© 2014 American Psychological Association 0893-3200/14/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/IO.1037/a0036819
Journal of Family Psychology 2014, Vol. 28, No. 3,308-314
The Relationship Between Perceived Parenting Style, Filial Piety, and Life Satisfaction in Hong Kong Wei-Wen Chen University of Macau This study examined the relationship between perceived parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction among Chinese young adults. A survey was administered to 395 university students in Hong Kong on their perceptions about their parents' parenting practices, filial piety beliefs, and life satisfaction. The results suggest that perceived authoritative parenting is associated with reciprocal filial piety and contributes positively to the young adults' life satisfaction. Both perceived authoritative and authoritarian parenting were associated with authoritarian filial piety, but authoritarian filial piety was not associated with young adults' life satisfaction. Due to the familial interdependence emphasized in the Chinese cultural context, Chinese adolescents' filial beliefs are related to the parenting they have experienced, and these beliefs may be associated with their psychosocial outcomes. Keywords: parenting style, filial piety, life satisfaction
parenting is not necessarily negative in Chinese cultures because it is viewed as a way of showing concern and involvement (Chao & Tseng, 2002). The present study sought to address this gap in the literature by examining the process by which parenting practices influence young adults' life satisfaction in the Chinese cultural context. To better understand how parents may influence children's development, Bandura's (2008) model of learning and development provides insight into this process. Cognition is the key to explain how experiences in the environment affect behavioral and psychological outcomes. As individuals with personal agency, children socially construct their meanings in experiences, and their cognitions determine the effects of these experiences on their behavioral and psychological outcomes. Children process information from social settings (e.g., family) and form their own value systems, which eventually guide their interactions with the world. Marchant, Paulson, and Rothlisberg (2001) proposed that parental influence on children's functioning occurs when children intentionally and cognitively interpret messages provided by their interactions with their parents. It is the children's cognitive appraisal of parenting, rather than the parenting per se, that influences their own developmental outcomes. Thus, sociocultural values are transmitted from parents to children through such family socialization process (Urdan, Solek, & Schoenfelder, 2007). In Confucian society, the principle of filial piety underlies parenting (Chao & Tseng, 2002). Filial piety is defined as the important virtue and responsibility for children to respect, care for, and bring honor to their families (Ho, 1996). Filial piety is a basis of familial interdependence, particularly behavioral norms for children. Its duties include offering emotional and material support to parents and other older people, showing them respect, love, and deference, attending to their needs and complying with their wishes, as well as showing veneration for ancestors (Yeh, 2003). Filial piety is a guiding principle of Chinese socialization that outlines the way in which children should interact with their parents (Ho, 1996). Thus, if filial piety is considered part of a
Baumrind's framework on parenting styles (Baumrind, 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983) is a well known and frequently used concept to explore parenting quality and its influence on children's life outcomes. Parenting styles are based on how demanding or responsive parents are (also referred to as behavioral control or restrictive vs. warmth or support). One style, authoritative parenting, is defined as parents placing maturity demands on their children while being responsive, and providing affection, autonomy, and support. These parents' standards and expectations are developmentally appropriate to their children's needs and capabilities. On the other hand, authoritarian parents are also demanding of children but unresponsive, providing a strict environment in which tolerance of mistakes or inappropriate behavior is low (Steinberg, 2011). Previous research has consistently found that authoritative parenting has a positive effect on children's psychosocial functioning, whereas authoritarian parenting has a negative effect (Shek, 2002). An important indicator of subjective well-being is life satisfaction. Research has found that an authoritative parenting is positively associated with children's life satisfaction (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2007; Suido & Huebner, 2004). However, little attention has focused on the process by which children's parenting styles contribute to their life satisfaction. In addition, it is unclear whether these findings, mostly based on studies of Western populations, are applicable to other ethnic groups, specifically of Chinese families, where familial interdependence is more strongly emphasized (Chao & Tseng, 2002). Chinese children's performance is strongly tied to their parents' life accomplishment. Known as the "tiger mom/dad," authoritarian
This article was published Online First May 12, 2014. I am very grateful to Byerly Woodward for her help in editing and proofreading this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Wei-Wen Chen, Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Av. Padre Tomás Pereira Taipa, Macau, China. E-mail: [email protected] 308
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culture-specific value system that dictates how children should support their parents, it may be actively constructed and internalized via a culturally specific parenting style. Unfortunately, few empirical studies have examined the relationship between filial piety and Chinese parenting styles. Wong, Leung, and McBride-Chang (2010) found that Hong Kong young adults' filial piety beliefs moderated the relationship between perceived maternal parenting style and the quality of the motheradolescent relationship; the more adolescent valued filial piety, the greater maternal control was exerted, leading to a positive influence on mother-child relationships in Hong Kong. The impact of filial piety on child and adolescent development is still unclear. Some studies have shown that holding strong beliefs about filial piety has a beneficial effect, such as lowering parent-child conflict (Yeh & Bedford, 2004). However, other studies have revealed negative effects, including an increase of negative parenting behavior, such as overprotection and harshness (Yeh, 2003). These contradictory findings led Yeh and Bedford (2004) to develop the dual filial piety model. The model recognizes two distinct types of filial piety; reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety. Reciprocal filial piety is characterized by reciprocity and a natural, intimate, and affectionate parent-child relationship. Reciprocal filial behaviors include respecting and attending to one's parents, caring for them in their old age, and honoring them when they are dead. The beliefs and behaviors of these children are based on gratitude to their parents and the desire to repay their efforts in raising and caring for them. Thus, the influences of reciprocal fllial piety are generally positive (e.g., enhanced interpersonal relationships, fewer parent-child conflicts) (Yeh & Bedford, 2004). In contrast, authoritarian filial piety emphasizes submissiveness and hierarchy. For instance, children are expected to subjugate their own wishes to those of their parents, to maintain the family reputation, and to feel obligated to continue the family line. The filial beliefs and behaviors of these children are based on compliance with cultural norms and are driven by their parents' seniority. Authoritarian filial piety generally has a negative effect on developmental outcomes (e.g., higher levels of depression, anxiety, and aggression) (Yeh, 2006). The dual filial piety model is not only a Confucian belief but also a culture-specific indicator of the child's perspective on parent-child relationships (Chen & Ho, 2012). Previous research has found that reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety have dissociable effects on adolescent psychological functioning. For example, Leung, Wong, Wong, and McBride-Chang (2010) reported that, after controlling for children's age, educational achievement, and perceived parental warmth, reciprocal filial piety was positively associated with life satisfaction and social competence. Authoritarian filial piety was negatively correlated with selfesteem and social competence (Leung et al., 2010). Yeh and colleagues (Huang & Yeh, 2013; Yeh & Cheng, 2005) also found that perceived authoritative parenting was conducive to the development of both reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety, whereas authoritarian parenting only contributed to the development of authoritarian filial piety. Although some research has examined youth, no studies have focused on college students. College students are in transition from adolescence to adulthood, a phase that has been referred to as "emerging adulthood" (Amett, 1995; Amett & Tanner, 2006).
