journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 29 (2014) 295–308

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.elsevier.com/locate/jmbbm

Review Article

Thermal cycling for restorative materials: Does a standardized protocol exist in laboratory testing? A literature review Anna Lucia Morresia, Maurizio D’Amarioa,n, Mario Capogrecoa, Roberto Gattob, Giuseppe Marzob, Camillo D’Arcangeloc, Annalisa Monacob a

Unit of Restorative Dentistry, Oral Pathology, Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy b Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy c Unit of Restorative Dentistry, Department of Oral Science, Nano and Biotechnology, “G. D'Annunzio” University of Chieti, Italy

art i cle i nfo

ab st rac t

Article history:

In vitro tests continue to be an indispensable method for the initial screening of dental

Received 12 July 2013

materials. Thermal cycling is one of the most widely used procedures to simulate the

Received in revised form

physiological aging experienced by biomaterials in clinical practice. Consequently it is

15 September 2013

routinely employed in experimental studies to evaluate materials’ performance.

Accepted 21 September 2013

A literature review aimed to elucidate test parameters for in vitro aging of adhesive

Available online 27 September 2013

restorations was performed. This study aims to assess whether or not a standardized

Keywords:

protocol of thermal cycling has been acknowledged from a review of the literature.

Aging

An exhaustive literature search, examining the effect of thermal cycling on restorative

Dental restorations

dental materials, was performed with electronic database and by hand. The search was

In vitro tests

restricted to studies published from 1998 to August 2013. No language restrictions were

Standardization

applied. The search identified 193 relevant experimental studies. Only twenty-three

Thermal cycling.

studies had faithfully applied ISO standard. The majority of studies used their own procedures, showing only a certain consistency within the temperature parameter (5–55 1C) and a great variability in the number of cycles and dwell time chosen. A wide variation in thermal cycling parameters applied in experimental studies has been identified. The parameters selected amongst these studies seem to be done on the basis of convenience for the authors in most cases. A comparison of results between studies would appear to be impossible. The available data suggest that further investigations will be required to ultimately develop a standardized thermal cycling protocol. & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

n Correspondence to: Unit of Restorative Dentistry. Oral Pathology, Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio, Delta 6, 67010 Coppito, L'Aquila, Italy. Tel.: þ39 862 434 785; fax: þ39 0862 434 978. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. D'Amario).

1751-6161/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2013.09.013

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journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 29 (2014) 295 –308

Contents 1. 2.

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 2.1. Study inclusion and exclusion criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 3. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 4. Thermal cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 4.1. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 4.2. Dwell times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 4.3. Number of cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

1.

Introduction

Over the last few decades, significant improvements have been made in the field of dental materials, so actually modern restorative dentistry can count on a wide range of materials used for dental rehabilitations. The long term success of modern dental restoratives is limited by their durability in the oral environment (Freeman et al., 2012). Longevity and efficiency are characteristics that should ideally be provided from each product; however, these properties are still goals to be achieved. Restorative materials must withstand a harsh environment, which varies from patient to patient. Mastication forces, occlusal habits, dietary factors, humidity and temperature fluctuations all contribute to uncontrollable factors that may affect materials longevity (Cavalcanti et al., 2007). For the evaluation of dental materials, well-conducted randomized controlled clinical trials are considered the best method to evaluate the quality of new systems; nevertheless there are many limitations that do not allow this kind of study to be routinely employed (Nikaido et al., 2002; Rocha et al., 2007; Koyuturk et al., 2008). First, factors such as operator variability, substrate differences, patient compliance and recall failure make these tests complicated and their standardization impossible (Nikaido et al., 2002). Second, clinical trials are costly and timeconsuming, so in adopting the view that dental materials evolve rapidly, it is very important to understand that their clinical success must be estimated in an easy, rapid and realistic way (Koyuturk et al., 2008; Naumann et al., 2009). In vitro simulations can be useful to predict the longevity of dental materials, evaluating their mechanical and structural decay characteristics during clinical aging. Although laboratory evaluation and in vitro studies cannot exactly simulate conditions in the oral cavity, such as the clinical environment, moisture and stresses inflicted on teeth and restorations alike, they can, to some extent, simulate the oral cavity environment through aging procedures of teeth and/or restorations. As a result, it appears that experimental studies are, as far as possible, similar to the outcomes obtained in clinical situations under complex occurrences in the oral cavity (Khoroushi and Mansoori, 2012). Many researchers are agreed, that while static tests can obtain data over a longer time scale than that of mastication, it can be a source of misleading results. Dynamic tests appear to better mimic the cyclic masticatory loading to which dental composites are clinically subjected which could be extremely

