Scand. J . Psychol., 1975,16, 209-216.
The role of audition and motion in the spatial orientation of the blind and the sighted University of Tampere, Finland
JYRKI JUURMAA KYOSTI SUONIO
hypotheses concerning the effect of various factors on the spatial orientation of the blind and the sighted are presented. The role of audition, motion, interruption of pelformance and the use of a support aid are studied. Four of the hypotheses were confirmed.
Abstract.-Five
The present study is based o n a n earlier investigation b y Juurmaa in which a n attempt was made t o analyse the interrelationships between spatial ability, obstacle sense and auditory accuracy among the blind (Juurmaa, 1965). The performance of the blindfolded sighted subjects turned out to be poorer than that of the blind in all the orientation tests, and a strong positive correlation was observed between orientation performance and auditive accuracy among the blind. Whether the experimental condition favoured the blind remained a n open question. A plausible explanation for the inferior performance of the sighted might b e that the absence of visual cues affects the performance component as far as the sense of equilibrium is concerned. This study is concerned with the effect of various factors on the mastering of spatial locomotion patterns including direction and distance and the readiness to perform previously learned patterns. A general goal we strive for is t o determine the prerequisites, i.e. the necessary conditions, for the mastering of space in the absence of vision. Hypotheses 1. Elimination of audition impairs performance. 2. Lack of auditive cues impairs the performance of the blind more than that of the sighted. 3. Employing kinesthetic-proprioceptive cues has a strong facilitating effect on spatial orientation. 4. The use of a n aid facilitates the orientation performance of the sighted more than that of the blind. 5. Interference in the kinesthetic rhythm and temporal relations impairs performance. 14-751949
METHOD
Subjects Five congenitally blind, 5 accidentally blinded and 5 sighted Ss between the ages of 19 and 45 participated in the experiments. All the Ss were in good physical health, had normal hearing and showed no disturbance in the sense of equilibrium. Experimental arrangements (1) Elimination of vision. In each experiment all the Ss were blindfolded. Opaque goggles with tight foam rubber frames were used. According to the Ss’ reports no light could be perceived through the goggles or through the frames. The experiments were camed out in dim and even light. The windows were covered with heavy curtains, impervious to light. (2) Elimination of audition. The Ss were supplied with ear plugs and noise fenders of the type commonly used in factories-which reduced the noise to 50-80 dB within the range of 500 to 8 OOO cps. The S could not hear loud speech at a distance, but could distinguish a loud voice nearby. It was impossible for the Ss to locate the origin of the sounds. (3) Conveyance. The S was either led by the hand by the experimenter, or in the experiments where the internal cues were to be eliminated, he stood in a vehicle pushed by the experimenter. Under both conditions an effort was made to maintain constant speed. The S was stopped before making a turn of 45,Wor 135 degrees. (4) Walking with an@d. A device was constructed of light metal with four rubber wheels mounted on bearings and an elbow support which could be adjusted according to the height of the S. The S could lean on it during normal walking. The device was easy to move and turn around. ( 5 ) Interference in the kinesthetic rhythm and in the temporal relations. In these experiments the Ss were stopped at random after a distance varying between 2 and 5 meters. Orientation tests The blind and the sighted were subjected to three types of test. The experiments were carried out in a hall measuring 17 by 11 meters and 5.5 meters in height. A rope at 1 meter’s distance from the wall prevented the Ss from bumping into the wall as otherwise the fear of bumping into the wall might have disturbed the Ss’ performance. Scand. J . Psychol. 16
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I. Test items; Locomotion patterns.
(1) Closed locomotion patterns. The test comprised 18 items to which the Ss were subjected in random order. The S was first led by hand by the experimenter, or pushed in a vehicle, after which he had to retrace the same route by himself. A grid, 10 by 5 meters with lines at one meter’s distance was marked out in the middle of the hall; the distance between the grid and the rope vaned between 2 and 2.5 meters. The performance of the S was registered on a piece of paper with a similar grid. The errors in registering varied between f0.5 meters. The scoring was based on the accuracy with which the route was patterned, i.e. on the apprehension of its shape and size. The same method of scoring was applied to all items. The Ss were awarded from 0 to 8 points for each item. (2) Return to the starting point. The S was first conducted along a path which formed an open pattern, and then he had to return by himself to the starting point. The test consisted of 17 open patterns and one closed. The distance by which the S missed the starting point was recorded with an accuracy of 0.5 meters. (3) Straight line experiment. The S was first led by the experimenter, or pushed in a vehicle, along a straight line. The S then turned around and he had to walk alone to the starting point. The test consisted of 7 items, and the lines varied in length between 3 and 10 meters. The distance by which the S missed the target was recorded. Scnnd. J . Psychol. 16
Calculationprocedure The data were subjected to analyses of variance. The final score of the S was the sum of his scores in each of the items. As the same items were included in more than one variable a complete randomization was considered necessary. Thus the errors due to experimental design could be levelled out. The small number of subjects hardly anows generalizations to be made concerning the characteristics of the groups, but if a congenitally blind-even a single S-is capable of performing a particular task under certain conditions, this provides us with valuable information about the prerequisites of mastering space.
RESULTS The role of motion Action facilitates performance (Tables 1 4 ) . The results can be interpreted to support Hypothesis 3. The simpler the task, the stronger the effect of motion. The difference between the active and the passive situation was most conspicuous in the straight line experiment (Table 4). When the pattern
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The role of audition and motion in the spatial orientation of the blind and the sighted University of Tampere, Finland
JYRKI JUURMAA KYOSTI SUONIO
hypotheses concerning the effect of various factors on the spatial orientation of the blind and the sighted are presented. The role of audition, motion, interruption of pelformance and the use of a support aid are studied. Four of the hypotheses were confirmed.