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Improving well-being during the transition to adulthood has been the focus of considerable attention in recent years (Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006; Eccles, Brown, & Templeton, 2008; Fccles & Gootman, 2002). Eccles and colleagues (Eccles et al., 2008; Eccles & Gootman, 2002) have proposed that a good relationship and connectedness with one's parents are important social assets in making a successful transition toward adulthood. This suggests that it is important to explore the relationships among perceived parenting style, filial piety, and college students' life satisfaction. The conceptual model presented in Figure 1 is based on previous empirical studies. Children who perceive their parents to be warm and democratic (i.e., have an authoritative parenting style) are more likely to have a reciprocal, natural, intimate, and affectionate relationship with their parents (reciprocal filial piety), but they also recognize their obligations and duties as sons and daughters (authoritarian filial piety). Such positive dynamics in the parent-child relationship may contribute to children's life satisfaction. When children perceive their parents as strict and demanding (i.e., an authoritarian parenting style), their interaction with their parents is likely to be based on the hierarchical family structure and cultural norms. This more negative parent-child dynamic may negatively impact the young adults' life satisfaction. As shown in Figure 1, perceived authoritative parenting is hypothesized to be positively associated with both reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial piety. It was expected that youth who perceive their parents as authoritative would endorse both reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety, and have higher levels of life satisfaction. Youth who view their parents as authoritarian were expected to support only authoritarian filial piety. It was expected that perceptions of authoritarian filial piety would negatively impact their life satisfaction.
Method Participants Participants were 395 Chinese university students between 18 and 22 years of age (M = 20.64 years, SD = .97) who resided in Hong Kong (256 females, 139 males). They were first-year (50.1%) and second-year (49.9%) students, majoring in education
Figure I. Conceptual model (-1- refers to the positive relation and refers to the negative relation).
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from two universities with similar rank. Ninety-five percent of participants came from one university and 5% from the other. About a quarter of young adults' fathers (27.0%) and mothers (29%) were primary school graduates. The majority of young adults' fathers (35.1%) and mothers (33.3%) completed junior high school; 22.1% of young adults' fathers and 27.1% mothers graduated from high school; and 12.3% of young adults' fathers and 10.9% of mothers completed college or higher. Exactly 93.2% of participants responded to self-reported questionnaires, which were in Mandarin; all scale translations were the back-translated. The original and the back translations of the questions were evaluated for consistency of meaning, and any discrepancies were agreed on by two reviewers.
1985) to measure young adults' global life satisfaction. The Chinese version consists of five items rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = .strongly agree). Sum score was created; a higher score indicates greater life satisfaction. An example item of life satisfaction is: "In most ways my life is close to my ideal." Cronbach's alpha was .86. Confirmatory analysis (Sachs, 2003) has shown that the SWLS measures a unidimensional construct with good validity.
Data Analysis Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the models discussed in the Figure 1. AMOS, Version 17.0, software was used (Arbuckle, 2008) for data analysis.
Measures Background information. Young adults were asked to provide data on their age, gender, and the educational level of their parents. Perceived parenting style. The present study adapted subscales from the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ; Buri, 1991) to measure young adults' perception of their parents' parenting styles. The Chinese version of the PAQ was validated using a sample of college students, and two factors were included in the present study: authoritative (10 items) and authoritarian (10 items) parenting. Participants rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). Sum scores were used for each parenting style. An example item of authoritative parents is: "As I was growing up, my parents gave me clear direction for my behaviors and activities, but they were also understanding when I disagreed with them." An example of authoritarian parents is: "As I was growing up, my parents let me know what behavior they expected of me, and if I didn't meet those expectations, they punished me." Cronbach's alphas for the authoritative and authoritarian subscales were .84 and .78, respectively. The PAQ has shown good validity in Asian societies (see Ang & Goh, 2006) and has been a reliable indicator of parenting styles in Hong Kong adolescents and college students in previous research (e.g., K. W. Chan & Chan, 2009; Lai & McBride-Chang, 2001). Filial piety. Yeh's (2003) Filial Piety Scale (FPS; Chinese version) was used to assess young adults' beliefs about filial piety. The scale consists of 16 items rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = extremely unimportant and 6 = extremely important). Two scales were created: reciprocal (eight items) and authoritarian (eight items) filial piety beliefs (see Appendix). Sum scores were used for each filial piety belief. An example item of reciprocal filial piety is: "Be concerned about my parents, as well as understand them." An example item of authoritarian filial piety is: "Give up my aspirations to meet my parents' expectations." Cronbach's alphas were .90 for reciprocal filial piety and .81 for authoritarian filial piety. Yeh (2003) and Yeh and Bedford (2003) have reported good validity for the FPS in Chinese college students. Several empirical studies in Hong Kong have used the FPS to assess young adults' filial piety beliefs (e.g., Wong et al., 2010). Life satisfaction. The present study used the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin,
Results Preliminary Analyses The proportion of missing data per item ranged from 3.35 — 11.47%. To optimize the sample size, missing values were estimated using expectation maximization. Missing values were random {p > .05), indicating that this method was appropriate (Acock, 2005). An independent t test showed that there was a significant gender difference in the young adults' life satisfaction (f = 6.85, p < .05), so gender was controlled for in subsequent analyses. Females reported significantly higher hfe satisfaction than males in the present study. A one-way analysis of variance indicated no significant differences in young adults' life satisfaction associated with paternal (F = .85, p > .05) and maternal (F = 2.21, p > .05) educational level. Age was not associated with any of the dependent variables in the present study (perceived authoritative parenting, r = .02; perceived authoritarian parenting, r = .07; reciprocal filial piety, r = .09; authoritarian filial piety, r = .05; life satisfaction, r = - . 0 1 ; ps > .05). Young adults from the two universities were similar on all demographic variables (i.e., gender, paternal educational level, and maternal educational level) and dependent variables (i.e., perceived authoritative parenting, perceived authoritarian parenting, reciprocal filial piety, and authoritarian filial piety).
