Chr/dAbuse& N&q Vol. 16, pp. 201-215, Printed in the U.S.A. All nghts reserved.

THE

1992

0145.2134/92 $5.00 + .oO Copyright 0 1992 Pergamon Press Ltd.

LINKS BETWEEN TYPES OF MALTREATMENT AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN ELIZABETH

D. JONES AND KAREN MCCURDY

National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse, Chicago

Abstract-This paper examines the relative impact of demographic characteristics of the child, family structure, and economic variables on types of child abuse and neglect. The current analysis is based on data from the second National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-2) which collected information from both CPS and non-CPS agencies (e.g., schools, hospitals) in a national sample of 29 counties (Westat, 1988). The NIS-2 offers a unique opportunity to examine abuse and neglect issues with a large, national data set. This paper looks at a series of exploratory logistic regression models to distinguish between four different types of maltreatment: (a) physical abuse, (b) sexual abuse, (c) emotional maltreatment, and (d) physical neglect. Our findings show that physical neglect, in comparison with the other types of abuse, is the most predictable and distinguishable. It is most clearly related to economic factors such as low income and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) status, regardless of race. Additionally, both sexual abuse and physical neglect occur at younger ages than previously shown. The policy implications for these findings are discussed. Key Words-Child

abuse and neglect, Poverty, Demographic indicators.

INTRODUCTION AS OUR KNOWLEDGE of child maltreatment has grown, it has become clear that attempting to understand child maltreatment as a single homogenous category is not useful. Rather, it is critical to examine the types of maltreatment separately because previous research has indicated that background and social characteristics of the children and families vary by type of abuse (Daro, 1988). Individuals who neglect their children most likely represent a fairly distinct group from those who sexually abuse their children. The prevention and treatment needs of the diverse types of abusers and their victims are likely to differ as well (Bolstead, Johnson, Magnuson, undated; Daro, 1988). Therefore, the aim of this research is to examine the relationships between demographic, economic, and family structure characteristics and four types of maltreatment: (a) physical abuse, (b) sexual abuse, (c) physical neglect, and (d) emotional maltreatment. The results will provide information on the unique characteristics of specific types of maltreatment to enhance the development of effective prevention and treatment programs. Few studies directly examine demographic correlates of abuse (AAPC, 1988; Gil, 1970). Other studies which do not specifically address demographic differences indirectly contribute some information about subpopulations of maltreatment by the descriptions of their samples (Russell, 1986; Wolock & Horowitz, 1979). Often, however, these vary with the type of

Received for publication August 29, 1990; final revision received February 11, 199 I; accepted February 12, 199 1. Reprint requests may be sent to Elizabeth D. Jones, Ph.D., National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse, 332 S. Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600, Chicago, IL 60604. 201

202

Elizabeth D. Jones and Karen McCurdy

maltreatment examined; most authors limit their analyses to one type of abuse, usually sexual abuse or physical abuse. While the varying samples and definitions of abuse make it difficult to generalize across studies, a brief review of these studies indicates what we know about demographic characteristics and different types of maltreatment. Gil’s ( 1970) early study, based on data collected from central registries from all 50 states for the years 1967 and 1968, provided one of the most comprehensive examinations of the demographic correlates of physical abuse. Slightly more than half of the children in Gil’s sample were male (52.6%), except in the teenage groups, where girls accounted for over two thirds of the cases. His study showed that physical abuse was not limited to young children as had been suggested in the Kempe et al (1962) study which found that children under 3 were overrepresented in samples of abused children. Only 13.8% of all cases involved children under I year of age and half of these were over 6 years old. This age distribution was similar for all ethnic groups. Approximately one third of the children were nonwhite. With regard to family st~cture, over 29% of the children lived in female-headed hou~holds. The parents of the children were somewhat older than previous studies indicated. Families with four or more children were nearly twice as likely to be in Gil’s sample than those in the general population. About one third of the sample was receiving Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). The studies of characteristics of child victims and perpetrators of sexual abuse are numerous and somewhat more complicated to synthesize because some are based on community surveys and others are based on reported cases (Finkelhor & Baron, 1986). The community surveys tend to be retrospective while the reported cases reflect current abuse. Visually all of these studies found higher abuse rates for girls. Based on the community surveys (Badgley et al., 1984; Finkelhor, 1984; Kercher & McShane, 1984), approximately, 7 1% of victims of sexual abuse are female and 29% are males. Studies of reported cases of sexual abuse reveal a higher proportion of female victims (85%) to male ( 17%). In general, data based on reported cases of sexual abuse show average ages higher than those using surveys or clinical samples (Finkelhor & Baron, 1986). The first National Incidence Study (NIS-1) which was based soley on reported cases found that 60% of children reported as sexually abused were 12 years or older (NCCAN, 1981). The American Association for Protecting Children study (1988) showed the mean age for reported sexual abuse to be about 9. In contrast, an analysis of six community surveys of sexual abuse cases by Finkelhor and Baron (1986) found that young children between the ages of 6 and 7, as well as those lo- 12 years old had the highest rates of sexual abuse. With regard to ethnicity, studies have failed to find any differences between blacks and whites in the rates of sexual abuse (Kersher & McShane, 1984; Russell, 1986). Even in cases of reported abuse, the percentage of blacks reflects that of the general population (NCCAN, 198 1; Trainor, 1984). Similarly, there has been very little evidence that sexual abuse is related to economic status (Finkelhor & Baron, 1986). However, several studies suggest a relationship between economic status and two other types of child maltreatment: neglect and physical abuse, Wolock and Horowitz (1979) compared demographic and social characteristics of 380 abusive and neglectful families with 143 nonabusive families receiving AFDC. They found that the poorer families were more likely to maltreat their children, especially in the form of neglect or a combination of neglect and physical abuse. In their analysis of parenting levels of 186 poor families, Giovannoni and Billingsley (1970) found a relationship between likelihood for neglect and poverty. However, these mothers also had a greater number of children, more marital disruptions, and greater social isolation. Elmer (1977) compared abused and nonabused children from families of low economic status. The differences she noted were problems in language, cognitive functioning and socioemotional development. From these results, she concluded that the consequences of poverty may override the effects of abuse.