Abstract.-Five
The present study is based o n a n earlier investigation b y Juurmaa in which a n attempt was made t o analyse the interrelationships between spatial ability, obstacle sense and auditory accuracy among the blind (Juurmaa, 1965). The performance of the blindfolded sighted subjects turned out to be poorer than that of the blind in all the orientation tests, and a strong positive correlation was observed between orientation performance and auditive accuracy among the blind. Whether the experimental condition favoured the blind remained a n open question. A plausible explanation for the inferior performance of the sighted might b e that the absence of visual cues affects the performance component as far as the sense of equilibrium is concerned. This study is concerned with the effect of various factors on the mastering of spatial locomotion patterns including direction and distance and the readiness to perform previously learned patterns. A general goal we strive for is t o determine the prerequisites, i.e. the necessary conditions, for the mastering of space in the absence of vision. Hypotheses 1. Elimination of audition impairs performance. 2. Lack of auditive cues impairs the performance of the blind more than that of the sighted. 3. Employing kinesthetic-proprioceptive cues has a strong facilitating effect on spatial orientation. 4. The use of a n aid facilitates the orientation performance of the sighted more than that of the blind. 5. Interference in the kinesthetic rhythm and temporal relations impairs performance. 14-751949
METHOD
Subjects Five congenitally blind, 5 accidentally blinded and 5 sighted Ss between the ages of 19 and 45 participated in the experiments. All the Ss were in good physical health, had normal hearing and showed no disturbance in the sense of equilibrium. Experimental arrangements (1) Elimination of vision. In each experiment all the Ss were blindfolded. Opaque goggles with tight foam rubber frames were used. According to the Ss’ reports no light could be perceived through the goggles or through the frames. The experiments were camed out in dim and even light. The windows were covered with heavy curtains, impervious to light. (2) Elimination of audition. The Ss were supplied with ear plugs and noise fenders of the type commonly used in factories-which reduced the noise to 50-80 dB within the range of 500 to 8 OOO cps. The S could not hear loud speech at a distance, but could distinguish a loud voice nearby. It was impossible for the Ss to locate the origin of the sounds. (3) Conveyance. The S was either led by the hand by the experimenter, or in the experiments where the internal cues were to be eliminated, he stood in a vehicle pushed by the experimenter. Under both conditions an effort was made to maintain constant speed. The S was stopped before making a turn of 45,Wor 135 degrees. (4) Walking with an@d. A device was constructed of light metal with four rubber wheels mounted on bearings and an elbow support which could be adjusted according to the height of the S. The S could lean on it during normal walking. The device was easy to move and turn around. ( 5 ) Interference in the kinesthetic rhythm and in the temporal relations. In these experiments the Ss were stopped at random after a distance varying between 2 and 5 meters. Orientation tests The blind and the sighted were subjected to three types of test. The experiments were carried out in a hall measuring 17 by 11 meters and 5.5 meters in height. A rope at 1 meter’s distance from the wall prevented the Ss from bumping into the wall as otherwise the fear of bumping into the wall might have disturbed the Ss’ performance. Scand. J . Psychol. 16
210 1,
:q :p;tY :p: 4 iJ p: 1 7 I
J . Juurmaa and K . Suonio
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F; . . . . .
.
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. . _ . . . .
I. Test items; Locomotion patterns.
(1) Closed locomotion patterns. The test comprised 18 items to which the Ss were subjected in random order. The S was first led by hand by the experimenter, or pushed in a vehicle, after which he had to retrace the same route by himself. A grid, 10 by 5 meters with lines at one meter’s distance was marked out in the middle of the hall; the distance between the grid and the rope vaned between 2 and 2.5 meters. The performance of the S was registered on a piece of paper with a similar grid. The errors in registering varied between f0.5 meters. The scoring was based on the accuracy with which the route was patterned, i.e. on the apprehension of its shape and size. The same method of scoring was applied to all items. The Ss were awarded from 0 to 8 points for each item. (2) Return to the starting point. The S was first conducted along a path which formed an open pattern, and then he had to return by himself to the starting point. The test consisted of 17 open patterns and one closed. The distance by which the S missed the starting point was recorded with an accuracy of 0.5 meters. (3) Straight line experiment. The S was first led by the experimenter, or pushed in a vehicle, along a straight line. The S then turned around and he had to walk alone to the starting point. The test consisted of 7 items, and the lines varied in length between 3 and 10 meters. The distance by which the S missed the target was recorded. Scnnd. J . Psychol. 16
Calculationprocedure The data were subjected to analyses of variance. The final score of the S was the sum of his scores in each of the items. As the same items were included in more than one variable a complete randomization was considered necessary. Thus the errors due to experimental design could be levelled out. The small number of subjects hardly anows generalizations to be made concerning the characteristics of the groups, but if a congenitally blind-even a single S-is capable of performing a particular task under certain conditions, this provides us with valuable information about the prerequisites of mastering space.
RESULTS The role of motion Action facilitates performance (Tables 1 4 ) . The results can be interpreted to support Hypothesis 3. The simpler the task, the stronger the effect of motion. The difference between the active and the passive situation was most conspicuous in the straight line experiment (Table 4). When the pattern
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