Testing the Measurement Models The vahdity of latent constructs in the hypothesized strtictural model was examined through factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to test the factorial validity of the two parenting styles, two subtypes of filial piety belief, and life satisfaction. The preliminary measurement modeling resulted in a poor fit between the models and the data, so some modifications were made. Specifically, after the deletion of cross-loading items (standardized residual covariances > 2.58) or items that had low factor loadings (critical ratio estimates < 1.96, Byrne, 2001), the final measurement models of parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction all yielded a good fit. Six items were deleted from the parenting style, four items from filial piety, and one item from life satisfaction. The model resulted in an excellent fit for the measurement model of parenting style, x^(19) = 23.75 (comparative fit index [CFI] = .99, Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = .99, normed fit index [NFI] = .97, root mean square error of approximation
PARENTING STYLE, FILIAL PIETY, AND LIFE SATISFACTION
[RMSEA] = ,024, goodness-of-fit index [GFI] = ,99, adjusted goodness-of-fit index [AGFI] = ,97, parsimonious goodness-of-fit index [PGFI] = ,52, parsimonious normed fit index [PNFI] = ,66, and standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = ,038), The final measurement model of filial piety also yielded a good fit, x'(19) = 52,61 (CFI = ,97, TLI = ,96, NFI = ,99, RMSEA = ,065, GFI = ,97, AGFI = ,94, PGFI = ,51, PNFI = ,65, SRMR = ,053), The final measurement model of life satisfaction resulted in a good overall fit, x\2) = 3,22 (CFI = ,99, TLI = ,99, NFI = ,99, RMSEA = ,038, GFI = ,99, AGFI = ,98, PGFI = ,20, PNFI = ,33, SRMR = ,011), All factor loadings were significant at the p < .001 level.
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Utes to life satisfaction) was also tested. Compared with the model proposed in the present study, the alternate model resulted in a poorer model fit (CFI = ,92, TLI = ,92, NFI = ,88, RMSEA = ,060, GFI = ,91, AGFI = ,89, PGFI = ,68, PNFI = ,71, SRMR = ,078), The alternate model also had higher values for the indices of comparative fit: AIC = 455,09, ECVI = 1,08, and BIC = 669,73, According to Raftery (1995), a difference of 10 in BIC value constitutes strong evidence that the model with the smaller BIC value is a significantly better fit to the data than the other model (present study: A BIC = 18,85), Therefore, the results of the alternate model provided further support for the hypothesis that, in a Chinese context, filial piety is the construct mediating the influence of parenting style on college students' life satisfaction.
Testing the Hypothesized Structural Model Once adequate measurement models of perceived authoritative parenting, perceived authoritarian parenting, reciprocal filial piety, authoritarian filial piety, and life satisfaction had been established, the hypothesized structural model was examined. The items in the measurement models served as indicators of the respective latent constructs in the structural model. Our sample included 395 observations, and there were 81estimated parameters in the model, giving a subjects-to-parameter ratio of 4,88, which is consistent with the power requirements for SEM models (a subjects-toparameter ratio of 4:1 to 6:1 ; Bentler & Chou, 1987; Hoyle, 1991), Figure 2 shows the final structural model, x^(178) = 330,25, with a good incremental fit (CFI = ,96, TLI = ,95, NFI = ,91, IFI [incremental fit index] = ,96), a good absolute fit (RMSEA = ,045, SRMR = ,061, GFI = ,932, AGFI = .91), parsimonious fit measures of PGFI = ,72 and PNFI = ,77, and comparative fit measures of Akaike information criterion (AIC) = 436,25, expected cross-validation index (ECVI) = 1,03, and Bayesian information criterion (BIC) = 650.88, Given the excellent fit of the model and the lack of modification indices, no further modifications were made to the structural model. This model was the basis of the interpretative analysis. All structural paths in the structural model were significant. The indirect path coefficient from reciprocal filial piety to life satisfaction was ,09 ip < ,05), The structural model accounted for 14% of the variance in life satisfaction. To ascertain the direction of the structural paths proposed in the hypothesized model, the alternate model (filial piety is associated with parenting style that contrib-
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Figure 2. The structural model. Standardized coefficient estimates are shown in parentheses. *• p < ,01, '•"^i < ,001,
Discussion This study investigated emerging adults' perceptions of their parents' parenting styles and their views on filial piety and their infiuence on their life satisfaction. The findings showed that perceived parenting style was associated with the development of filial piety beliefs and life satisfaction among Hong Kong young adults. Previous studies have found that parenting styles impact the quality of parent-child relationships (Bronte-Tinkew, Moore, & Carrano, 2006; Darling & Steinberg, 1993) and children's psychosocial functioning (Shek, 2002; Proctor, Linley, & Maltby, 2009), However, there is still a dearth of empirical research on the processes of how parenting styles may infiuence children's psychosocial development. The present study contributes to the literature by exploring how filial piety—primarily, young adults' attitudes toward, and beliefs about their parents—is related to perceived parenting style, leading to a better understanding of how the dynamics of parent-child relationships influence life satisfaction in Hong Kong young adults. Researchers have considered parenting styles to be refiected in the type of relationship that parents develop with their children, thus exerting an infiuence on children's development over time (Chao, 2001; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). However, previous research has not considered children's perceptions and evaluations of their parents through a cultural lens. The present findings show that perceived authoritative parenting is positively associated with their views on reciprocal filial piety and, consequently, contributes positively to their life satisfaction, A parenting style that the child perceives as authoritative reflects a positive emotional climate and is associated with the development of reciprocal filial piety. Because reciprocal filial piety is characterized by a close bond based on mutual love and care, children with reciprocal filial piety beliefs respect and attend to their parents out of gratitude for their parents' care and guidance. When parents interact with their child rationally, affectionately, and attentively, the child perceives a positive emotional tone in the parent-child relationship. Thus children also form reciprocal, intimacy-based filial beliefs in response to warm and supportive parenting. In this way, a positive parent-child dynamic may enhance the child's life satisfaction. Consistent with previous studies (Huang & Yeh, 2013; Yeh & Cheng, 2005), results also demonstrate a positive association between perceived authoritative and authoritarian parenting as well as reciprocal filial piety. It is possible that authoritative parenting.