Re-analysis of the NIS-2

203

A more recent study based on official reports of maltreatment to child protective services nationwide during 1986 gives the most comprehensive description of the demographic factors related to maltreatment because it distinguishes between the different types of abuse. It showed that the typical profile of maltreatment was one in which the average age of the child was 7.2 years, 52% were females, 65% white, average age of caretaker was 32 years, the average size of family was two and slightly less than half of the sample (48%) were on public assistance (AAPC, 1988). With respect to age, the youngest average was found for major physical abuse (5.54), and the oldest mean age was for sexual abuse (9.19). Slightly more males (54.2%) experienced physical abuse and the large majority of sexual abuse was found among female (77%). Physical neglect and emotional maltreatment were more evenly split between males and females. The occurrence of maltreatment was similar for minority groups, with the exceptions of sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment which were more frequent among whites. The types of abuse varied a great deal depending on whether the child came from a female-headed household or a two-parent household. About one quarter of the cases of physical abuse and sexual abuse, about one third of emotional maltreatment and half of the neglect cases came from female-headed households. The average age of the perpetrator varied from 29 years for physical abuse to 33 years for emotional maltreatment. While these studies certainly support the notion that there are subpopulations with the unique characteristics for each type of abuse, they are limited in several important methodological and theoretical respects. First, most have been based on clinical samples which tend to be small and restricted geographically (Daro, 1988). The small sample sizes prohibit the use of multivariate analyses needed to simultaneously examine the relationship of numerous characteristics. The geographic confinement of the sample further limits the applicability of the studies’ findings. Those studies which had large sample sizes confined their analyses to bivariate relationships and did not attempt a multivariate analysis (AAPC, 1988; National Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect, 198 1). Bivariate analysis reveals only a portion of the story. The AAPC ( 1988) study cited above indicated, for example, the existence of strong correlations between physical neglect and income; physical neglect and female headed households; and physical neglect and minority status. The more important question of whether a strong relationship between minority status and physical neglect would persist after controlling for income remains unanswered. In addition, most of these studies collected data from known victims of abuse and their families-either those reported to child protective services (CPS) (AAPC, 1988; NCCAN, 198 1) or those seeking treatment to combat the effects of abuse. Both groups represent the more serious cases of abuse and may not reflect the actual maltreatment population. More importantly, certain types of maltreatment such as sexual abuse and physical abuse have received the bulk of scholarly attention while emotional maltreatment and physical neglect have remained largely unexamined (Azar, Barnes, & Twentyman, 1988). This current study addresses these limitations. First, we overcome the problem of small, restricted samples by utilizing the second National Incidence Study (NIS-2), a large national sample which includes data from both officially reported and unreported cases of maltreatment. Second, the large sample size provides an opportunity to conduct extensive analysis on all primary types of maltreatment: (a) physical abuse, (b) sexual abuse, (c) emotional maltreatment, and (d) neglect. Finally, this study investigates the characteristics of subpopulations with multivariate techniques which allow one to tease out more complex relationships. Three questions guided this research effort. l

l

How do certain demographic characteristics affect the likelihood of a child experiencing one type of abuse versus another? How does the economic situation of the family change or reduce the influence of the demographic factors?

204 l

EIizabeth D. Jones and Karen McCurdy

What role does family structure play in predicting the different types of abuse in cdnjunction with demographic characteristics and economic variables?

The balance of the paper is as follows. First, we discuss the design of the sample and the analytical methods utilized in this study. Characteristics of the sample as a whole and by type of abuse are presented. In the next section, we discuss the differences between types of maltreatment with regard to demographic factors, economic situation and family structures based on findings from logistical regression analyses. Finally, we explore the implications of our findings.

