HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 66 (2015) 139–148
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The necropolis of Bolgare (Lombardy, Italy): Anthropological and paleopathological features of a Lombard population E. Sguazza a,b, A. Mazzucchi a, M. Fortunati c, C. Cattaneo a,∗ a LABANOF – Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy b Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Varese, Italy c Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Lombardia, Milano, Italy
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 28 January 2014 Accepted 3 September 2014
a b s t r a c t The mediaeval necropolis of Bolgare – St. Chierico is an important site in northern Italy, located in the Bergamo Province (about 40 km East of Milan). In order to reconstruct aspects of the demographic and health status of this Lombard population, macroscopic (morphological, metric and radiographic) and microscopic analyses were performed on over 400 skeletons for the assessments of sex (cranial and pelvic morphology, metrics), age (subadults: dental and bone development; adults: mainly pubic symphysis, auricular surface of the ilium, 4th rib) and stature, for the determination of ancestry and the identification of pathologies. Results proved the sample to be heterogeneous with males, females, adults and subadults. The sample seemed to be composed of several groups, including individuals with northern or eastern (Uralic) European features and, on the other hand, individuals with central European or Mediterranean characteristics. The first may be indicative of migrations of Lombards (suggested by tall stature estimates); the second could be considered autochthonous, bearing features more typical of northern Italian populations. Among palaeopathological finds, the study showed the presence of tuberculosis, gout, DISH and degenerative pathologies particularly on the pelvis and spinal column. The population of Bolgare constitutes one of the main sources of anthropological data on Lombards in Italy. © 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 02 50315679; fax: +39 02 50315724. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Cattaneo). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchb.2014.09.007 0018-442X/© 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
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Fig. 1. The northern Italian necropolis of Bolgare – St. Chierico (Bergamo).
Introduction The northern Italian necropolis of Bolgare – St. Chierico (Bergamo) is an important site because of the large area that covers (it is the only one of that large size in the Bergamo Province and one of the most extensive in the North of Italy) and because of the large number of skeletons unearthed (284 graves, with nearly 460 individuals buried in them, were discovered in an area about 1500 m2 in successive excavation campaigns between 2001 and 2008) (Fig. 1; Fortunati and Ghiroldi, 2006). In relation to these aspects, the study of the Early Mediaeval (7th–9th century CE) population of Bolgare seems to be interesting. Thus, anthropological and palaeopathological analyses were performed on almost all recovered skeletal remains, more precisely on 439 individuals. The sample showed aspects of the demographic and health status of the Lombard population who lived between pre-Lombard age and Middle Ages in the Bergamo Province. In the northern Italy there are many Lombardian necropoleis, especially in Lombardy itself. Trezzo sull’Adda (Milan Province), Fornovo San Giovanni (Bergamo Province), Porzano di Leno and Montichiari (Brescia Province) are some of the most important Lombardian cemeteries in Lombardy. All these necropoleis are considerable from an archaeological point of view, but they have made only a small contribution to the anthropological field. In fact, either no bones were found (Fornovo San Giovanni; De Marchi, 2007) or only a few osteological finds were discovered (Trezzo sull’Adda; Mallegni, 1986), or there were many skeletal remains but badly preserved, which prevented a detailed osteological analysis (Porzano di Leno, with 247 burials unearthed; Giostra, 2011). From the 311 graves discovered at the necropolis of Montichiari remains of 222 individuals were retrieved, but anthropological studies have not been concluded yet (Breda, 2007). Certainly, it is worth mentioning Lombardian cemeteries unearthed in Piedmont, such as Collegno (157 graves; Pejrani Baricco, 2004), Moncalieri-Testona in the Turin Province (about 350 graves; Kiszely and Scaglioni, 1969) and the largest necropolis of Sant’Albano Stura in the Cuneo Province. Excavation campaigns of the latter necropolis ended in 2011 and allowed for the discovery of 776 graves (although, the presence of 800 burials has been expected). Unfortunately, no human skeletal remains were found, with the exception of some bones belonging to a child (Micheletto et al., 2011). There are also Lombardian necropoleis in the northern Italy in Friuli Venezia Giulia (e.g., Cividale del Friuli, Udine Province and Romans d’Isonzo, Gorizia Province; Ahumada Silva, 2010; Maselli Scotti, 1989) and Emilia Romagna (e.g., Collecchio, Parma Province and Spilamberto, Modena Province; Brasili Gualandi and Calanchi, 1989). As to the rest of Italy, the Tuscan cemeteries of Lombards in Fiesole (27 graves; von Hessen, 1966) in the Florence Province and in Chiusi (13 graves; Galli, 1942; von Hessen, 1971) in the Siena Province are to be reported. Moreover, the important necropolis of Castel Trosino (Ascoli Piceno, Marche; Kiszely, 1971) and that of Nocera Umbra (Perugia Province, Umbria; Paroli, 1997) are worth