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characterized by a positive emotional climate, reasonable expectations, and rational communication, may be associated with a willingness on the part of the child to fulfill their filial role responsibilities. Thus, children may be more motivated to repay their parents' sacrifice by promoting reciprocal filial piety. In a Confucian society, children of authoritative parents also recognize their role in the family hierarchy. A deeply rooted sociocultural belief in familial interdependence (Chao & Tseng, 2002) means that Chinese children of authoritative parents are socialized to respect their parents' authority. Such children typically believe that they should carry out a range of familial duties, not only out of affection and love for their parents, but also to fulfill their filial obligations. The results show that perceived authoritarian parenting is positively correlated with young adults' authoritarian filial piety, but neither construct led to a contribution to their life satisfaction. Authoritarian parenfing emphasizes parental control of the child, and a very high standard of behavior, conformity, and unconditional submission to parental authority (Steinberg, 2011). This parenting style reflects a less positive emotional climate and is associated with the development of authoritarian filial piety. The suppression of children's autonomy, strictness, and insistence on compliance with parental authority that characterize authoritarian parenting may be associated with the development by the child of less positive, obligation-oriented beliefs and attitudes toward parents. Because authoritarian filial piety is based on a hierarchical family dynamic and filial obedience, children with authoritarian filial piety fulfill their filial duties and responsibilities to comply with cultural norms (Yeh, 2003, 2006). When parents interact with their children in a forceful, very authoritarian, and disciplinarian manner, the child perceives a less positive emotional tone in the parent-child relationship and thus forms authoritarian, role-based filial beliefs consistent with the rigid and severe parenting style. It should be noted that the negative association between authoritarian filial piety and life satisfaction was not significant. Although this result was unexpected, it is possible in the Chinese context and consistent with previous research (Yeh, 2003). As Yeh (2003) has argued, authoritarian filial piety does not necessarily have negative consequences in the Chinese context. There are both functional and dysfunctional aspects of authoritarianism; it conveys coherence and order, at the same time enforcing unwanted domination and restrictions in all spheres of life. This pattern may explain the nonsignificant negative association between authoritarian filial piety and life satisfaction found in the present study.
Study Limitations Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, individuals' perceptions about relationships have been shown to have validity in sociocultural research. However, in the present study, young adults' percepfions of parenting styles and their filial piety attitudes may be subject to common method variance. Both data were collected from the same source (young adults), increasing the risk of biased conclusions. Second, the SEM method used in the present study does not allow inferences about causal relationships between latent constructs
(Hong & Ho, 2005). It is plausible that the relationships between the variables in the present study are bidirectional. For instance, young adults' filial piety may influence their perception of parenting style; similarly, higher life satisfaction may produce more positive filial piety beliefs and perceptions of parenting style. The structural model in the present study demonstrates only that young adults' perceptions of parenting style may be associated with life satisfaction, and this putative association may be mediated by filial attitude. Future studies should explore the causal relationships among parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction using longitudinal data. In addifion, the present study explored young adults' perceptions of their relationships with mothers and fathers individually. Another limitation of the present study was the use of convenience sampling. College students may have higher life satisfaction and better parent-child relationships than their age cohort as a whole due to their higher level of education (Chen & Ho, 2012; Proctor et a l , 2009). Moreover, perceived parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction may vary with developmental stage. Longitudinal studies, from an earlier stage (e.g., middle or high school), may uncover the developmental trajectory of these constructs. Longitudinal research would enable us to better understand the developmental changes in the relationships among perceived parenting styles, filial piety, and life satisfaction. In addition, the present study did not explore gender differences due to lack of sample size. Future studies could explore how the gender of young adults influences their perceptions of their parents and views on filial piety and life satisfaction.
Conclusion The information from the present study has practical and theoretical implications for parents, educators, and psychologists. We would encourage parents to adopt authoritative parenting styles, because they are associated with a stronger emotional bond between parent and child, and material filial support for parents. This type of positive, reciprocal parent-child relationship should promote children's life satisfaction and well-being. Parents who practice authoritarian parenting are more likely to have children who follow filial duties primarily out of a sense of obligation and to comply with the traditional filial role. In addition, making use of social-cognitive theory, results of the present study propose that children's active interpretation of the parent-child relationship partly mediates the association between parenting style and young adults' psychosocial development. As individuals with personal agency, Chinese young adults' filial beliefs are influenced by the parenting they have experienced, and these beliefs may be associated with their psychosocial outcomes.
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tional Journal of Psychology, 36, 81-87. doi: 10.1080/ 00207590042000065 Leung, A. N., Wong, S. S., Wong, I. W., & McBride-Chang, C. (2010). Filial piety and psychosocial adjustment in Hong Kong Chinese early adolescents. The Joumal of Early Adolescence, 30, 651-667. doi: 10.1177/0272431609341046 Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In E. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (pp. 1-101). New York, NY: Wiley. Marchant, G. J., Paulson, S. E., & Rothlisberg, B. A. (2001). Relations of middle school students' perceptions of family and school contexts with academic achievement. Psychology in the Schools, 38, 505-519. doi: 10.1002/pits.l039 Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., Netter, S., & Keehn, D. (2007). Maternai and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: Associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 39-47. doi:10.1007/sl0826-006-9066-5 Proctor, C. L., Linley, P. A., & Maltby, J. (2009). Youth life satisfaction: A review of the literature. Joumal of Happiness Studies, 10, 583-630. doi:10.1007/sl0902-008-9110-9 Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. In P. Marsden (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 111-163). Cambridge, England: Basil Blackwell. Sachs, J. (2003). Validation of the Satisfaction With Life Scale in a sample of Hong Kong university students. Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 46, 225-234. doi:10.2117/psysoc.2003 .225 Schulenberg, J. E., & Zarrett, N. R. (2006). Mental health during emerging adulthood: Continuities and discontinuities in course, content, and meaning. In J. Amett & J. Tanner (Eds.), Advances in emerging adulthood (pp. 135-172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Shek, D. T. (2002). The relation of parental quality to psychological well-being, school adjustment, and problem behavior in Chinese adolescents with economic disadvantage. American Journal of Family Therapy, 30, 215-230. doi:10.1080/019261802753577548 Steinberg, L. (2011). Families. In L. Steinberg (Ed.), Adolescence (pp. 119-147). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Suido, S. M., & Huebner, E. S. (2004). The role of life satisfaction in the relationship between authoritative parenting dimensions and adolescent problem behavior. Social Indicators Research, 66, 165-195. doi: 10.1023/B:SOCL0000007498.62080.1e Urdan, T., Solek, M., & Schoenfelder, E. (2007). Students' perceptions of family influences on their academic motivation: A qualitative analysis. European Joumal cf Psychology of Education, 22, 7-21. doi:10 .1007/BF03173686 Wong, S. M., Leung, A. N., & McBride-Chang, C. (2010). Adolescent filial piety as a moderator between perceived maternal control and mother-adolescent relationship quality in Hong Kong. Social Development, 19, 187-201. doi:10.Illl/j.l467-9507.2008.00523.x Yeh, K.-H. (2003). The beneficial and harmful effects of filial piety: An integrative analysis. In K.-S. Yang, K.-K. Hwang, P. Pederson, & I. Daibo (Eds.), Progress in Asian social psychology: Conceptual and
empirical contributions (pp. 67-82). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
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Yeh, K.-H. (2006). The impact of filial piety on the problem behaviours of culturally Chinese adolescents. yoMfna/o/P.s>'c/io/og>'in C/!i>ieie 5ocieties, 7(2), 237-257. Yeh, K.-H., & Bedford, O. (2003). A test of the dual filial piety model. Asian Joumal of Social Psychology, 6, 215-228. doi:10.1046/j.l467839X.2003.00122.X
Yeh, K.-H., & Bedford, O. (2004). Filial belief and parent-child conflict. International Journal of Psychology, 39, 132-144. doi;10.1080/ 00207590344000312 Yeh, K. H., & Cheng, S. P. (2005, August). Parenting, children's empathy and compliance, and filial types. Paper presented at the 113th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
Appendix Filial Piety Scale (Yeh, 2003) Reciprocal Filial Piety
Authoritarian Filial Piety
1. Be frequently concerned about my parents'health conditions.
1. Take my parents'suggestions even when I do not agree with them.
2.