valuable in predicting biomaterials clinical performance when working under the cyclic solicitations generated by the human body's physiological movements (Mesquita and Geis-Gerstorfer, 2008; Mazzitelli et al., 2012). In the field of laboratory research, out of the currently available systems able to reproduce dynamic stresses, thermal cycling is one the most widely used procedures that is also widely accepted in international literature. Many experimental studies have been published that use thermal cycling regimes to test dental materials characteristics (Doerr et al., 1996; Schuckar and Geurtsen, 1997; Wegner et al., 2002; Bedran-de-Castro et al., 2004b; D'Amario et al., 2010), following the publication of Gale and Darvell's review over ten years ago (Gale and Darvell, 1999). The aim of the subsequent review is to assess whether or not there is a standardized protocol for thermal cycling processes, through the appraisal of specific experimental studies published in the last fifteen years.

2.

Materials and methods

The following review was conducted using the following search strategy: MEDLINE database (via PubMed) was searched between January 1998 and August 2013 by a single reviewer. Key words used were: (thermal cycling OR thermocycling OR aging system) AND (dentistry OR restorative dentistry). In addition, the following journals were manually searched between January 1998 and August 2013: Operative Dentistry, Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, Dental Materials, Journal of Dentistry, Journal of Endodontics, Journal of Applied Oral Science, Journal of Adhesive Dentistry. No language restriction was applied.

2.1.

Study inclusion and exclusion criteria

One reviewer performed the study selection process in three phases. In the first stage, the studies were analyzed on the basis of the title and abstract. Only studies of general interest for the review were admitted to the next phase. In the second phase, the studies were analyzed according to the following inclusion criteria (A): A.1 Experimental studies. A.2 Studies involving materials used in restorative dentistry. A.3 Available abstract.

journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 29 (2014) 295 –308

Only studies that fulfilled all the inclusion criteria (A) were admitted to the third phase, which consisted in analysis of the preselected studies according to the following exclusion criteria (B): B.1 Studies reporting less than two thermal cycling parameters. B.2 Simultaneous use of different aging systems on the same samples tested.

3.

Results

A total of 2377 potentially relevant titles and abstracts were found during the electronic and manual searches. During the first stage of study selection, 1754 publications were excluded on the basis of evaluation of the title and abstract. During the second phase, the complete full-text articles of the remaining 623 publications were evaluated. A total of 163 articles were excluded because they did not fulfilled the inclusion criteria (A). 267 full-text articles of the remaining 460 publications were excluded because they met one or more of the exclusion criteria (B). Finally, a total of 193 studies were included in the present review. A flowchart for the study selection process is shown in Fig. 1.

4.