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mentioning. These excavations, the first conducted of Italian Lombardian necropoleis (late 18th century), revealed respectively 240 and 168 graves. There are Italian cemeteries of Lombards larger and richer of grave goods than Bolgare. The necropolis of Bolgare, however, is the one with the greatest number of human skeletal remains which have undergone a thorough anthropological and palaeopathological examination. Therefore, Bolgare represents a necropolis of special interest for anthropologists (Mazzucchi et al., 2006). In order to make a contribution to the study of the Lombard population in Italy the authors define the demographic outline and the palaeopathological profile of the population of Bolgare. Materials and methods From among the 284 graves excavated in the necropolis of Bolgare 439 skeletons from 232 graves were retrieved for anthropological and palaeopathological studies. After preparation (cleaning and restoration) of the skeletal material, macroscopic and microscopic standard analyses were performed for assessing sex and age. Sex was assessed using morphological features of the os coxae (Phenice, 1969) and skull (Cattaneo and Grandi, 2004; Mays and Cox, 2000) and with metric techniques (Bass, 1995). Establishing sex of the subadult skeleton is a difficult challenge given that most of the morphological features related to sexual differences in human bones are not present until after the onset of puberty. Even though there are methods related to the potential sexual morphological and metric differences in the pelvis (Boucher, 1955, 1957; Holcomb and Konigsberg, 1995; Hunt, 1990; Mittler and Sheridan, 1992; Rogers and Saunders, 1994; Schutkowski, 1987, 1993; Weaver, 1980), mandible (Loth and Henneberg, 2001; Schutkowski, 1987, 1993; Scheuer, 2002) and dentition (Black, 1978; DeVito and Saunders, 1990; Hunt and Gleiser, 1955) of subadults, sexing foetal and juvenile skeletal remains is extremely unreliable. Because no method for sexing bones of subadults is widely accepted, the authors chose not to apply such techniques. Subadult individual age was estimated by dental eruption (Hillson, 1996; Ubelaker, 1989), epiphyseal closure (Scheuer and Black, 2000) and long bone length (Fazekas and Kósa, 1978; Scheuer and Black, 2000). In the adults, the age was estimated using macroscopic methods such as morphological changes in pubic symphysis (Brooks and Suchey, 1990), auricular surface of the ilium (Buckberry and Chamberlain, 2002; Lovejoy et al., 1985) and sternal end of the fourth rib (I˙ s¸can et al., 1984, 1985). In some cases, microscopic analysis was also performed with the purpose of assessing age of adults in those skeletal remains in which macroscopic assessment of age was not possible (Kerley and Ubelaker, 1978). Individual stature by bone lengths (Trotter and Gleser, 1977) was also estimated. The determination of ancestry has been based upon the morphological and metrical examination of certain skeletal traits in the skull. In addition, considering that the individuals could be the result of the mixture of different, physically contrasting groups, according to historical data, a number of morphological and mathematical criteria were used to classify each skull into one of the so-called groups or sub-racial types (Archaic, Nordic, Central European, Uralic, Dinaric, Alpine, Mediterranean) according to Biasutti (1967) and Facchini (1995) in order to recognize morphological affinities among them. Macroscopic (morphological and radiographic) analyses were performed in order to recognize pathological signs (Capasso et al., 1999; Ortner and Putschar, 1985; Roberts and Manchester, 1995). Results The total sample consists of a minimum of 439 individuals: 135 males (31%), 119 females (27%) and 185 individuals of undetermined sex (42%). In the last group there are 100 adults and 85 infants, children and adolescents. The accuracy of a diagnosis varies depending on many elements, such as the state of preservation and the quantity of skeletal elements. Thus, in some cases it has been possible to produce only a probable diagnosis (for 21 of the 135 males and 31 of the 119 females). Age has been estimated for 260 individuals (59% of the whole sample) of which 180 are adults and 79 are subadults of various ages. The bad state of preservation of 179 individuals made it possible to
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Fig. 2. Age at death distribution.
Fig. 3. Summarizing graph of cranial features.
assess a generic age only as subadult (5 individuals) or adult (174 individuals). There is also a foetus in this sample (grave 63). In order to define the demographic profile of the population data have been reworked to construct a life table (Ubelaker, 1989) that allows us to determine some parameters such as life expectancy and to analyze a mortality rate trend. Life expectancy at birth is 32 years and the mortality rate has a peak in the first years of life. Age at death distribution is shown in Fig. 2. Average stature of the sample is 1.61 m. The average for males is 1.68 m and females is 1.58 m. Data on morphological and metric features were collected from all available skulls (67) according to the literature (Biasutti, 1967; Facchini, 1995) and the results are shown in Fig. 3.