Talk frequently with my parents to understand their thoughts and feelings.
2. Let my income be handled by my parents before maniage.
3.
Be frequently concerned about my parents' general well-being.
3. Disregard promises tofriendsin order to obey my parents.
4.
Be concerned about my parents, as well as understand them.
5.
Support my parents' livelihood to make their lives more
4. Give up my aspirations to meet my parents' expectations. 5. Do whatever my parents ask right away, 6. Avoid getting married to someone my parents dislike.
comfortable.
7. Have at least one son for the succession of the family name.
6.
Be grateful to my parents for raising me.
8. Live with my parents (or parents-in-law) when married.
7.
Hurry home upon the death of my parents, regardless of how far away I am.
8. Take the initiative to assist my parents when they are busy.
Received November 29, 2012 Revision received March 3, 2014 Accepted March 10, 2014 •
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Journal of Family Psychology 2014, Vol. 28, No. 3,308-314
The Relationship Between Perceived Parenting Style, Filial Piety, and Life Satisfaction in Hong Kong Wei-Wen Chen University of Macau This study examined the relationship between perceived parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction among Chinese young adults. A survey was administered to 395 university students in Hong Kong on their perceptions about their parents' parenting practices, filial piety beliefs, and life satisfaction. The results suggest that perceived authoritative parenting is associated with reciprocal filial piety and contributes positively to the young adults' life satisfaction. Both perceived authoritative and authoritarian parenting were associated with authoritarian filial piety, but authoritarian filial piety was not associated with young adults' life satisfaction. Due to the familial interdependence emphasized in the Chinese cultural context, Chinese adolescents' filial beliefs are related to the parenting they have experienced, and these beliefs may be associated with their psychosocial outcomes. Keywords: parenting style, filial piety, life satisfaction
parenting is not necessarily negative in Chinese cultures because it is viewed as a way of showing concern and involvement (Chao & Tseng, 2002). The present study sought to address this gap in the literature by examining the process by which parenting practices influence young adults' life satisfaction in the Chinese cultural context. To better understand how parents may influence children's development, Bandura's (2008) model of learning and development provides insight into this process. Cognition is the key to explain how experiences in the environment affect behavioral and psychological outcomes. As individuals with personal agency, children socially construct their meanings in experiences, and their cognitions determine the effects of these experiences on their behavioral and psychological outcomes. Children process information from social settings (e.g., family) and form their own value systems, which eventually guide their interactions with the world. Marchant, Paulson, and Rothlisberg (2001) proposed that parental influence on children's functioning occurs when children intentionally and cognitively interpret messages provided by their interactions with their parents. It is the children's cognitive appraisal of parenting, rather than the parenting per se, that influences their own developmental outcomes. Thus, sociocultural values are transmitted from parents to children through such family socialization process (Urdan, Solek, & Schoenfelder, 2007). In Confucian society, the principle of filial piety underlies parenting (Chao & Tseng, 2002). Filial piety is defined as the important virtue and responsibility for children to respect, care for, and bring honor to their families (Ho, 1996). Filial piety is a basis of familial interdependence, particularly behavioral norms for children. Its duties include offering emotional and material support to parents and other older people, showing them respect, love, and deference, attending to their needs and complying with their wishes, as well as showing veneration for ancestors (Yeh, 2003). Filial piety is a guiding principle of Chinese socialization that outlines the way in which children should interact with their parents (Ho, 1996). Thus, if filial piety is considered part of a
Baumrind's framework on parenting styles (Baumrind, 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983) is a well known and frequently used concept to explore parenting quality and its influence on children's life outcomes. Parenting styles are based on how demanding or responsive parents are (also referred to as behavioral control or restrictive vs. warmth or support). One style, authoritative parenting, is defined as parents placing maturity demands on their children while being responsive, and providing affection, autonomy, and support. These parents' standards and expectations are developmentally appropriate to their children's needs and capabilities. On the other hand, authoritarian parents are also demanding of children but unresponsive, providing a strict environment in which tolerance of mistakes or inappropriate behavior is low (Steinberg, 2011). Previous research has consistently found that authoritative parenting has a positive effect on children's psychosocial functioning, whereas authoritarian parenting has a negative effect (Shek, 2002). An important indicator of subjective well-being is life satisfaction. Research has found that an authoritative parenting is positively associated with children's life satisfaction (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2007; Suido & Huebner, 2004). However, little attention has focused on the process by which children's parenting styles contribute to their life satisfaction. In addition, it is unclear whether these findings, mostly based on studies of Western populations, are applicable to other ethnic groups, specifically of Chinese families, where familial interdependence is more strongly emphasized (Chao & Tseng, 2002). Chinese children's performance is strongly tied to their parents' life accomplishment. Known as the "tiger mom/dad," authoritarian
This article was published Online First May 12, 2014. I am very grateful to Byerly Woodward for her help in editing and proofreading this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Wei-Wen Chen, Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Av. Padre Tomás Pereira Taipa, Macau, China. E-mail: [email protected] 308
PARENTING STYLE, FILIAL PIETY, AND LIEE SATISFACTION