METHOD Sample

The study sample is drawn from the National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-2) conducted in 1986 by Westat and Associates (Sedlak & Alldredge, 1987). Westat collected information regarding types and severity of abuse, characteristics of the perpetrator as well as demographic, economic, and family characteristics on a sample of 5,137 children. The data were collected during a 3-month period, September 7, 1986, to December 6. 1986, from both CPS and non-CPS personnel in a random stratified sample of 29 counties throughout the nation. The non-CPS reporting sources included staff from public schools, hospital, day care centers, police departments, and social service agencies. Despite its large sample, there are several sho~~omings of the NIS-2 which limit the number of cases which can be used for analysis. The first is that a case had to meet a number of criteria to be considered as a countable case of abuse or neglect. The criteria included in-scope criteria (e.g., age, residence, custody, time of maltreatment event), forms of maltreatment, perpetrator countability, severity of harm, countability of harm, degree of evidence and meeting the NIS-1 and NIS-2 definitions of maltreatment. Westat’s definition (1988), which required the exclusion of cases found after the 3 month time period expired, resulted in the designation of 3,276 cases as countable. Because Westat focused on incidence, this exclusion was reasonable. As the current study does not deal with incidence, our sample includes all countable cases, regardless of the time period. The large amount of missing data represents another challenge in utilizing the NIS-2. Two different data collection forms with two different reference points were used to collect the info~ation about child maltreatment. The non-CPS data collection form identified the child as the reference point while the CPS data collection form identified the parent. Discrepancies between these two forms resulted in a great deal of missing data. Unfortunately, variables which describe characteristics of perpetrator and the father have over 40% missing data and were excluded from the multivariate analysis. For the remaining variables to maintain an adequate sample size, we control the missing data in all of our multivariate analysis by entering it as a category for each variable. Although we were concerned about having an adequate sample size for analysis, we excluded the 262 cases of educational neglect because they generally signify a less severe form of neglect and are rarely reported to CPS. For example, Illinois received 2,888 reports of educational neglect out of a total of 136,83 1 reports of abuse and neglect in 1989. This represents only 2% of all reports (Illinois Department of Children and Family Services, 1989). Further, to assure clarity in our predictions of one type of abuse versus another, we excluded the 168 cases where the specific type of abuse or maltreatment was not defined (e.g., general maltreatment). The final sample consisted of 2,8 14 cases.

Re-analysis of the NIS-2

205

Table 1. Variable Definitions Independent Variables” Child Variables Age: Age of the child at time of maltreatment I = 0 to 2 years 2 = 3 to 5 years 3 = 6 to 9 years 4 = 10 to 12 years 5 = 13 to 18 years 6 = unknown Race: Race of the child I = white 2 = black 3 = other (includes Hispanic, American Indian, Asian) 4 = unknown Sex: Sex of the child I = male 2 = female 3 = unknown Economic Variables Income: Total family income I = under $15,000 2 = $15,000 or more 3 = unknown AFDC: AFDC status of family I =noAFDC 2 = receives AFDC 3 = unknown EMPM: Employment of the mother I = mother not in the labor force (includes those looking for work) 2 = mother is employed either part-time or full-time 3 = unknown Family Structure Variables FANCOMP: Composition of family 1 = two parents live in the home 2 = one parent lives in the home (includes single, male-headed households) 3 = unknown NCHILD: Number of children under 18 living in the home 1 = one child 2 = two children 3 = three children 4 = four or more children 5 = unknown AGEM: Age of the mother at time of child’s maltreatment I = under 26 years old 2 = 26 to 34 years 3 = 35 to 70 years 4 = unknown Environmental Variable County: Metropolitan status of county of family’s residence I = large SMSAs or counties located in one of the 32 largest metropolitan areas of the country 2 = small SMSAs or those counties in other metropolitan areas 3 = non SMSAs, rural counties or those not located in a metropolitan area Dependent Variables Physical Abuse Includes physical assault with or without a weapon, slapping, spanking, hitting, stabbing, choking, etc., and tortuous restriction of a child’s movement by tying or binding inflicted or allowed to be inflicted by a parent or caregiver Sexual Abuse Includes sexual intrusion, molestation with genital contact, fondling, exposure, inadequate supervision of child’s voluntary sexual activities and other or unknown sexual exploitation committed or allowed to be committed by a parent or caregiver Emotional Maltreatment Includes emotional abuse or neglect such as systematic verbal assaults, rejecting or hostile behavior; confinement of the child to enclosed area (e.g., closet) in a manner likely to cause harm to the child; inattention to the child’s developmental/emotional needs; inadequate nurturance; chronic/extreme spousal abuse; knowingly permitting drug/alcohol abuse or other maladaptive behavior; refusal to allow/provide/seek needed care for diagnosed behavioral/emotional problem Physical Neglect Failure or refusal to allow/provide/seek necessary care for diagnosed condition; inattention to physical needs such as refusal of custody, abandonment, desertion, inadequate supervision, expulsion of child from home, lack of or inappropriate food, clothing and/or shelter which endangers the child; and reckless disregard of child’s safety or welfare (Does not include forms of educational neglect) a The omitted

category for each of the independent

variables

is Category

I

206

Elizabeth D. Jones and Karen McCurdy Demographic

Characteristics

Age of Child Race of Child Rex of Child

Economic

Pactora Types

Family Income x?DC Uothers'e Employment

Family

Of na1treatnent

neglect VI?. physical abuse sexual abuse vs. neglect emotional maltreatment vs. neglect emotional maltreatment vs. physical abuse sexual abuse vs. physical abuse sexual abuse vs. emotional maltreatment

Structure

Single Parent Number of Children Age of Hother

I

county

I Figure 1. Summaryof model.