Table 1 Comparison between cranial features and stature (m).
Females Males
Archaic
Nordic
Central European
Uralic
Dinaric
Alpine–Medit.
Dinaric–Medit.
Medit.
1.58 1.69
1.62 1.73
1.52 1.71
1.54 1.80
1.56 1.69
1.57
1.69
1.59 1.69
Medit.: Mediterranean.
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Cranial features of the individuals belonging to different groups have been compared with stature. Results are summarized in Table 1. Results of palaeopathological examination show abundant evidence of different types of pathological conditions: degenerative changes, occupational stress, trauma, metabolic disorders, stress markers, infectious diseases, congenital abnormalities and dental diseases. In general, there is a homogeneous distribution of pathological signs in the sample, especially as concerns the alterations of a degenerative nature, caused by mechanical stress. Arthritis (osteoarthritis) is the most common pathology: 143 individuals (33% of the entire sample) show signs related to this pathology. Both males (73 individuals) and females (57 individuals) are affected; there are also 13 individuals of undetermined sex, of these 2 are subadults (grave 139 and grave 184). Among the adults, arthritis is present in all age groups and it is equally distributed between the groups with different cranial morphologies. Upper limb is most frequently affected by arthritis (85 individuals), especially the elbow joint. In addition to arthritis, signs that can be related to other pathological conditions of articular surfaces, such as rheumatoid arthritis (23 individuals), juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (10 individuals) and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) that probably affected four adults, have been observed. Regarding congenital abnormalities, hip dysplasia should be noted (Fig. 4). This abnormality was found in 13 individuals (9 males and 4 females). Infectious diseases are represented by tuberculosis with signs of this disease found at least in one individual (grave 185). The adult female (23–39 years old) buried in this grave shows vertebral tuberculosis, which is the most common and characteristic skeletal lesion in this disease. In the same individual tuberculosis of long bones, involving radius, ulna, tibia and femur, is also observed. The lesions principally consist of cavitations and reactive periosteal bone formation. Reactive periostitis involving metacarpals is also present. On the cranial vault there are lytic lesions both on the inner and outer tables. The diagnosis of tuberculosis in this case has been confirmed radiologically. There were signs most probably referred to this pathology in other three individuals (grave 93, grave 207 and grave 228). Enthesopathies in this sample are evenly distributed between males (92 individuals) and females (88 individuals). Similarly to arthritis, signs of enthesopathies and occupational stress are found in particular on the upper limbs. These are the hypertrophy of the radial tuberosity (18 individuals), pronator enthesopathy on the distal radius (6 individuals), shaft hypertrophy of the ulna (20 individuals), the hypertrophy of the pectoralis major and brachialis area of insertion on humerus and ulna (14 individuals), the bipartite acromion (15 individuals), the costal syndesmosis (40 individuals) and the phalanx flexor hypertrophy (36 individuals). Unlike the other enthesopathies the latter is mainly found in females (22 individuals as opposed to 14 males). There are also signs of various enthesopathies on lower limbs, such as the exostosis of the trochanteric fossa (present in 48 individuals), the linea aspera enthesopathy on the femur (28 individuals) and the calcanean tendon enthesopathy on the calcaneus (18 individuals). Trauma affected 66 individuals (15% of the entire sample) who showed healed fractures, mostly of a lesser degree. Broken bones were found only among adults and they were distributed evenly as follows: in 31 males, 32 females and 3 individuals of indeterminate sex. Fractures involved the skull (5 individuals), arms (15 individuals) and hands (11 individuals), the sternum (2 individuals), ribs (13 individuals) and the shoulder girdle (2 individuals), legs (17 individuals) and feet (21 individuals). Traumatic signs included also 88 cases of osteochondritis dissecans and 25 related to periostitis. Metabolic disorders are represented by gout, the certain proof of which has been found in two individuals. A 40–44 years old male (grave 157) shows typical lytic lesions of the left cuboid and fifth metatarsal (Fig. 5) while another individual, 45–49 years old (grave 223) has the characteristic lesions on tarsals (calcaneus and talus) and pedal phalanges; lytic lesions have been also observed on both anterior patellae. In the second individual a radiograph of foot bones has been a valuable aid in diagnosing gout. Very likely, there are signs of this disease in two other individuals (grave 40 and grave 218). There are also two probable examples of Mediterranean anaemia (grave 4 and grave 171). In both cases the individuals show both cribra orbitalia and cribra parietalia. In some cases only cribra parietalia (4 individuals), that can be related to a genetic anaemia, or cribra orbitalia (10 individuals) are attested.
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Fig. 4. Hip dysplasia of right femur and os coxae (grave 99).
