (13) and include a) legislation ranging from landownership to

quality control of feed and produce, b) support of farmers' groups including training of (board) members in technology, management, finance and gender issues, c) concerted actions on breeding programmes aimed at future farming conditions and conservation of genes for resistance to diseases, d) support for

those sectors of (livestock) development where the biggest potential exists, with proper distinction between large scale, commercial farming and small scale, subsistence activities,

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including small back-yard animals, e) stimulus to promote local and national use of agro-industrial by-products (brans, oilseed

cakes) as opposed to export abroad or to cities, leading to translocation of income and soil fertility, f) avoidance of undue competition for rural producers from parastatal or commercial enterprises due to subsidies and tax relief, g) involvement of nongovernmental groups in extension, research and development efforts, partly to compensate decreased government funding, partly to assure farmers' participation, modification of messages and research priorities to highly variable local circumstances.

It is unlikely that developing countries on their own will be capable in the near future of building the necessary biotechnolo-

gical research capacity. The tendency for private firms to dominate the market for certain biotechnological products will only widen this gap. The developing countries will be forced to buy the diagnostic reagents, vaccines and perhaps hormones, certainly if they can also be used in developed countries. Newly

industrialized countries, such as Brazil and Malaysia, are relatively in the best position to start joint ventures. There will be a need in tropical countries for vaccines and reagents for which

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there is no demand in the developed countries, e.g. vaccines against Theileriosis, Heartwater, etc., or diagnostic reagents for typical tropical diseases. Enzyme development in biotechnology

could play a role in the improvement of feed quality in developing countries. When universities, research institutes and private sector in the developing countries establish joint ventures with organisations

in developed countries, they can stay in touch with the latest developments in biotechnology. It would also mean that the mandate of an institute such as ILRAD should be broadened and that it should develop diagnostic reagents for a wider scale than it is doing at present. Another possibility is interacting with the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotech-

nology (ICGEB) located at Trieste (Italy) and New Delhi (India) which started as an UNIDO project on 'Biotechnology for Developing Countries' (19). Research and extension need a re-orientation to inter-disciplinary understanding of farming systems, the multiple functions of

livestock for rural households, and the strong interaction with cropping systems (36). This requires the training of young and

old staff and the design of extension messages should be continuously updated and geared to modern concepts and their applicability to specific local farming systems. The availability of efficient veterinary services, staffed with competent and properly equipped personnel, is essential for the control, prevention and eradication of animal diseases. Moreover, motivated veterinary personnel, but not necessary academic personnel must be available in all areas with large livestock populations. Middle level personnel ('paravets) could fulfil a pioneer function in the primary diagnosis of diseases, simple treatment and management improvements. Many developing countries produce considerably more veterinary graduates than they need and absorb them into governmental animal health services. The resulting gross overstaffing can cause all the available budget to be committed to (low) salaries, leaving little or no financial resource for productive field disease control activities. Therefore limits will need to be set to the entry of undergraduates to veterinary faculties, and/or programmes need to be developed to encourage private practice. The strict division between animal production and animal health personnel should be revised, starting with the curricula at all levels of training. What is required is personnel (male and female) aware

of the problems of the farmers. They should be productionoriented, giving emphasis to the prevention of diseases and

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efficient production of the animal herd. This requires a shift towards a more need-driven livestock/veterinary service. The emphasis on curative treatment of the individual animal should run parallel with the economic value of the animal. The animal health aspects cannot be seen in isolation from feeding, breeding,

management and crop production. Sustainable rural livestock development generally needs the parallel development of private technical support services, not only in the animal health field but also in the field of artificial

insemination, breed improvement, animal feed, marketing, processing and finance. However, one should realise that the goal of the private sector in maximising profits, despite generating off-farm employment and income, may be in conflict with the need (and costs) of protecting the environment. Moreover, it is doubtful wether the private sector will focus its attention on

the (resource-poor) smallholder. Systematic monitoring and critical evaluation of extension, research, development work, services and group activities is essential. CONCLUSIONS The increased degradation of the environment, combined with

the increased population pressure, requires that livestock development programmes reconsider priorities and options. The

problems of development are highly variable between and within major farming systems, and the role of livestock is likely to change. A number of technological issues are reviewed, and interesting options are available in all fields of feeding, breeding and animal health. Modern technologies include biotechnology and conservation of genetic resources, but their application requires choices and different approaches when used for sustainability. Governments can and should where possible strive to support sustainable development through such tools as legislation or cancellation

of laws and price policy development, and should avoid subsidies and tax reliefs that are not sustainable. The increased interdependence of farming systems and the need for better designed development projects requires a systems

approach. In this respect animal health aspects have to be regarded as increasingly important. They have to be seen as strongly interlinked with feeding, breeding, management, and the type of farmer. These interactions need more recognition and

modification in institutional set-up, curricula development, research and extension efforts. REFERENCES 1. Brandt FE. The use of a herd simulation model for the estimation of direct economic benefits of tse-tse control - application to the pastoral zone of Siderougou, Burkina Faso. Revue d'Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux 1985; 38: 364-70.

2. Bunders JF. Ed. Biotechnology for small-scale farmers in developing countries. Analysis and assessment procedures. VU University Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1990. 3. Camoens JK. Farming systems and their on-farm research requirements. In:

on-farm animal research/extension and its economic analysis. Eds: Amir P and Knipscheer H Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, 1987.