Table 1 gives the definitions and codes for the variables used in the analysis, As mentioned in the previous section, all of the variables include a category for missing data on that item. For the creation of the dependent variables for the descriptive analysis we categorized each incident of maltreatment into four types: (a) physical abuse, (b) sexual abuse, (c) emotional m~tr~tment, and (d) physical neglect. The bottom of Table 1 contains specific definitions of each type of maltreatment. It is important to note that unlike the Westat (1988) analysis of this data, we combined emotional neglect and emotional abuse into one category: emotional maltreatment. The independent variables were chosen, based on previous studies, to capture several important constructs. Child demographic characteristics include age, race, and sex. Family income, AFDC status, and employment status of the mother represent the economic characteristics. Family structure is measured by family composition (single vs. two-parent household), number of children living in the household, and age of the mother. County of residence is used as a control variable. Analysis After providing descriptive analysis for the total sample and for each type of abuse, we use logit analysis to assess the impact of the demographic and economic factors on the different types of abuse. For the most complete comparison, the original four-category variable for types of abuse was converted into six dependent variables which depict all possible dichotomies of types of abuse for the logit analyses. These dichotomous variables are (a) neglect vs. physical abuse, (b) sexual abuse vs. neglect, (c) emotional maltreatment vs. neglect, (d) emotional malt~atment vs. physical abuse, (e) sexual abuse vs. physical abuse, and (f) sexual abuse vs. emotional maltreatment. In each instance, the first type of maltreatment is coded 1 and the second type is coded 0. By utilizing this extensive categorization system, we were able to tease out the differences between each type of maltreatment. This is preferable to examining one type of abuse versus all others, as combining three types of maltreatment into one variable assumes a strong degree of similarity among the different forms of maltreatment. The logit equations consist of six models including all the inde~ndent variables, defined above, for each combination of type of abuse. Its purpose is to give an overall view of which characteristics distinguish one type of abuse from another. Figure 1 gives a summary of these models.

Re-analysis of the NE-2

207

An important methodological issue is whether the multivariate analysis should be conducted using the weighted data. Because the NIS-2 was designed to estimate the incidence of child abuse and neglect in the U.S., which is a low base rate phenomenon and the budget constraints precluded the use of random sampling techniques, the Westat Study team designed a complex set of weights to create incidence figures representative of the entire nation. For example, Westat created five weights to account for sampling at five distinct levels-(a) the primary sampling unit (PSU), (b) the agency, (c) the unit within the agency, (d) the key participant, and (e) the case. They collapsed these weights and then annualized to construct an incidence rate for a 12-month rather than 3-month period. Due to the complexity, the exact meaning of the weights is unclear. For our study, we analyze the unweighted data because we want to identify relationships within the maltreatment sample rather than estimate an incidence rate. Further, some argue that the correct functional form of the models to be predicted precludes the need for the weights as long as the weights are not a function of the dependent variable (Bishop, 1977; Thomson, 1978). The type of abuse, our dependent variable, is not one of the variables used to create the weights. Although we have attempted to specify our models as correctly as possible, the reader should be aware that analysis of the unweighted data may understate the variance and overstate significant differences. Nonetheless, the findings are based on the most complete picture of child abuse and neglect available as of 1986.

FINDINGS Descriptive Analysis Table 2 gives a picture of the overall maltreatment sample and the characteristics by type of abuse. In line with other studies (AAPC, 1986; NCPCA, 1989), most children were victims of physical neglect n = 1115, followed by physical abuse n = 829, sexual abuse n = 483, and emotional maltreatment n = 387. In the total sample, the majority of children were 13-18 year olds (25%) while I O-l 2 year olds represented the smallest portion (13%). Males accounted for 46% of the sample and females 54%. About half of the sample were white, 30% were black and 18% other races. Thirty-one percent of the children had mothers between the ages of 26-34 while only 4% had mothers under 20 years of age. Because mothers ages 12- 19 represented such a small part of the sample, we combined this category with the 20-25 year old mothers for the multivariate analysis. About half of these mothers did not work (49%) though 26% were employed either on a part-time or full-time basis. In 66% of the cases, the age of the father was not known. Of known cases, the majority of children had fathers over 25. Where father’s employment was known (39% of cases), the majority were employed full-time. Variables with information about the fathers were excluded from the multivariate analysis due to the high percentage of missing data. Fifty-five percent of families had incomes under $15,000 and 3 1% received AFDC though 40% did not. With respect to family structure, 40% of children lived in two-parent families (includes stepp~ents), and 30% were in households headed by females. Eight percent of children lived in rural areas; the remainder were split between large and small standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSAs). The two variables related to the perpetrator suffered from large amounts of missing data. Variables with information about the perpetrator were also excluded from the multivariate analysis because there was so much missing data. Fifty-six percent of cases lacked information on the perpetrator though when that information was known, the parent was identified most