In addition to the cribra orbitalia there are signs of other stress markers, such as Harris’ lines (27 individuals) and enamel hypoplasia (48 individuals). Dental diseases are well represented in this sample (201 individuals). There are signs of caries (87 individuals), ante mortem tooth loss (81 individuals) and abscesses (15 individuals). Abrasion is found in 179 individuals.
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Fig. 5. Gout: typical lytic lesions of the left cuboid and fifth metatarsal (grave 157).
Discussion It is thought that the necropolis of Bolgare is particularly interesting for its contribution to the anthropological knowledge offered about the Lombard population, especially in Italy, as shown by the comparison with studies related to other Lombardian cemeteries. Table 2 summarizes data referred to the main Lombardian cemeteries in Italy and Hungary. Anthropological analyses indicated that the sample of Bolgare was heterogeneous referring both to sex and to age, with a prevalence of adults. The observation of cranial morphology allowed us to support the archaeologists’ assumption that members of a Lombard population were buried in Bolgare (Fortunati and Ghiroldi, 2006). The determination of ancestry proved particularly important especially in view of the scarcity of grave goods not allowing a detailed archaeological study of the artefacts. The population of Bolgare seems to be composed of various different groups, including individuals with northern or eastern (Uralic) European features and individuals with central European or Mediterranean traits. The first group may be indicative of Lombardian migrations (along with estimates of tall stature); the second group could be considered autochthonous, bearing characteristics more typical of northern Italian populations. In relation to this hypothesis it is interesting to observe the results of the comparison between cranial morphologies and stature. Males with northern or eastern features (Nordic, Dinaric, Uralic) have an average stature greater than that of the entire male sample. As concerns the female stature estimates, only women with Nordic traits are, on average, taller than females in the entire sample. The presence of mixed cranial morphological characteristics with both the autochthonous and the northern or eastern features could be indicative of the integration of different groups. The
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Table 2 Summarizing table of data referred to the main Italian and Hungarian Lombard cemeteries. Necropolis
Graves
Individuals
Anthropological data
Bolgare Castel Trosino Chiusi Cividale del Friuli Collecchio Collegno Fiesole Fornovo S. Giovanni
284 240 13 22 53 73 27
439
Hegyko Montichiari
81 311
222
Nocera Umbra Porzano di Leno
168 247
/ /
Romans d’Isonzo
334
/
Sant’Albano Stura
776 (but it is assumed the presence of 800 graves)
Spilamberto Sztentendre Tamasi Testona-Moncalieri Trezzo sull’Adda Vors
34 90 53 About 350 5 41
Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No human skeletal remains have been found Yes Anthropological studies are not concluded yet No There were many skeletal remains but badly preserved, that have prevented a detailed osteological analysis There were skeletal remains but badly preserved, that have prevented a detailed osteological analysis No human skeletal remains have been found, with the exception of some bones belonging to a child No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
/ 154 75 / /
1
/
5
heterogeneity observed in the population of Bolgare is not unusual; analyses of other Lombardian necropoleis both Italian (e.g. Testona-Moncalieri) (Kiszely and Scaglioni, 1969) and Hungarian (Szentendre) (Bona, 1971) have shown a population composed of different groups. From a palaeopathological point of view, there is also a proof of integration, as attested by the homogeneous distribution of pathological signs in the studied sample, especially of those due to mechanical stress. However, the concentration of congenital hip dysplasia (at least 6 individuals) in a defined area (east of the funeral oratory) is worth considering closer investigation. In addition, the presence in the same area of eight individuals with Alpine and Mediterranean cranial morphologies supports the hypothesis of the autochthony of the individuals buried in this particular area. The widespread presence of vertebral arthritis related to activities that involve bending of the vertebral column and frequent lifting of heavy objects, in all probability could be associated with agricultural labours (Capasso et al., 1999). There are also signs referred to a great physical effort, such as those on the upper limbs and observed especially in males. For example, there are enthesopathies indicative of transport and lifting of heavy objects or digging activities. There is evidence of this occupational stress also in females but among women there are many signs indicative of prolonged sitting with legs stretched or related to the use of hands for holding something firmly, suggestive of more sedentary activities, such as weaving. Differences seem to be associated with the different roles of males and females in this group. The population of Bolgare therefore shows the typical features of a group based on an agricultural economy, in which there is a great uniformity in the distribution of pathologies, in particular of degenerative disorders. This leads to the hypothesis of integration between the autochthonous population and the Lombards, as shown by the presence of individuals with mixed cranial morphological characteristics.
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Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Bando per il sostegno regionale ai progetti di Musei di enti locali o di interesse locale–(l.r. 39/74) 2005/2006/2007 for its financial support for this research and Angelo Ghiroldi, technical director of excavations.