culture-specific value system that dictates how children should support their parents, it may be actively constructed and internalized via a culturally specific parenting style. Unfortunately, few empirical studies have examined the relationship between filial piety and Chinese parenting styles. Wong, Leung, and McBride-Chang (2010) found that Hong Kong young adults' filial piety beliefs moderated the relationship between perceived maternal parenting style and the quality of the motheradolescent relationship; the more adolescent valued filial piety, the greater maternal control was exerted, leading to a positive influence on mother-child relationships in Hong Kong. The impact of filial piety on child and adolescent development is still unclear. Some studies have shown that holding strong beliefs about filial piety has a beneficial effect, such as lowering parent-child conflict (Yeh & Bedford, 2004). However, other studies have revealed negative effects, including an increase of negative parenting behavior, such as overprotection and harshness (Yeh, 2003). These contradictory findings led Yeh and Bedford (2004) to develop the dual filial piety model. The model recognizes two distinct types of filial piety; reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety. Reciprocal filial piety is characterized by reciprocity and a natural, intimate, and affectionate parent-child relationship. Reciprocal filial behaviors include respecting and attending to one's parents, caring for them in their old age, and honoring them when they are dead. The beliefs and behaviors of these children are based on gratitude to their parents and the desire to repay their efforts in raising and caring for them. Thus, the influences of reciprocal fllial piety are generally positive (e.g., enhanced interpersonal relationships, fewer parent-child conflicts) (Yeh & Bedford, 2004). In contrast, authoritarian filial piety emphasizes submissiveness and hierarchy. For instance, children are expected to subjugate their own wishes to those of their parents, to maintain the family reputation, and to feel obligated to continue the family line. The filial beliefs and behaviors of these children are based on compliance with cultural norms and are driven by their parents' seniority. Authoritarian filial piety generally has a negative effect on developmental outcomes (e.g., higher levels of depression, anxiety, and aggression) (Yeh, 2006). The dual filial piety model is not only a Confucian belief but also a culture-specific indicator of the child's perspective on parent-child relationships (Chen & Ho, 2012). Previous research has found that reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety have dissociable effects on adolescent psychological functioning. For example, Leung, Wong, Wong, and McBride-Chang (2010) reported that, after controlling for children's age, educational achievement, and perceived parental warmth, reciprocal filial piety was positively associated with life satisfaction and social competence. Authoritarian filial piety was negatively correlated with selfesteem and social competence (Leung et al., 2010). Yeh and colleagues (Huang & Yeh, 2013; Yeh & Cheng, 2005) also found that perceived authoritative parenting was conducive to the development of both reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety, whereas authoritarian parenting only contributed to the development of authoritarian filial piety. Although some research has examined youth, no studies have focused on college students. College students are in transition from adolescence to adulthood, a phase that has been referred to as "emerging adulthood" (Amett, 1995; Amett & Tanner, 2006).
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Improving well-being during the transition to adulthood has been the focus of considerable attention in recent years (Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006; Eccles, Brown, & Templeton, 2008; Fccles & Gootman, 2002). Eccles and colleagues (Eccles et al., 2008; Eccles & Gootman, 2002) have proposed that a good relationship and connectedness with one's parents are important social assets in making a successful transition toward adulthood. This suggests that it is important to explore the relationships among perceived parenting style, filial piety, and college students' life satisfaction. The conceptual model presented in Figure 1 is based on previous empirical studies. Children who perceive their parents to be warm and democratic (i.e., have an authoritative parenting style) are more likely to have a reciprocal, natural, intimate, and affectionate relationship with their parents (reciprocal filial piety), but they also recognize their obligations and duties as sons and daughters (authoritarian filial piety). Such positive dynamics in the parent-child relationship may contribute to children's life satisfaction. When children perceive their parents as strict and demanding (i.e., an authoritarian parenting style), their interaction with their parents is likely to be based on the hierarchical family structure and cultural norms. This more negative parent-child dynamic may negatively impact the young adults' life satisfaction. As shown in Figure 1, perceived authoritative parenting is hypothesized to be positively associated with both reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial piety. It was expected that youth who perceive their parents as authoritative would endorse both reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety, and have higher levels of life satisfaction. Youth who view their parents as authoritarian were expected to support only authoritarian filial piety. It was expected that perceptions of authoritarian filial piety would negatively impact their life satisfaction.
Method Participants Participants were 395 Chinese university students between 18 and 22 years of age (M = 20.64 years, SD = .97) who resided in Hong Kong (256 females, 139 males). They were first-year (50.1%) and second-year (49.9%) students, majoring in education
Figure I. Conceptual model (-1- refers to the positive relation and refers to the negative relation).
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from two universities with similar rank. Ninety-five percent of participants came from one university and 5% from the other. About a quarter of young adults' fathers (27.0%) and mothers (29%) were primary school graduates. The majority of young adults' fathers (35.1%) and mothers (33.3%) completed junior high school; 22.1% of young adults' fathers and 27.1% mothers graduated from high school; and 12.3% of young adults' fathers and 10.9% of mothers completed college or higher. Exactly 93.2% of participants responded to self-reported questionnaires, which were in Mandarin; all scale translations were the back-translated. The original and the back translations of the questions were evaluated for consistency of meaning, and any discrepancies were agreed on by two reviewers.
1985) to measure young adults' global life satisfaction. The Chinese version consists of five items rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = .strongly agree). Sum score was created; a higher score indicates greater life satisfaction. An example item of life satisfaction is: "In most ways my life is close to my ideal." Cronbach's alpha was .86. Confirmatory analysis (Sachs, 2003) has shown that the SWLS measures a unidimensional construct with good validity.
Data Analysis Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the models discussed in the Figure 1. AMOS, Version 17.0, software was used (Arbuckle, 2008) for data analysis.