208

Elizabeth D. Jones and Karen McCurdy Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of Children for the Total Sample and for Each Type of Abuse Types of Abuse

Variables

Emotional Maltreatment (n = 387) B ,0

Physical Neglect (n= 1115) %

Total (N = 2814) %

Physical Abuse (n = 829) %

Sexual Abuse (n = 483) %

21.4 17.0 21.6 13.1 25.0 2.0

19.1 14.0 23.0 13.0 29.7 1.2

6.8 20.9 25.5 18.4 28.4 -

11.4 11.1 19.1 14.7 42.1 1.6

32.9 19.5 19.7 10.3 14.1 3.5

45.7 53.9 0.4

54.3 45.6 0.1

15.9 83.9 0.2

47.8 51.4 0.8

51.5 48.0 0.5

49.5 30.4 17.7 2.3

50.5 26.7 20.1 2.1

54.9 25.9 11.4 1.9

57.6 25.8 13.4 3.1

43.6 36.8 17.1 2.5

4.1 17.1 30.8 21.0 26.9

3.9 17.9 26.9 19.9 31.5

1.4 12.8 30.8 23.6 31.3

2.6 8.3 32.6 35.9 20.9

6.0 21.3 33.2 15.6 23.9

21.1 5.1 13.3 34.5 26.0

24.1 5.3 10.5 30.2 29.3

23.8 5.6 12.0 25.5 33.1

25.8 5.7 13.2 39.8 f5.5

15.6 4.5 16.0 39.7 24.2

0.5 4.4 13.9 15.7 65.5

0.4 6.0 14.5 20.0 59.1

0.2 4.1 19.0 19.5 57.1

0.5 2.1 12.4 24.5 60.5

0.7 4.0 11.7 7.8 75.7

24.5 2.9 4.9 6.3 61.4

32.6 2.3 4.3 5.2 55.6

27.7 3.5 6.0 4.8 58.0

31.5 3.1 4.1 10.6 50.6

14.6 3.0 5.1 6.4 70.9

55.3 21.9 22.8

46.8 28.7 24.5

47.6 31.5 20.9

55.0 28.9 16.0

65.0 10.2 24.8

30.9 39.9 29.2

20.4 44.3 35.3

21.7 47.0 31.3

29.7 50.1 20.2

43.1 30.0 26.8

39.8 30.3 3.4 26.5

46.4 25.6 4.2 23.8

47.6 26.1 3.1 23.2

45.5 25.3 2.6 26.6

29.5 37.3

23.0 29.1 20.4 20.0 7.6

28.3 28.6 18.3 16.6 8.1

24.6 32.3 20.5 16.4 6.2

17.6 31.8 23.5 20.2 7.0

20.1 27.1 20.8 23.9 8.1

Age O-2 years 3-5 years 6-9 years lo- 12 years 12f years Unknown Sex

Male Female Unknown Race White Black Other Unknown Age of Mother 12-19 years 20-25 years 26-34 years 35-70 years Unknown Employment Status of Mother Employed Fulltime Employed Parttime Looking for Work Not in Labor Force Unknown Age of Father 12-19 years 20-25 years 26-34 years 35-70 years Unknown Employment Status-Father Employed Fulltime Employed Parttime Looking for Work Not in Labor Force Unknown Income Under $15,000 $15,000 plus Unknown AFDC Yes No Unknown Family Composition Two Parent Female Head Male Head Unknown Number of Children 1 Child 2 Children 3 Children 4 + Children Unknown

3::;

Re-analysis of the NIS-2

209

Table 2. (Continued)

Types of Abuse

Variables County Size Large SMSA Other SMSA Non SMSA Perpetrator Parent/Substitute Living In Home Parent/Substitute Not Living In Home Paramour of Parent Other Unknown Age of Perpetrator 12- 19 years 20-25 years 26-34 years 35-70 years Unknown Number of Times Maltreated One Time Only Two Times Only Three Times