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HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jchb
The necropolis of Bolgare (Lombardy, Italy): Anthropological and paleopathological features of a Lombard population E. Sguazza a,b, A. Mazzucchi a, M. Fortunati c, C. Cattaneo a,∗ a LABANOF – Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy b Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Varese, Italy c Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Lombardia, Milano, Italy
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 28 January 2014 Accepted 3 September 2014
a b s t r a c t The mediaeval necropolis of Bolgare – St. Chierico is an important site in northern Italy, located in the Bergamo Province (about 40 km East of Milan). In order to reconstruct aspects of the demographic and health status of this Lombard population, macroscopic (morphological, metric and radiographic) and microscopic analyses were performed on over 400 skeletons for the assessments of sex (cranial and pelvic morphology, metrics), age (subadults: dental and bone development; adults: mainly pubic symphysis, auricular surface of the ilium, 4th rib) and stature, for the determination of ancestry and the identification of pathologies. Results proved the sample to be heterogeneous with males, females, adults and subadults. The sample seemed to be composed of several groups, including individuals with northern or eastern (Uralic) European features and, on the other hand, individuals with central European or Mediterranean characteristics. The first may be indicative of migrations of Lombards (suggested by tall stature estimates); the second could be considered autochthonous, bearing features more typical of northern Italian populations. Among palaeopathological finds, the study showed the presence of tuberculosis, gout, DISH and degenerative pathologies particularly on the pelvis and spinal column. The population of Bolgare constitutes one of the main sources of anthropological data on Lombards in Italy. © 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 02 50315679; fax: +39 02 50315724. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Cattaneo). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchb.2014.09.007 0018-442X/© 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
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Fig. 1. The northern Italian necropolis of Bolgare – St. Chierico (Bergamo).
Introduction The northern Italian necropolis of Bolgare – St. Chierico (Bergamo) is an important site because of the large area that covers (it is the only one of that large size in the Bergamo Province and one of the most extensive in the North of Italy) and because of the large number of skeletons unearthed (284 graves, with nearly 460 individuals buried in them, were discovered in an area about 1500 m2 in successive excavation campaigns between 2001 and 2008) (Fig. 1; Fortunati and Ghiroldi, 2006). In relation to these aspects, the study of the Early Mediaeval (7th–9th century CE) population of Bolgare seems to be interesting. Thus, anthropological and palaeopathological analyses were performed on almost all recovered skeletal remains, more precisely on 439 individuals. The sample showed aspects of the demographic and health status of the Lombard population who lived between pre-Lombard age and Middle Ages in the Bergamo Province. In the northern Italy there are many Lombardian necropoleis, especially in Lombardy itself. Trezzo sull’Adda (Milan Province), Fornovo San Giovanni (Bergamo Province), Porzano di Leno and Montichiari (Brescia Province) are some of the most important Lombardian cemeteries in Lombardy. All these necropoleis are considerable from an archaeological point of view, but they have made only a small contribution to the anthropological field. In fact, either no bones were found (Fornovo San Giovanni; De Marchi, 2007) or only a few osteological finds were discovered (Trezzo sull’Adda; Mallegni, 1986), or there were many skeletal remains but badly preserved, which prevented a detailed osteological analysis (Porzano di Leno, with 247 burials unearthed; Giostra, 2011). From the 311 graves discovered at the necropolis of Montichiari remains of 222 individuals were retrieved, but anthropological studies have not been concluded yet (Breda, 2007). Certainly, it is worth mentioning Lombardian cemeteries unearthed in Piedmont, such as Collegno (157 graves; Pejrani Baricco, 2004), Moncalieri-Testona in the Turin Province (about 350 graves; Kiszely and Scaglioni, 1969) and the largest necropolis of Sant’Albano Stura in the Cuneo Province. Excavation campaigns of the latter necropolis ended in 2011 and allowed for the discovery of 776 graves (although, the presence of 800 burials has been expected). Unfortunately, no human skeletal remains were found, with the exception of some bones belonging to a child (Micheletto et al., 2011). There are also Lombardian necropoleis in the northern Italy in Friuli Venezia Giulia (e.g., Cividale del Friuli, Udine Province and Romans d’Isonzo, Gorizia Province; Ahumada Silva, 2010; Maselli Scotti, 1989) and Emilia Romagna (e.g., Collecchio, Parma Province and Spilamberto, Modena Province; Brasili Gualandi and Calanchi, 1989). As to the rest of Italy, the Tuscan cemeteries of Lombards in Fiesole (27 graves; von Hessen, 1966) in the Florence Province and in Chiusi (13 graves; Galli, 1942; von Hessen, 1971) in the Siena Province are to be reported. Moreover, the important necropolis of Castel Trosino (Ascoli Piceno, Marche; Kiszely, 1971) and that of Nocera Umbra (Perugia Province, Umbria; Paroli, 1997) are worth