4. Conway GR and Barbier EB. After the Green Revolution, sustainable agriculture for development. Earthscan Publications, London 1990.

5. Crosson PR and Rosenberg NT. Strategies for agriculture. Scientific American, 1989; 261: 78-85.

6. Durning AB and Brough HB. Taking stock: animal farming and the environment. Worldwatch Paper 103. 1991. 7. Enriquez FO and Ross E. The value of cassava root meal for chicks. Poultry Science 1967; 46: 622-6 8. FAO. African agriculture: the next 25 Years. Main Report, 1986. 9. FAO (1987). Agriculture: toward 2000 (revised version 1987). 10. FAO. The state of food and agriculture 1989. FAO Agriculture Series No 22, 1989.

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14. Francis CA, Butler-Flora C, and King LD. Sustainable agriculture in temperate zones, Wiley, Interscience. 1990.

available resources in the tropics and sub-tropics. Penambul Books, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia, 1987. 30. Pritchard WR. Ways that veterinary medicine can help alleviate hunger in

Africa. Journal American Veterinary Medical Association 1988; 192: 1701-32. 31. Rand KN, Moore A, Sriskanka K, Spring R. Tellam R, Willadsen P, Cobon

CS. Cloning and expression of a protective antigen from the cattle tick

15. Gennip JJAM van. Dutch livestock policy illustrated. In: Livestock Production and Diseases in the Tropics. Proceedings of the 6th International

Conference of Institutes for Tropical Veterinary Medicine. Eds. Kuil H, Paling RW and Huhn JE, 1990; 1: 1-7. 16. Gibbs MJ and Hoffman JS. Reducing methane emissions from livestock: opportunities and issues. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1989. 17. Gryseels G. Role of livestock on mixed smallholder farms in the Ethiopian Highlands. A Case Study from the Baso and Worena Wereda near Debre Berhan. PhD thesis. Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1988. 18. Haan C de, Bekure S. Animal health services in sub-saharan Africa. Initial experiences with alternative approaches. World Bank Technical Paper 134, 1991. 19. ICGEB: UNIDO's centre for biotechnology. Biotechnology and Develop-

ment monitor nr. 3 June 1990: 18-9. 20. ILCA. Sustainable production from livestock in sub-saharan Africa: ILCA's Programme Plans and Funding Requirement 1989-1993. Addis Ababa, 1989.

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23. Jordan AM. Trypanosomiasis control and african rural development. Longman House Brunt Mill, Harlow, 1986.

24. Mathias-Mundy E and McCorkle CM. Ethnoveterinary Medicine: an annotated bibliography. Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change,

No. 6.Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA, 1989. . 25. Muller ZO. Feed from animal wastes, state of knowledge, FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 18, FAO, Rome, 1980. 26. Muller ZO. Feed from animal wastes: feeding manual, FAO, Animal Production and Health Paper no. 28, Rome, 1984. 27. Pearce DW and Turner KR. Economics of natural resources and the environment, Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, London, 1990 28. Preston TR. Practical technologies to optimize feed resource utilization in reference to the needs of animal agriculture in developing countries. Expert consultation on strategies for sustainable animal agriculture in developing countries. FAO 1990 (in press).

Boophilus microplus. Proceedings National Academy USA 1989; 86: 965761. 32. Ruthenberg H. Farming systems in the tropics. Oxford Science Publications (Third Edition), 1980. 33. Sanchez SL. The use of cassava as animal feed in developing countries.

Implications on Food Security and Balance of Payment. Report for the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1990. 34. Sarma JS and Yeung P. Livestock products in the third world: past trends

and projections to 1990 and 2000. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Research Report No. 49, 1985. 35. Schiere JB and Ibrahim MNM. Feeding of urea-ammonia treated rice straw. A Compilation of Miscellaneous reports produced by the Straw Utilization Project (Sri Lanka). Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1989. 36. Schiere JB. Research and extension. Paper presented at occasional meeting

of the British Society of Animal Production, 'Animal Production in Developing Countries resolving Technical and Socio-Economic Constraints'. Wye, Sept. 2-4, 1991. 37. Schwarts SJ and Brooks DH. Thailand's Feed and Livestock Industry to the Year 2000. United States Department of Agriculture. Foreign Agricultural

Economic Report No. 242, 1990. 38. Scott GR. Tomorrow's animal plagues in perspective. In: Huhn JE (ed). Tierproduktion und Tiergesundheit in Entwicklungsländern im [nick auf das Jahr 2000. 25 Jahre Seminar fiir Tropenveterinarmedizin. 1988: 28-34. 39. Simpson JR. The Economics of livestock systems in Developing countries. Farm and Project Level Analysis. Westview Special Studies in Agriculture Science and Policy, 1988. 40. Stevens A. Women and livestock production in Asia and the South Pacific region. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific/FAO, Bangkok: 1990/5. 41. Tyers R and Anderson K. Distortions in world food markets: a qualitative assessment. Background Paper for 1986 World Development Report. 42. Uilenberg C. Highlights in recent research on tickborne diseases of domestic animals. Journal of Parasitology 1986; 72: 485-91. 43. Walshe MJ, Grindle J, Nell AJ, and Bachmann M. Dairy development in

sub-saharan Africa. A study of issues and options. Africa Technical Department, Agriculture Division, World Bank. Technical paper no.135, 1991.

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