Total (N = 2814) %

Physical Abuse (n = 829) %

Sexual Abuse (n = 483) %

Emotional Maltreatment (n = 387) %

Physical Neglect (n = 1115) %

45.5 46.4 8.1

47.9 44.6 7.5

51.8 41.8 6.4

35.9 53.7 10.3

44.4 47.2 8.4

22.6

22.0

7.9

21.4

30.0

4.6 7.7 9.2 55.8

6.2 10.7 7.5 53.7

9.3 12.4 30.4 40.4

4.1 7.5 5.2 61.8

1.6 3.6 2.8 62.1

2.1 6.2 13.0 12.8 66.0

2.8 6.0 12.1 13.4 65.7

4.3 10.1 15.3 21.1 49.1

1.0 2.6 10.9 14.5 71.1

0.9 5.8 13.5 8.2 71.7

58.6 25.9 15.5

often. The age of the perpetrator was missing in 66% of the cases. Of known perpetrators, most were over the age of 25. Differences appear when one looks at these characteristics by specific types of abuse. Physically abused children tended to be over 12 years old (30%) male (54%), and white (50.5%). Their families were characterized by 26- to 34-year-old mothers (3 1%) who were not employed (48%). Forty-seven percent had incomes below $15,000 though only 20% received AFDC. Most resided in two-parent families (46%) with one or two children in a large SMSA (48%). Victims of sexual abuse were similar in many respects with two major differences-gender and age. Females accounted for 84% of victims, a much higher percentage than found in any other form of maltreatment, Additionally, only 7% of children under 3 experienced sexual abuse. As with physical abuse, victims were most likely to be over 12 (29%), white (55%), with 26- to 34-year-old mothers (3 1%). Of all forms of maltreatment, this contains the lowest percentage of mothers not in the labor force (26%). Families typically possessed incomes under $15,000 (48%) and did not receive AFDC (47%). This type of maltreatment had the largest number of two-parent families (48%). In addition, most families had two children (32%) and lived in a large SMSA (52%). Emotionally maltreated children possessed several characteristics unique to the rest of the sample. This group consisted of a much higher concentration of older children (42%) as well as the highest percentage of whites (58%) and lowest percentage of other races (13%). Like sexual abuse, females outnumbered males. Children in these families had the oldest mothers (36%) and a higher number not in the work force (40%). The majority (55%) had incomes of under $15,000 and 30% received AFDC. Two-parent families comprised 46% of this group. These children were the least likely to live in a large SMSA (36%). Several characteristics of physically neglected children stand out when compared to the

210

Elizabeth D. Jones and Karen McCurdy

other victims of maltreatment. First, this group contains the youngest victims with 33% under the age of 3. It also encompasses the largest percentage of blacks (37%). Mothers tended to be between the ages of 20-34 with a few (16%) over the age of 34. In addition, this category has the smallest portion of mothers with full-time employment (16%). Not surprisingly, this group consists of the largest percentage of families with low incomes (65%) families receiving AFDC (43%), and female-headed households (37%). Logit Analysis Table 3 summarizes the results of the logistical regression equations containing all the independent variables predicting the six combinations of abuse. Rather than show the logit estimates and their respective standard errors, this table presents the significant categories of the variable and the direction of the relationship. The coefficients and standard errors for these models can be found in the appendix. Age of the child significantly varies across all the models and is the only independent variable to do so. Examining the 3 models with neglect in them shows that the likelihood of neglect decreases as the child gets older. In other words, children under 3 years old suffer neglect more often than any other form of maltreatment. With all other factors controlled, children in the 3-5 age group are the most likely to experience sexual abuse, except when comparing neglected children to sexually abused children. Here the strong negative relationship between neglect and age overrides the negative relationship between sexual abuse and age (see appendix). Thirteen to eighteen year olds appear more likely to be emotionally maltreated than neglected or physically abused. Mother’s age represents the second best variable in terms of distinguishing different types of maltreatment. It significantly varies in five of the six models. In all models with physical abuse, children with young mothers have the strongest likelihood of being physically abused. Children with older mothers are more likely to be emotionally maltreated as opposed to physically abused or neglected. Race stands out due to the similarities between blacks and whites. Only one comparison of maltreatment, sexual abuse versus neglect, reveals significant differences between these groups with blacks evidencing a higher risk than whites of being neglected as opposed to sexually abused. Sex of the child is significant across four of the dichotomies. Females are more likely than males to be sexually abused as opposed to the other three types of maltreatment. Also of interest is the first comparison which shows the greater likelihood of females to experience neglect while males experience physical abuse. The three comparisons which include neglect demonstrate the significance of income and parental status. Children from one-parent families with incomes under $15,000 are more likely to be neglected. Unexpectedly, two related variables, receipt of AFDC and employment status of the mother, provided the least amount of information to distinguish between the different types of maltreatment. The last independent variable, county, showed significant differences in four of the six models. In the first two neglect models, the likelihood of neglect increases as county size decreases. When compared to neglect, children who experience physical abuse or sexual abuse are more likely to reside in large SMSAs. Similar findings occur with emotional maltreatment. Children living in large SMSAs were more likely than those in small SMSAs to experience either physical abuse or sexual abuse, rather than emotional maltreatment. We extended this analysis by examining the interaction terms, age of child by age of mother and family size by age of mother. Neither of these were significant in any of the models.

f-l

VS.

VS.

VS.

f-f as county size decreases

n.s.

(+) 35-70 years

n.s.

(-) 3 children, 4+ more children (-) 26-34 years

increases (+) 26-34,3.5-70 years (+) as county size decreases

(+) as family size

(+) 2 children, and 3 children (+) as mother’s age increases (+) small SMSA’s

(+) as mother’s age increases n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

(-) one-parent

(-) one-parenta

(+) one parenta

n.s.’

n.s.’