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mentioning. These excavations, the first conducted of Italian Lombardian necropoleis (late 18th century), revealed respectively 240 and 168 graves. There are Italian cemeteries of Lombards larger and richer of grave goods than Bolgare. The necropolis of Bolgare, however, is the one with the greatest number of human skeletal remains which have undergone a thorough anthropological and palaeopathological examination. Therefore, Bolgare represents a necropolis of special interest for anthropologists (Mazzucchi et al., 2006). In order to make a contribution to the study of the Lombard population in Italy the authors define the demographic outline and the palaeopathological profile of the population of Bolgare. Materials and methods From among the 284 graves excavated in the necropolis of Bolgare 439 skeletons from 232 graves were retrieved for anthropological and palaeopathological studies. After preparation (cleaning and restoration) of the skeletal material, macroscopic and microscopic standard analyses were performed for assessing sex and age. Sex was assessed using morphological features of the os coxae (Phenice, 1969) and skull (Cattaneo and Grandi, 2004; Mays and Cox, 2000) and with metric techniques (Bass, 1995). Establishing sex of the subadult skeleton is a difficult challenge given that most of the morphological features related to sexual differences in human bones are not present until after the onset of puberty. Even though there are methods related to the potential sexual morphological and metric differences in the pelvis (Boucher, 1955, 1957; Holcomb and Konigsberg, 1995; Hunt, 1990; Mittler and Sheridan, 1992; Rogers and Saunders, 1994; Schutkowski, 1987, 1993; Weaver, 1980), mandible (Loth and Henneberg, 2001; Schutkowski, 1987, 1993; Scheuer, 2002) and dentition (Black, 1978; DeVito and Saunders, 1990; Hunt and Gleiser, 1955) of subadults, sexing foetal and juvenile skeletal remains is extremely unreliable. Because no method for sexing bones of subadults is widely accepted, the authors chose not to apply such techniques. Subadult individual age was estimated by dental eruption (Hillson, 1996; Ubelaker, 1989), epiphyseal closure (Scheuer and Black, 2000) and long bone length (Fazekas and Kósa, 1978; Scheuer and Black, 2000). In the adults, the age was estimated using macroscopic methods such as morphological changes in pubic symphysis (Brooks and Suchey, 1990), auricular surface of the ilium (Buckberry and Chamberlain, 2002; Lovejoy et al., 1985) and sternal end of the fourth rib (I˙ s¸can et al., 1984, 1985). In some cases, microscopic analysis was also performed with the purpose of assessing age of adults in those skeletal remains in which macroscopic assessment of age was not possible (Kerley and Ubelaker, 1978). Individual stature by bone lengths (Trotter and Gleser, 1977) was also estimated. The determination of ancestry has been based upon the morphological and metrical examination of certain skeletal traits in the skull. In addition, considering that the individuals could be the result of the mixture of different, physically contrasting groups, according to historical data, a number of morphological and mathematical criteria were used to classify each skull into one of the so-called groups or sub-racial types (Archaic, Nordic, Central European, Uralic, Dinaric, Alpine, Mediterranean) according to Biasutti (1967) and Facchini (1995) in order to recognize morphological affinities among them. Macroscopic (morphological and radiographic) analyses were performed in order to recognize pathological signs (Capasso et al., 1999; Ortner and Putschar, 1985; Roberts and Manchester, 1995). Results The total sample consists of a minimum of 439 individuals: 135 males (31%), 119 females (27%) and 185 individuals of undetermined sex (42%). In the last group there are 100 adults and 85 infants, children and adolescents. The accuracy of a diagnosis varies depending on many elements, such as the state of preservation and the quantity of skeletal elements. Thus, in some cases it has been possible to produce only a probable diagnosis (for 21 of the 135 males and 31 of the 119 females). Age has been estimated for 260 individuals (59% of the whole sample) of which 180 are adults and 79 are subadults of various ages. The bad state of preservation of 179 individuals made it possible to
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Fig. 2. Age at death distribution.
Fig. 3. Summarizing graph of cranial features.
assess a generic age only as subadult (5 individuals) or adult (174 individuals). There is also a foetus in this sample (grave 63). In order to define the demographic profile of the population data have been reworked to construct a life table (Ubelaker, 1989) that allows us to determine some parameters such as life expectancy and to analyze a mortality rate trend. Life expectancy at birth is 32 years and the mortality rate has a peak in the first years of life. Age at death distribution is shown in Fig. 2. Average stature of the sample is 1.61 m. The average for males is 1.68 m and females is 1.58 m. Data on morphological and metric features were collected from all available skulls (67) according to the literature (Biasutti, 1967; Facchini, 1995) and the results are shown in Fig. 3.