Thermal cycling

Thermal cycling has been commonly employed in dental research since 1952, when it was observed that chilled, restored

297

teeth produced an “exudates” from restoration margins when the teeth were warmed (Youngson and Barclay, 2000). This system is conventionally used to simulate the in vivo aging of restorative materials by subjecting them to repeated cyclic exposures to hot and cold temperatures, in a water baths in a bid to reproduce thermal changes occurring in the oral cavity (El-Araby and Talic, 2007; Catalbas et al., 2010; Özel Bektas et al., 2012). It stresses the bond between resin and tooth and, depending on the adhesive system, it may affect bond strength (Helvatjoglu-Antoniades et al., 2004a; El-Araby and Talic, 2007); furthermore, it can affect the marginal integrity of the restoration, causing the microleakage phenomenon that may lead to staining, marginal breakdown, hypersensitivity and development of pulpal pathology (Cenci et al., 2008). Over the years, several studies have used this procedure to test a wide number of dental materials with contradictory results (Rossomando and Wendt, 1995; Schuckar and Geurtsen, 1997; Hakimeh et al., 2000; Pazinatto et al., 2003; Kenshima et al., 2004), probably due to differences in technical procedures and due to the lack of a standardized methodology. The consensus however is that the effects of thermal cycling procedures might be related to the varieties of materials tested and/or cavity design and/or the different test methods and/or the properties of the hard tissues (Erdilek et al., 2009). Additionally, it is well known that there is a wide range of temperature extremes, transfer times between baths and dwell times to analyze (Pazinatto et al., 2003). Therefore the importance to determine a more realistic thermal cycling regime, which is as close as possible to the physiology of the oral cavity, is evidently necessary.

Fig. 1 – Flowchart of the search strategy.

298

journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 29 (2014) 295 –308

Three important factors to analyze, to better understand the true validity and the eventual limits presented by thermal cycling are: temperature, dwell time and number of cycles.

4.1.

Temperature

The measurement of temperature at specific sites within the human oral cavity has been reported for well over a century. Sublingual temperature is routinely used as an indicator of oral temperature, and when measured under specific conditions it approximates 37 1C for most individuals. It cannot, however, be assumed that this represents the true resting temperature for all sites within the oral cavity (Moore et al., 1999). Temperature changes in the oral cavity are dynamic in nature, so it's very hard to define the range of temperature closest to the physiology of the mouth. It is essential to consider as many variables as possible that could influence the temperature of the teeth. The main sources equilibrating temperature in the mouth are cheek, tongue and periodontal tissue surrounding the teeth, which acted as physical barriers, regulating the temperature distribution (Youngson and Barclay, 2000; Ernst et al., 2004). Another important external factor is breathing. Many authors suggest that air temperature, humidity and air velocity when breathing can also radically alter the resting mouth temperature, although, it seems this has only a slight effect and mainly affects the front teeth of the upper jaw (Gale and Darvell, 1999; Bishara et al., 2003; Ernst et al., 2004). The foremost factor that leads to temperature change is the intake of food and fluids of various temperatures (Moore et al., 1999; Ernst et al., 2004). Many authors suggest that temperature fluctuations during meals are frequent and variable and that alterations in oral temperature occur rapidly while the return to baseline temperature occurs more slowly (Michailesco et al., 1995; Moore et al., 1999). Fluids can be drunk within a range of 0–100 1C but cooked foods and frozen solids could provide temperatures to the oral cavity outside of this range. The range of temperatures that an individual can tolerate is likely to vary amongst the population and may be affected by variables such as, the number of teeth, the amount of exposed dentin present, the degree of keratinization of the oral mucosa and the age and the sex of the patient (Barclay et al., 2005).