(-) mother employed

n.s.

n.s.

ns.

ns.

(+) receives AFDC ns.

n.sa

YYjover $ I 5,000

(+) 13- 18 years

(+) 6-9, 10-12, I 3- 18 years n.s. (-) other n.s. n.s.

(+) 3-5, 6-9, IO-12 years (-) other (+) female ns.

Physical Abuse

Neglect

Physical Abuse

Sexual Abuse

Emotional Maltreatment

Emotional Maltreatment

(+) as child’s age increases (-) black (+) female (+) over $15,000

Nliect

Sexual Abuse

(-) as child’s age increases ns. (+) female (-) over $15,000

Neglect vs. Physical Abuse

Note. All variables significant unless otherwise noted. a Unknown category significant at .05.

Mom’s Employment (mother not in labor force) Family Composition (two-parents) Family Size (one child) Mother’s Age (under 26 years) County (large SMSA)

Race (white) Sex (male) Income (under $~5,~) AFDC (no AFDC)

Age (O-2 years)

Variables (Comparison group)

Likelihood of:

Table 3. Logit Models

(-) small SMSA’s

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.’

ns.

(+) 3-5, 6-9 lo12 years n.s. (+) female ns.

Emotional Maltreatment

VS.

Sexual Abuse

212

Elizabeth D. Jones and Karen McCurdy

DISCUSSION In this study we attempted to examine the demographic, economic and family structure correlates of four types of maltreatment. Underlying this analysis was the idea that the four types of abuse were distinctly different with the victims and families exhibiting characteristics unique to each type of maltreatment. Although the generalizability of the findings is limited, this study provides the most comprehensive picture of the demographic and economic characteristics of children by types of maltreatment to date, Previous research of this type has relied on information from CPS reports (AAPC, 1988). Our examination of the NIS-2 data extends prior knowledge by including information about cases of maltreatment observed by professionals throu~out the course of their work regardless of whether they were reported to CPS. As such, this analysis has shown several important departures from previous research. Sexual abuse occurs at a much younger age than reporting statistics or community surveys would suggest. Our findings reveal that sexual abuse was most prevalent in the 3-5 age group. This figure contrasts with the average age of 9 based on reported cases (AAPC, 1988) and the age of 6-7 and lo-12 summarized by Finkelhor and Baron ( 1986). Growing evidence from other samples, however, indicates that the onset of sexual abuse may be at young ages. For example, one of the major treatment centers has reported that 25% of their patients are 5 years or younger (Summit, 1983). Moreover, the age of reported sexual abuse may not reflect the age of onset of abuse. The abuse may have been occurring for quite some time before it was reported. Additionally, surveys based on recollections may inflate the average age because the individual may not be able to remember exactly when the abuse began. Because the NE-2 includes nonrepo~ed cases seen by profe~ion~s in addition to those reported to CPS, it may reflect a more accurate picture of the age of the victims of sexual abuse than previous data sources. We also found that children under the age of 3 face the greatest likelihood of neglect. In contrast, AAPC (1986) reported the mean age of neglect to be about 6 years. The NIS-2 data shows quite clearly that children 5 years old or younger experience the highest amount of physical neglect after controlling for a wide range of variables. This finding is supported by data from Illinois Department of Children and Family Services which shows that children under 5 years old account for a little less than 50% of the reported cases of abuse or neglect in 1989, of which 59% were neglect cases. Further, with regard to child fatalities which are associated with physical neglect, among the states who collected this info~ation in 1989, 50% of these children were under the age of 1 at the time of death (NCPCA, 1990). Unfortunately, these findings regarding the neglect and sexuai abuse of young children may only be the “tip of the iceberg” as the Westat researchers chose sentinels who were more likely to observe older children and thus reported older children to the study (Sedlak & Alldredge, 1987). These findings regarding age have important implications for prevention planning. Prevention programs for sexual abuse and neglect need to target their efforts to families with very young children. More importantly, those in contact with young children such as day care workers and pediatricians need to know how to identify the characteristics of neglect or sexual abuse. With neglect, in particular, affordable prenatal services need to be available. We also found that children over 12 years of age experienced the greatest amount of emotional abuse. Programs designed to target emotional abuse need to recruit parents with children of junior high ages. Teachers, school counselors, and physicians need to know the characte~stics of emotional abuse to better identify and treat these children. Moreover, many of the prevention programs which are already in place in schools could incorporate information about emotional abuse as well as self-esteem building techniques.

Re-analysis of the NIS-2

213

Of the four types of child maltreatment examined in this paper, physical neglect stands out as the most predictive and distinctive. Our results very clearly reinforce the strong connection between neglect, poverty status and female-headed households (Pelton, 198 1). More importantly, we find that minority status has little influence on the likelihood of neglect occurring. Instead, neglect appears to be a problem of economics. Physical neglect remains the most frequently reported type of maltreatment, approximately 55% of the cases each year (AAPC, 1988; NCPCA, 1990). The fact that neglect is related to tangible factors, although not easy to deal with, is encouraging news because there are policy changes which could help alleviate some of this type of maltreatment. These findings suggest the need for a strong commitment to working with and providing services to families in poverty. In 1987, the U.S. poverty rate for young children was 23%, nearly 1 out of every 4 children (National Center for Children in Poverty, 1990). A big step toward preventing neglect would be to provide health care, especially prenatal care, to all families. An unwillingness to begin to tackle these issues is resulting in the deterioration of the country’s major resource: children.