Table 1 Comparison between cranial features and stature (m).
Females Males
Archaic
Nordic
Central European
Uralic
Dinaric
Alpine–Medit.
Dinaric–Medit.
Medit.
1.58 1.69
1.62 1.73
1.52 1.71
1.54 1.80
1.56 1.69
1.57
1.69
1.59 1.69
Medit.: Mediterranean.
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Cranial features of the individuals belonging to different groups have been compared with stature. Results are summarized in Table 1. Results of palaeopathological examination show abundant evidence of different types of pathological conditions: degenerative changes, occupational stress, trauma, metabolic disorders, stress markers, infectious diseases, congenital abnormalities and dental diseases. In general, there is a homogeneous distribution of pathological signs in the sample, especially as concerns the alterations of a degenerative nature, caused by mechanical stress. Arthritis (osteoarthritis) is the most common pathology: 143 individuals (33% of the entire sample) show signs related to this pathology. Both males (73 individuals) and females (57 individuals) are affected; there are also 13 individuals of undetermined sex, of these 2 are subadults (grave 139 and grave 184). Among the adults, arthritis is present in all age groups and it is equally distributed between the groups with different cranial morphologies. Upper limb is most frequently affected by arthritis (85 individuals), especially the elbow joint. In addition to arthritis, signs that can be related to other pathological conditions of articular surfaces, such as rheumatoid arthritis (23 individuals), juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (10 individuals) and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) that probably affected four adults, have been observed. Regarding congenital abnormalities, hip dysplasia should be noted (Fig. 4). This abnormality was found in 13 individuals (9 males and 4 females). Infectious diseases are represented by tuberculosis with signs of this disease found at least in one individual (grave 185). The adult female (23–39 years old) buried in this grave shows vertebral tuberculosis, which is the most common and characteristic skeletal lesion in this disease. In the same individual tuberculosis of long bones, involving radius, ulna, tibia and femur, is also observed. The lesions principally consist of cavitations and reactive periosteal bone formation. Reactive periostitis involving metacarpals is also present. On the cranial vault there are lytic lesions both on the inner and outer tables. The diagnosis of tuberculosis in this case has been confirmed radiologically. There were signs most probably referred to this pathology in other three individuals (grave 93, grave 207 and grave 228). Enthesopathies in this sample are evenly distributed between males (92 individuals) and females (88 individuals). Similarly to arthritis, signs of enthesopathies and occupational stress are found in particular on the upper limbs. These are the hypertrophy of the radial tuberosity (18 individuals), pronator enthesopathy on the distal radius (6 individuals), shaft hypertrophy of the ulna (20 individuals), the hypertrophy of the pectoralis major and brachialis area of insertion on humerus and ulna (14 individuals), the bipartite acromion (15 individuals), the costal syndesmosis (40 individuals) and the phalanx flexor hypertrophy (36 individuals). Unlike the other enthesopathies the latter is mainly found in females (22 individuals as opposed to 14 males). There are also signs of various enthesopathies on lower limbs, such as the exostosis of the trochanteric fossa (present in 48 individuals), the linea aspera enthesopathy on the femur (28 individuals) and the calcanean tendon enthesopathy on the calcaneus (18 individuals). Trauma affected 66 individuals (15% of the entire sample) who showed healed fractures, mostly of a lesser degree. Broken bones were found only among adults and they were distributed evenly as follows: in 31 males, 32 females and 3 individuals of indeterminate sex. Fractures involved the skull (5 individuals), arms (15 individuals) and hands (11 individuals), the sternum (2 individuals), ribs (13 individuals) and the shoulder girdle (2 individuals), legs (17 individuals) and feet (21 individuals). Traumatic signs included also 88 cases of osteochondritis dissecans and 25 related to periostitis. Metabolic disorders are represented by gout, the certain proof of which has been found in two individuals. A 40–44 years old male (grave 157) shows typical lytic lesions of the left cuboid and fifth metatarsal (Fig. 5) while another individual, 45–49 years old (grave 223) has the characteristic lesions on tarsals (calcaneus and talus) and pedal phalanges; lytic lesions have been also observed on both anterior patellae. In the second individual a radiograph of foot bones has been a valuable aid in diagnosing gout. Very likely, there are signs of this disease in two other individuals (grave 40 and grave 218). There are also two probable examples of Mediterranean anaemia (grave 4 and grave 171). In both cases the individuals show both cribra orbitalia and cribra parietalia. In some cases only cribra parietalia (4 individuals), that can be related to a genetic anaemia, or cribra orbitalia (10 individuals) are attested.
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Fig. 4. Hip dysplasia of right femur and os coxae (grave 99).