Whatever the main contributing factor, it can be agreed that each time the temperature changes, the teeth undergo thermal stress. Similarly, dental restoratives are also subjected to constant and extreme changes in the oral environment brought about by fluctuations in temperature and pH (Wahab et al., 2003). Thermal cycling, through temperature parameter, simulates the entrance of hot and cold substances in the oral cavity, and shows the relationship of linear coefficient of thermal expansion between tooth and restorative material (Cenci et al., 2008). The artificial aging effect induced by thermal cycling can be two-fold. Firstly hot water may accelerate hydrolysis of non-protected collagen and extract poorly polymerized resin oligomers, secondly due to the higher thermal contraction/ expansion coefficient of the restorative material (as compared to that of tooth tissue), repetitive contraction/expansion stresses are generated at the tooth-biomaterial interface. This may result in cracks that propagate along bonded interfaces, and once a gap is created, changing gap dimensions can cause in and out flow of pathogenic fluids, a process known as “percolation” (De Munck et al., 2005). Historically the principle difficulty was to understand which extreme values were to be used during simulated physiological aging of biomaterials in the oral cavity. In fact a too extreme range of temperature could overstress the material; in contrast, a temperature range too limited could understress the material, resulting in the production of clinically deficient materials into the dental community (Palmer et al., 1992). In contrast with the temperature regime of 5–55 1C proposed in ISO 11405 recommendations (International Standards Organization, 1994), Gale and Darvell (1999), through an extensive review of available data, concluded that the temperatures commonly chosen by investigators were too extreme to provide a representative simulation of temperature fluctuations in vivo. They opted instead for temperatures of 15 1C and 45 1C as their extreme values, and as the reference resting temperature they opted for 35 1C, proposing the following regime: 35 1C for 28 s., 15 1C for 2 s., 35 1C for 28 s., 45 1C for 2 s. In the last 15 years, a limited number of studies that investigate the range of intraoral temperatures during function have been published (Table 1), considering that thanks to the buffering effect of the oral environment, the temperatures at the tooth surface may never reach the actual temperatures of ingested hot and cold fluids (Li et al., 2002; Cenci et al., 2008).

Table 1 – Intraoral temperature ranges measured during in vivo studies. First author

Min temp- Max temp (1C)

Thermal cycling protocol proposed

Moore et al. (1999)

No data

Youngson and Barclay (2000)

5.6–58.5 1C (incisor sites) 7.9–54 1C (premolar sites) 15.4–68 1C

Ernst et al. (2004) Barclay et al. (2005) Mair and Padipatvuthikul (2010)

13.7–52.8 1C 0–70 1C 0–60/65 1C

65 1C for 45 1C for 35 1C for 10 1C for 25 1C for 35 1C for No data No data No data

5 s. 25 s. 30 s. 5 s. 25 s. 30 s.

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4.2.

Dwell times

Dwell time is the period of time that the specimen is immersed in a bath of a particular temperature (Schmid-Schwap et al., 2011). It corresponds to a latency period, which is required by the oral capacity to reach its normal temperature again, after consuming hot or cold food and drink. Unfortunately, the choice of dwell times in experimental studies appears arbitrary and no effect of dwell time on results has been clearly established (Helvatjoglu-Antoniades et al., 2004a; Kenshima et al., 2004; De Munck et al., 2005; Cavalcanti et al., 2007). Amaral et al. (2007) suggested that patients would not tolerate direct contact of a vital tooth with extremely hot or cold substances for extended period of time. For this reason, several studies proposed to use shorter dwell times (10 s or 15 s), which may simulate more faithfully the abrupt changes of temperature that occur in the oral cavity (Li et al., 2002; Helvatjoglu-Antoniades et al., 2004a; Ernst et al., 2004). Doerr et al. (1996) even decided to use a shorter dwell time (5 s) in their experimental study. According to this proposed shorter dwell time protocol, recently Schmid-Schwap et al. (2011) suggested that in vivo maximum exposure time of a tooth to an extremely hot or cold temperature, respectively, could be considered 2–5 s, after which the tooth returns to the oral temperature.

4.3.