Measures Background information. Young adults were asked to provide data on their age, gender, and the educational level of their parents. Perceived parenting style. The present study adapted subscales from the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ; Buri, 1991) to measure young adults' perception of their parents' parenting styles. The Chinese version of the PAQ was validated using a sample of college students, and two factors were included in the present study: authoritative (10 items) and authoritarian (10 items) parenting. Participants rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). Sum scores were used for each parenting style. An example item of authoritative parents is: "As I was growing up, my parents gave me clear direction for my behaviors and activities, but they were also understanding when I disagreed with them." An example of authoritarian parents is: "As I was growing up, my parents let me know what behavior they expected of me, and if I didn't meet those expectations, they punished me." Cronbach's alphas for the authoritative and authoritarian subscales were .84 and .78, respectively. The PAQ has shown good validity in Asian societies (see Ang & Goh, 2006) and has been a reliable indicator of parenting styles in Hong Kong adolescents and college students in previous research (e.g., K. W. Chan & Chan, 2009; Lai & McBride-Chang, 2001). Filial piety. Yeh's (2003) Filial Piety Scale (FPS; Chinese version) was used to assess young adults' beliefs about filial piety. The scale consists of 16 items rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = extremely unimportant and 6 = extremely important). Two scales were created: reciprocal (eight items) and authoritarian (eight items) filial piety beliefs (see Appendix). Sum scores were used for each filial piety belief. An example item of reciprocal filial piety is: "Be concerned about my parents, as well as understand them." An example item of authoritarian filial piety is: "Give up my aspirations to meet my parents' expectations." Cronbach's alphas were .90 for reciprocal filial piety and .81 for authoritarian filial piety. Yeh (2003) and Yeh and Bedford (2003) have reported good validity for the FPS in Chinese college students. Several empirical studies in Hong Kong have used the FPS to assess young adults' filial piety beliefs (e.g., Wong et al., 2010). Life satisfaction. The present study used the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin,
Results Preliminary Analyses The proportion of missing data per item ranged from 3.35 — 11.47%. To optimize the sample size, missing values were estimated using expectation maximization. Missing values were random {p > .05), indicating that this method was appropriate (Acock, 2005). An independent t test showed that there was a significant gender difference in the young adults' life satisfaction (f = 6.85, p < .05), so gender was controlled for in subsequent analyses. Females reported significantly higher hfe satisfaction than males in the present study. A one-way analysis of variance indicated no significant differences in young adults' life satisfaction associated with paternal (F = .85, p > .05) and maternal (F = 2.21, p > .05) educational level. Age was not associated with any of the dependent variables in the present study (perceived authoritative parenting, r = .02; perceived authoritarian parenting, r = .07; reciprocal filial piety, r = .09; authoritarian filial piety, r = .05; life satisfaction, r = - . 0 1 ; ps > .05). Young adults from the two universities were similar on all demographic variables (i.e., gender, paternal educational level, and maternal educational level) and dependent variables (i.e., perceived authoritative parenting, perceived authoritarian parenting, reciprocal filial piety, and authoritarian filial piety).
Testing the Measurement Models The vahdity of latent constructs in the hypothesized strtictural model was examined through factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to test the factorial validity of the two parenting styles, two subtypes of filial piety belief, and life satisfaction. The preliminary measurement modeling resulted in a poor fit between the models and the data, so some modifications were made. Specifically, after the deletion of cross-loading items (standardized residual covariances > 2.58) or items that had low factor loadings (critical ratio estimates < 1.96, Byrne, 2001), the final measurement models of parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction all yielded a good fit. Six items were deleted from the parenting style, four items from filial piety, and one item from life satisfaction. The model resulted in an excellent fit for the measurement model of parenting style, x^(19) = 23.75 (comparative fit index [CFI] = .99, Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = .99, normed fit index [NFI] = .97, root mean square error of approximation
PARENTING STYLE, FILIAL PIETY, AND LIFE SATISFACTION
[RMSEA] = ,024, goodness-of-fit index [GFI] = ,99, adjusted goodness-of-fit index [AGFI] = ,97, parsimonious goodness-of-fit index [PGFI] = ,52, parsimonious normed fit index [PNFI] = ,66, and standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = ,038), The final measurement model of filial piety also yielded a good fit, x'(19) = 52,61 (CFI = ,97, TLI = ,96, NFI = ,99, RMSEA = ,065, GFI = ,97, AGFI = ,94, PGFI = ,51, PNFI = ,65, SRMR = ,053), The final measurement model of life satisfaction resulted in a good overall fit, x\2) = 3,22 (CFI = ,99, TLI = ,99, NFI = ,99, RMSEA = ,038, GFI = ,99, AGFI = ,98, PGFI = ,20, PNFI = ,33, SRMR = ,011), All factor loadings were significant at the p < .001 level.
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Utes to life satisfaction) was also tested. Compared with the model proposed in the present study, the alternate model resulted in a poorer model fit (CFI = ,92, TLI = ,92, NFI = ,88, RMSEA = ,060, GFI = ,91, AGFI = ,89, PGFI = ,68, PNFI = ,71, SRMR = ,078), The alternate model also had higher values for the indices of comparative fit: AIC = 455,09, ECVI = 1,08, and BIC = 669,73, According to Raftery (1995), a difference of 10 in BIC value constitutes strong evidence that the model with the smaller BIC value is a significantly better fit to the data than the other model (present study: A BIC = 18,85), Therefore, the results of the alternate model provided further support for the hypothesis that, in a Chinese context, filial piety is the construct mediating the influence of parenting style on college students' life satisfaction.
Testing the Hypothesized Structural Model Once adequate measurement models of perceived authoritative parenting, perceived authoritarian parenting, reciprocal filial piety, authoritarian filial piety, and life satisfaction had been established, the hypothesized structural model was examined. The items in the measurement models served as indicators of the respective latent constructs in the structural model. Our sample included 395 observations, and there were 81estimated parameters in the model, giving a subjects-to-parameter ratio of 4,88, which is consistent with the power requirements for SEM models (a subjects-toparameter ratio of 4:1 to 6:1 ; Bentler & Chou, 1987; Hoyle, 1991), Figure 2 shows the final structural model, x^(178) = 330,25, with a good incremental fit (CFI = ,96, TLI = ,95, NFI = ,91, IFI [incremental fit index] = ,96), a good absolute fit (RMSEA = ,045, SRMR = ,061, GFI = ,932, AGFI = .91), parsimonious fit measures of PGFI = ,72 and PNFI = ,77, and comparative fit measures of Akaike information criterion (AIC) = 436,25, expected cross-validation index (ECVI) = 1,03, and Bayesian information criterion (BIC) = 650.88, Given the excellent fit of the model and the lack of modification indices, no further modifications were made to the structural model. This model was the basis of the interpretative analysis. All structural paths in the structural model were significant. The indirect path coefficient from reciprocal filial piety to life satisfaction was ,09 ip < ,05), The structural model accounted for 14% of the variance in life satisfaction. To ascertain the direction of the structural paths proposed in the hypothesized model, the alternate model (filial piety is associated with parenting style that contrib-
Gsndei
Figure 2. The structural model. Standardized coefficient estimates are shown in parentheses. *• p < ,01, '•"^i < ,001,
Discussion This study investigated emerging adults' perceptions of their parents' parenting styles and their views on filial piety and their infiuence on their life satisfaction. The findings showed that perceived parenting style was associated with the development of filial piety beliefs and life satisfaction among Hong Kong young adults. Previous studies have found that parenting styles impact the quality of parent-child relationships (Bronte-Tinkew, Moore, & Carrano, 2006; Darling & Steinberg, 1993) and children's psychosocial functioning (Shek, 2002; Proctor, Linley, & Maltby, 2009), However, there is still a dearth of empirical research on the processes of how parenting styles may infiuence children's psychosocial development. The present study contributes to the literature by exploring how filial piety—primarily, young adults' attitudes toward, and beliefs about their parents—is related to perceived parenting style, leading to a better understanding of how the dynamics of parent-child relationships influence life satisfaction in Hong Kong young adults. Researchers have considered parenting styles to be refiected in the type of relationship that parents develop with their children, thus exerting an infiuence on children's development over time (Chao, 2001; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). However, previous research has not considered children's perceptions and evaluations of their parents through a cultural lens. The present findings show that perceived authoritative parenting is positively associated with their views on reciprocal filial piety and, consequently, contributes positively to their life satisfaction, A parenting style that the child perceives as authoritative reflects a positive emotional climate and is associated with the development of reciprocal filial piety. Because reciprocal filial piety is characterized by a close bond based on mutual love and care, children with reciprocal filial piety beliefs respect and attend to their parents out of gratitude for their parents' care and guidance. When parents interact with their child rationally, affectionately, and attentively, the child perceives a positive emotional tone in the parent-child relationship. Thus children also form reciprocal, intimacy-based filial beliefs in response to warm and supportive parenting. In this way, a positive parent-child dynamic may enhance the child's life satisfaction. Consistent with previous studies (Huang & Yeh, 2013; Yeh & Cheng, 2005), results also demonstrate a positive association between perceived authoritative and authoritarian parenting as well as reciprocal filial piety. It is possible that authoritative parenting.