In addition to the cribra orbitalia there are signs of other stress markers, such as Harris’ lines (27 individuals) and enamel hypoplasia (48 individuals). Dental diseases are well represented in this sample (201 individuals). There are signs of caries (87 individuals), ante mortem tooth loss (81 individuals) and abscesses (15 individuals). Abrasion is found in 179 individuals.
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Fig. 5. Gout: typical lytic lesions of the left cuboid and fifth metatarsal (grave 157).
Discussion It is thought that the necropolis of Bolgare is particularly interesting for its contribution to the anthropological knowledge offered about the Lombard population, especially in Italy, as shown by the comparison with studies related to other Lombardian cemeteries. Table 2 summarizes data referred to the main Lombardian cemeteries in Italy and Hungary. Anthropological analyses indicated that the sample of Bolgare was heterogeneous referring both to sex and to age, with a prevalence of adults. The observation of cranial morphology allowed us to support the archaeologists’ assumption that members of a Lombard population were buried in Bolgare (Fortunati and Ghiroldi, 2006). The determination of ancestry proved particularly important especially in view of the scarcity of grave goods not allowing a detailed archaeological study of the artefacts. The population of Bolgare seems to be composed of various different groups, including individuals with northern or eastern (Uralic) European features and individuals with central European or Mediterranean traits. The first group may be indicative of Lombardian migrations (along with estimates of tall stature); the second group could be considered autochthonous, bearing characteristics more typical of northern Italian populations. In relation to this hypothesis it is interesting to observe the results of the comparison between cranial morphologies and stature. Males with northern or eastern features (Nordic, Dinaric, Uralic) have an average stature greater than that of the entire male sample. As concerns the female stature estimates, only women with Nordic traits are, on average, taller than females in the entire sample. The presence of mixed cranial morphological characteristics with both the autochthonous and the northern or eastern features could be indicative of the integration of different groups. The
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Table 2 Summarizing table of data referred to the main Italian and Hungarian Lombard cemeteries. Necropolis
Graves
Individuals
Anthropological data
Bolgare Castel Trosino Chiusi Cividale del Friuli Collecchio Collegno Fiesole Fornovo S. Giovanni
284 240 13 22 53 73 27
439
Hegyko Montichiari
81 311
222
Nocera Umbra Porzano di Leno
168 247
/ /
Romans d’Isonzo
334
/
Sant’Albano Stura
776 (but it is assumed the presence of 800 graves)
Spilamberto Sztentendre Tamasi Testona-Moncalieri Trezzo sull’Adda Vors
34 90 53 About 350 5 41
Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No human skeletal remains have been found Yes Anthropological studies are not concluded yet No There were many skeletal remains but badly preserved, that have prevented a detailed osteological analysis There were skeletal remains but badly preserved, that have prevented a detailed osteological analysis No human skeletal remains have been found, with the exception of some bones belonging to a child No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
/ 154 75 / /
1
/
5
heterogeneity observed in the population of Bolgare is not unusual; analyses of other Lombardian necropoleis both Italian (e.g. Testona-Moncalieri) (Kiszely and Scaglioni, 1969) and Hungarian (Szentendre) (Bona, 1971) have shown a population composed of different groups. From a palaeopathological point of view, there is also a proof of integration, as attested by the homogeneous distribution of pathological signs in the studied sample, especially of those due to mechanical stress. However, the concentration of congenital hip dysplasia (at least 6 individuals) in a defined area (east of the funeral oratory) is worth considering closer investigation. In addition, the presence in the same area of eight individuals with Alpine and Mediterranean cranial morphologies supports the hypothesis of the autochthony of the individuals buried in this particular area. The widespread presence of vertebral arthritis related to activities that involve bending of the vertebral column and frequent lifting of heavy objects, in all probability could be associated with agricultural labours (Capasso et al., 1999). There are also signs referred to a great physical effort, such as those on the upper limbs and observed especially in males. For example, there are enthesopathies indicative of transport and lifting of heavy objects or digging activities. There is evidence of this occupational stress also in females but among women there are many signs indicative of prolonged sitting with legs stretched or related to the use of hands for holding something firmly, suggestive of more sedentary activities, such as weaving. Differences seem to be associated with the different roles of males and females in this group. The population of Bolgare therefore shows the typical features of a group based on an agricultural economy, in which there is a great uniformity in the distribution of pathologies, in particular of degenerative disorders. This leads to the hypothesis of integration between the autochthonous population and the Lombards, as shown by the presence of individuals with mixed cranial morphological characteristics.
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Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Bando per il sostegno regionale ai progetti di Musei di enti locali o di interesse locale–(l.r. 39/74) 2005/2006/2007 for its financial support for this research and Angelo Ghiroldi, technical director of excavations.
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