Number of cycles

The biggest problem has always been how to estimate the number of cycles that correspond to one year of physiological aging in the oral cavity. There are still no reports that have been found about the number of thermal cycles per unit time in vivo. Historically, every author who tried to suggest a specific number of cycles for thermal cycling regimen, did not base their conclusion on researched data, therefore the choice of this parameter, in many studies, is widely dissimilar and seems to be selected by convenience. In other terms, the number of cycles is usually randomly set which makes it difficult to compare published results (Amaral et al., 2007). Although the International Organization for Standardization (International Standards Organization, 1994), in 1994 considered a protocol of 500 cycles as appropriate in simulating the aging of biomaterials, many studies suggest that 500 cycles are a limited number to represent an adequate aging time (Gale and Darvell, 1999; Amaral et al., 2007; Stewardson et al., 2010). Stewardson et al. (2010), for example, claimed that the 500 cycles would only correspond to the number of cycles estimated to occur in less than 2 months in the mouth. Michailesco et al. (1995) suggested 30 thermocycles occur during each meal, which at three meals per day, equates to about 33,000 thermocycles per year. Gale and Darvell (1999) postulated that approximately 10,000 thermal cycles correspond to 1 year of clinical function. This estimate is based on the hypothesis that such cycles might occur 20 to 50 times a day and it is accepted by many authors (De Munck et al., 2005; Amaral et al., 2007; Ulker et al., 2010; Xie et al., 2010; Özel Bektas et al., 2012).

299

Ehrenberg and Weiner (2000) proposed a different system, using thermalcycling and mechanical loading to simulate clinical condition in the oral cavity. He hypothesized that 50,000 cycles of occlusal loading and 8000 cycles of thermal cycling simulate 6–8 weeks of function in the oral cavity. Bayne (2012) recently suggested that temperature of food and liquids, quantities of them, and frequency of consumption vary among individuals. If one should drink 100 ounces of water per day, the potential for cold cycling per year is 50.000 cycles. If we are interested in the 10-year service life of a restoration, then thermal cycling probably should be conducted for 500.000 cycles or more. The following table (Table 2) shows thermal cycling protocols applied in experimental studies published since 1998, leaving out those published before that date, already included in the previous review by Gale and Darvell (1999). On the basis of the main thermal cycling protocols proposed in the last twenty years by International Standards Organization (1994) and by Gale and Darvell (1999) (Table 3), only twenty-three studies have faithfully applied ISO standard in their experimental protocols (Table 2). Four other studies used only in part the previous protocol, adopting a shorter dwell time (15 s) (Loguercio et al., 2002a,b; Amra et al., 2007). However, there is no study that followed exactly the protocol more recently introduced by Gale and Darvell (1999). The majority of authors have used their own protocols and variables, in most cases, on the basis of convenience. Temperature was the only parameter to show, over the years, a constant use during the in vitro tests. According to ISO standard, several studies reported temperatures of 5 1C and 55 1C to test dental materials, considering these values as the closest to the physiology of the oral cavity (Table 2). However some authors have opted for a thermal cycling regime that used more than 2 values of temperature: Helvatjoglu-Antoniades et al. (2000, 2004a, 2004b) (5–37–55– 37 1C); Aguilar et al. (2002) (5–37 1C/37–55 1C); Barclay et al. (2002) (5–22–50–22 1C); Göhring et al. (2005) (5–50–5 1C); Li et al. (2002) (5–45 1C72 1C/5–55 1C72 1C); Upadhyay and Rao (2011) (4–37–6072 1C); Mathew et al., (2001) (6–37–54–37 1C); Staninec et al. (2008) (5–37–55 1C). The choice of dwell time, instead, seems to be rather arbitrary, showing a great variability in the different studies. Popular dwell times of exposure to each temperature extreme have ranged between 10 s, 15 s, 30 s, 55 s, 60 s, 2 min and 3 min (Table 2). Regarding the number of cycles determined by authors, the choice was equally varied and not very well explained. The number of cycles used in experimental studies published in the last 15 years, have been ranged between 100 cycles (Mathew et al., 2001; Stojanac et al., 2009) and 100.000 cycles (Moreau et al., 2012). A small group of authors have followed the principle that 10,000 cycles correspond to one year of physiological aging in the oral cavity, as claimed by Gale and Darvell (1999), Hatanaka et al. (2006), De Munck et al. (2005), Saboia et al. (2009), Stewardson et al. (2010), Xie et al. (2010), Özel Bektas et al. (2012). Some studies selected an increased number of cycles in their experimental protocols, to determine if there was a direct relation with properties modification of tested materials (Table 2). In any case, most of the authors decided to apply a number of cycles less than the