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characterized by a positive emotional climate, reasonable expectations, and rational communication, may be associated with a willingness on the part of the child to fulfill their filial role responsibilities. Thus, children may be more motivated to repay their parents' sacrifice by promoting reciprocal filial piety. In a Confucian society, children of authoritative parents also recognize their role in the family hierarchy. A deeply rooted sociocultural belief in familial interdependence (Chao & Tseng, 2002) means that Chinese children of authoritative parents are socialized to respect their parents' authority. Such children typically believe that they should carry out a range of familial duties, not only out of affection and love for their parents, but also to fulfill their filial obligations. The results show that perceived authoritarian parenting is positively correlated with young adults' authoritarian filial piety, but neither construct led to a contribution to their life satisfaction. Authoritarian parenfing emphasizes parental control of the child, and a very high standard of behavior, conformity, and unconditional submission to parental authority (Steinberg, 2011). This parenting style reflects a less positive emotional climate and is associated with the development of authoritarian filial piety. The suppression of children's autonomy, strictness, and insistence on compliance with parental authority that characterize authoritarian parenting may be associated with the development by the child of less positive, obligation-oriented beliefs and attitudes toward parents. Because authoritarian filial piety is based on a hierarchical family dynamic and filial obedience, children with authoritarian filial piety fulfill their filial duties and responsibilities to comply with cultural norms (Yeh, 2003, 2006). When parents interact with their children in a forceful, very authoritarian, and disciplinarian manner, the child perceives a less positive emotional tone in the parent-child relationship and thus forms authoritarian, role-based filial beliefs consistent with the rigid and severe parenting style. It should be noted that the negative association between authoritarian filial piety and life satisfaction was not significant. Although this result was unexpected, it is possible in the Chinese context and consistent with previous research (Yeh, 2003). As Yeh (2003) has argued, authoritarian filial piety does not necessarily have negative consequences in the Chinese context. There are both functional and dysfunctional aspects of authoritarianism; it conveys coherence and order, at the same time enforcing unwanted domination and restrictions in all spheres of life. This pattern may explain the nonsignificant negative association between authoritarian filial piety and life satisfaction found in the present study.
Study Limitations Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, individuals' perceptions about relationships have been shown to have validity in sociocultural research. However, in the present study, young adults' percepfions of parenting styles and their filial piety attitudes may be subject to common method variance. Both data were collected from the same source (young adults), increasing the risk of biased conclusions. Second, the SEM method used in the present study does not allow inferences about causal relationships between latent constructs
(Hong & Ho, 2005). It is plausible that the relationships between the variables in the present study are bidirectional. For instance, young adults' filial piety may influence their perception of parenting style; similarly, higher life satisfaction may produce more positive filial piety beliefs and perceptions of parenting style. The structural model in the present study demonstrates only that young adults' perceptions of parenting style may be associated with life satisfaction, and this putative association may be mediated by filial attitude. Future studies should explore the causal relationships among parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction using longitudinal data. In addifion, the present study explored young adults' perceptions of their relationships with mothers and fathers individually. Another limitation of the present study was the use of convenience sampling. College students may have higher life satisfaction and better parent-child relationships than their age cohort as a whole due to their higher level of education (Chen & Ho, 2012; Proctor et a l , 2009). Moreover, perceived parenting style, filial piety, and life satisfaction may vary with developmental stage. Longitudinal studies, from an earlier stage (e.g., middle or high school), may uncover the developmental trajectory of these constructs. Longitudinal research would enable us to better understand the developmental changes in the relationships among perceived parenting styles, filial piety, and life satisfaction. In addition, the present study did not explore gender differences due to lack of sample size. Future studies could explore how the gender of young adults influences their perceptions of their parents and views on filial piety and life satisfaction.
Conclusion The information from the present study has practical and theoretical implications for parents, educators, and psychologists. We would encourage parents to adopt authoritative parenting styles, because they are associated with a stronger emotional bond between parent and child, and material filial support for parents. This type of positive, reciprocal parent-child relationship should promote children's life satisfaction and well-being. Parents who practice authoritarian parenting are more likely to have children who follow filial duties primarily out of a sense of obligation and to comply with the traditional filial role. In addition, making use of social-cognitive theory, results of the present study propose that children's active interpretation of the parent-child relationship partly mediates the association between parenting style and young adults' psychosocial development. As individuals with personal agency, Chinese young adults' filial beliefs are influenced by the parenting they have experienced, and these beliefs may be associated with their psychosocial outcomes.
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Appendix Filial Piety Scale (Yeh, 2003) Reciprocal Filial Piety
Authoritarian Filial Piety
1. Be frequently concerned about my parents'health conditions.
1. Take my parents'suggestions even when I do not agree with them.
2.
Talk frequently with my parents to understand their thoughts and feelings.
2. Let my income be handled by my parents before maniage.
3.
Be frequently concerned about my parents' general well-being.
3. Disregard promises tofriendsin order to obey my parents.
4.
Be concerned about my parents, as well as understand them.
5.
Support my parents' livelihood to make their lives more
4. Give up my aspirations to meet my parents' expectations. 5. Do whatever my parents ask right away, 6. Avoid getting married to someone my parents dislike.
comfortable.
7. Have at least one son for the succession of the family name.
6.
Be grateful to my parents for raising me.
8. Live with my parents (or parents-in-law) when married.
7.
Hurry home upon the death of my parents, regardless of how far away I am.
8. Take the initiative to assist my parents when they are busy.
Received November 29, 2012 Revision received March 3, 2014 Accepted March 10, 2014 •
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