300

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Table 2 – Thermal cycling regimens and experimental conditions. First Author

Number of cycles

Dwell time

Temperature

Miyazaki et al. (1998)

3.000–10.000– 30.000 500

No data 30 s

5–60 1C

1.000 5.000 3000

30 s 1 min 15 s

Dörfer et al. (2000)

1000

Hakimeh et al. (2000) Stoll et al. (2000), Rosin et al. (2002), Gharizadeh et al. (2007), Erdilek et al. (2009) Kawano et al. (2001)

2.880 2.000 5.000–10.000– 20.000 1.500

No data 1 min 30 s 1 min

6–60 1C 5–55 1C 5–37–55– 37 1C 5–60 1C

Xalabarde et al. (1998), Wahab et al. (2003), Idriss et al. (2003), Deliperi et al. (2004), Cenci et al. (2004), Aysegül et al. (2005), Wattanawongpitak et al. (2006), Salim et al. (2006), Deliperi et al. (2007), De V Habekost et al. (2007), Ferreira and Vieira (2008), Rajbaran et al. (2009), Schmoldt et al. (2011), Rüttermann et al. (2013) Toledano et al. (1999) Fraunhofer et al. (2000) Helvatjoglou-Antoniades et al. (2000)

Chuang et al. (2001)

5–55 1C

4–60 1C 5–55 1C 4–60 1C 5–60 1C

5–60 1C 5–55 1C 4–60 1C 4–60 1C 3–6072 1C 6–37–54– 37 1C 5–55 1C

Manhart et al. (2001), Sensi et al. (2005), Duarte et al. (2009b), Al-Saleh et al. (2010), Cehreli et al. (2010), Kasraei et al. (2011), Freeman et al. (2012), Poptani et al. (2012), Khoroushi et al. (2013), Shafiei et al. (2013), Kubo et al. (2001), Kubo et al. (2003), Kubo et al. (2004a), Kubo et al. (2004b) Raskin et al. (2001) Yoshida et al. (2001) Yoshikawa et al. (2001) Medina Tirado et al. (2001) Mathew et al. (2001)

1.000

No data 30 s

5.000 250–500 5000 300 2000 100

15 s 30 s 1 min 30 s 30 s 30 s

Wegner et al. (2002)

37.500

Aguilar et al. (2002)

3.000

No data 1 min

Loguercio et al. (2002a), Loguercio et al. (2002b), Amra et al. (2007) Neme et al, (2002), Brackett et al. (2004), Kenshima et al. (2004), Magalhães et al. (2005), Nalcaci and Ulusoy (2007), Lodovici et al. (2009) Besnault and Attal (2002) Li et al. (2002)

500 1.000

15 s 1 min

5–37 1C/37– 55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C

2.000 500–1.500 5-55 1C72 1C 5.000

10 s 15 s

5–55 1C 5–45 1C72 1C

30 s

5–55 1C

3.000

55 s

1500 125–625–1.250– 2.000 700 3.000 6.000 500

60 s 30 s

5–22–50– 22 1C 5–5572 1C 5–55 1C

1 min 1 min 30 s 20 s

5–55 1C 5–55 1C 7–63 1C 5–55 1C

5.000

30– 35 s 15 s

5–55 1C

Ernst et al. (2002), Akişli et al. (2002), Akişli et al. (2003), Bitter et al. (2006), Janda et al. (2006), Papacchini et al. (2007), Ozcan et al. (2007), Kitayama et al. (2007), Monticelli et al. (2007), Ernst et al. (2008), Koenraads et al. (2009), D'Arcangelo et al. (2009), Schmage et al. (2009), Souza et al. (2010), Rinastiti et al. (2011), Sampaio et al. (2011), Dimitrouli et al. (2012), Kuroda et al. (2012), Schmage et al. (2012), Bauer and Ilie (2013), Arslan et al. (2013) Barclay et al. (2002) Bedran de Castro et al., 2002 Nikaido et al. (2002) Cardoso et al. (2002), Poskus et al. (2004) Aguiar et al. (2002), Aguiar et al. (2003), Purton et al. (2003) Drummond and Bapna (2003) Bishara et al. (2003), Bishara et al. (2007), Shafiei and Memarpour (2009), Fabianelli et al. (2010), Pires et al. (2013) Kim et al. (2003) Pazinatto et al. (2003) Civelek et al. (2003), Bedran-de-Castro et al. (2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2004d), Lee et al. (2004) Tezvergil et al. (2003), Tezvergil et al. (2005) Cavalcante et al. (2003), Mitsui et al. (2006), Owens et al. (2006) Huang et al. (2004) Keski-Nikkola et al. (2004), Meriç and Ruyter (2007)

500–1.000– 2.500–5.000 2.000 6.000 1.000 500–1.000– 2.000–3.000 12.000

5–55 1C

5–55 1C72 1C

No data 30 s 1 min 15 s

5–55 1C

30 s

5–55 1C

5–55 1C72 1C 5–55 1C72 1C 5–55 1C

journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 29 (2014) 295 –308

301

Table 2 (continued ) First Author

Number of cycles

Dwell time

Temperature

Yazici et al. (2004) Helvatjoglu-Antoniades et al. (2004a) Helvatjoglu-Antoniades et al. (2004b) Göhring et al. (2005)

200 5.000 3.000 3.000

4–60 1C 5–37–55–5 1C 5–37–55–5 1C 5–50–5 1C

Ziskind et al. (2005) Smisson et al. (2005) Naughton and Latta (2005) Dos Santos et al. (2005) De Munck et al. (2005), Senawongse et al. (2011) Fennis et al. (2005), Bell et al. (2005), Ozcan et al. (2005), Ozcan et al. (2006), Ovul et al. (2011) Martinhon and Vieira (2005), Corona et al. (2005), Do Nascimento et al. (2008), Ebrahimi et al. (2013) Guéders et al. (2006) Suzuki et al. (2006) Kwon et al. (2006)

750 9.000 850 500 20.000 6.000 500

1 min 15 s 15 s No data 1 min 20 s 1 min 1 min 30 s 30 s 1 min

4–6072 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 4–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C

30 s 20 s 30 s

5–55 1C 4–55 1C 4–60 1C

No data 30 s 1 min 3 min 1 min 30 s

5–60 1C

30 s

5–55 1C

1 min 2 min 30 s No data 30 s 30 s 30 s 30– 60 s 5–20– 5s No data 1 min No data 20 s 60 s 15 s 30 s 30 s 15 s 30 s 30 s

5–55 1C 5–50 1C 0–55 1C 5–55 1C

Amano et al. (2006), Asaka et al. (2007) Asaka et al. (2006) Hatanaka et al. (2006) Abdalla et al. (2007) El-Araby and Talic (2007), Shimizu et al. (2009) Nakata et al. (2007) Knobloch et al. (2007), Sadeghi and Lynch (2009), Feitosa et al. (2010), Mortazavi et al. (2012), Davari et al. (2013) Rocha et al. (2007) Stavridakis et al. (2007) Nam et al. (2007) Frankenberger et al. (2007)

800 5000 2000, 5000, 10.000 10.000–20.000 10.000 20.000 5.000 10.000 1.000–2.000– 3.000 1.500 2.000 3.000 1000 2500

D'Arcangelo et al. (2007a, 2007b, 2007c), D'Arcangelo et al. (2008a) Elekdag-Turk et al. (2008) Koyuturk et al. (2008), Ulker et al. (2010) Cenci et al. (2008)

10.000 2.000–5.000 10.000 500–1.000

Staninec et al. (2008)

1000

Saboia et al. (2009)

60.000

Almeida et al. (2009) Ikeda et al. (2009)

500 10.000

Latta et al. (2009) Stojanac et al. (2009) Gaspar Junior Ade et al. (2009) Ritter et al. (2009) Mazzoni et al. (2009) Duarte et al. (2009a) Stewardson et al. (2010) Catalbas et al. (2010) Yuasa et al. (2010)

6000 100 5000 1800 40.000 20.000 10.000 5.000–10.000– 15.000–20.000 6.000

Xie et al. (2010) Korkmaz et al. (2010)

5.000–10.000 500

Geerts et al. (2010), Geerts et al. (2012)

800

Al-Boni and Raja (2010), Hosseini et al. (2012) Monteiro et al. (2011) Upadhyay and Rao (2011)

200 500 250

No data 30 s No data No data 30 s 15 s 30 s

5–60 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C

5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–5572 1C 5–55 1C 5–37–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–5572 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 4–5872 1C 5–5572 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–60 1C 10–50 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–55 1C 5–5573 1C 4–37– 6072 1C

302

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Table 2 (continued ) First Author

Number of cycles

Dwell time

Temperature

Jiang et al. (2011) Umer et al. (2011) Mazzitelli et al. (2012) Özel Bektas et al. (2012)

15 s 60 s 30 s 30 s

5–55 1C 5–5572 1C 5–50 1C 5–55 1C

Kimyai et al. (2012) Singla et al. (2012a) Singla et al. (2012b) Kim and Shin (2012) Joulaei et al. (2012)

1.000 200 5.000 1.000–5.000– 10.000 500 200 250 10.000 5000

5–5575 1C 5–55 1C 5–6072 1C 5–55 1C 5–5575 1C

Ghandehari et al. (2012) Poggio et al. (2012) Moreau et al. (2012) Taha et al. (2012) Jafari Navimipour et al. (2012) Poggio et al. (2013) Schlueter et al. (2013)

3000 1000 105 5000 500 1500 8500

30 s 1 min 30 s 15 s No data 20 s 60 s 15 s 20 s 30 s 60 s 30 s

Table 3 – Main thermal cycling protocols proposed in the last twenty years. Thermal cycling protocol ISO TR 11405 (1994)

Gale and Darvell (1999)

- Number of cycles: 500 cycles - Temperature: 5–55 1C - Dwell time: Z20 s. - Number of cycles: 10.000 - Temperature and Dwell time: 35 1C for 28 s. 15 1C for 2 s. 35 1C for 28 s. 45 1C for 2 s

10,000 cycles suggested by Gale and Darvell (1999), showing to not share the idea that this number of cycles correspond to one year of aging in vivo (Table 2).

5.

Conclusions

In vitro tests still remain an indispensable method for initial screening of dental materials and, between the available protocols, thermal cycling seems to be a valid in vitro method to accelerate the aging of restorative materials (Amaral et al., 2007; Cenci et al., 2008). Unfortunately, although this aging method is, together with the cyclic loading, the most widely used and necessary to evaluate dental materials properties there is an apparent lack of a standardized protocol evident from our comparison across different studies. The choice of parameters for thermal cycling (temperature, dwell time, number of cycles) seems to be commonly chosen on the basis of convenience. Authors in their experimental studies rarely give a thorough explanation for the choice of temperature and time conditions. The varied number of cycles, temperatures, dwell

5–55 1C 5–60 1C 5–60 1C 5–55 1C 5–5572 1C 5–60 1C 5–55 1C

time and intervals between baths hinder in the comparison of results across studies. Consequently, results obtained from thermal cycling are contradictory (Amaral et al., 2007). Taking everything into consideration, we can only propose that further investigations are absolutely necessary in order to develop a standardized and a reliable thermal cycling protocol, so that the results of different studies can be compared and effectively analyzed.

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