REFERENCES American Association for Protecting Children. (1988).Highiights ofojicia~ child neglect and abuse reporting, 1986. Denver, CO: American Humane Association. Azar, S. T., Barnes, K. T., & Twentyman, C. T. (1988). ~velopmental outcomes in abused children: Consequences of parental abuse or a more general breakdown in caregiver behavior? ~e~~v~ur Therapist, Il. 27-32. Badgley, R., AIIard, II., McCormick, N., Proudfoot, P., Fortin, D., Ogilvie, D., Rae-Grant, Q., Gelinas, P., Pipin, L., & Sutherland, S. (1984). Sexual offense against children. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre. Bishop, J. ( 1977). Estimation when the sampling ratio is a linear function of the dependent variable. Proceedings of Social Statistics Section ofthe American Statistical Association, 1, 848-853. Bolstad, O., Johnson, E., & Magnuson, L. (undated). 2,500 families: A treatment effectiveness study of the Morrison Center Child nnd Family Mental Health Program 1982-I 988. Portland, OR: Morrison Center Youth and Family Services. Daro, D. (I 988). Corrfionting child abuse: Research for t@ctive program design. New York: Free Press. Elmer, E. (1977). Fragi~~~milies, troz~b~edyouth: The a~ermath ofinfant trauma. ~ttsbur~: University of Pittsburgh Press. Finkelhor, D. ( 1984). Child sexual abuse; New theory and research. New York: Free Press. Finkelhor, D., & Baron, L. (1986). High risk children. In D. Finkelhor, S. Araji, L. Baron, A. Browne, S. Peters, G. Wyatt (Eds.), A sourcebook on child sexual abuse (pp. 60-88). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Gil, D. (I 970). Violence aguinst children: Physical abuse in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Giovannoni, J., & Billingsley, A. (1970). Child neglect among the poor: A study of parental adequacies in families of three ethnic groups. Child We&e, 49, 196204. Illinois Department of Children and Family Services. (1989). Child abuse and negiect statistics, annual report. Chicago: Author. Kempe, C. H., Silverman, F., Steeie, B., Droegemuller, W., &Silver, H. (1962).The battered child syndrome. fournul ofAmerican Medical Association, 181, 17-24. Kercher G., & McShane, M. (1984). The prevalence of child sexual abuse victimization in an adult sample of Texas residents. ChildAbuse and Neglect, 8, 495-502. National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. (198 I). Studyfmdings: National study ofincidence and severity of child abuse and neglect. Washington, DC: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. National Center for Children in Poverty. (1990). Five million children: A statistical profire of our poorest young citizens. New York: Columbia University, School of Public Health. National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. ( 1989). Current trends in childabuse reportingandfatalities: The results ofthe 1988 annual~ft~l state survey. Chicago: Author. National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. ( 1990). Current trends in child abuserepurt~ng and~taiities: The results of the 1989 annual~fty state survey. Chicago: Author. Pelton, L. (I 981). The social confexi of&i/d abuse and neglect. New York: Human Services Press. Russell, D. ( 1986). The secret trauma: Incest in the lives of giris and women. New York: Basic Books. Sedlack, A. J., & Alldredge, E. E. (1987). Study ofthe national incidence and prevalence of child abuse and neglect: Report on data collection. Washington, DC: National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. Summit, R. (1983). The child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 177-193. Thomson, I. (1978). Design and estimation problems when estimating a regression coefficient from survey data. h4etrika, 25, 27-36.

214

Elizabeth D. Jones and Karen McCurdy

Trainor, C. (I 984). Sexual maltreatment in the United State.r: A five year perspective. Paper presented at the International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect, Montreal. Westat, Inc. (1988). Study findings: Study sfthe national incidence and prevalence of child abuse and neglect: 1988. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services. Wolock, I., &Horowitz, B. (1979). Child maltreatment and material deprivation. SocialSewiceReview, 53, 175- 194.

R&mm&--Ce texte explore le hen entre les types de maltraitance et (a) la structure famihale, (b) les caracteristiques demographiques de L’enfant, (c) les variables economiques. L’anafyse est ba&e sur la deuxieme etude nationale sur l’incidence de la maltraitance, laquelle a foumi un volume important de don&es venant des agences de protection de l’enfance et d’autres services tels les ecoles, les hopitaux, etc., darts vingt-neuf comtes americains. Le texte examine quatre types de maltraitance: (a) les abus physiques, (b) les abus sexuels, (c) les mauvais traitements affectifs, et (d) la ntghgence. Cette demitre se distingue des autres types en ce qu’elle est previsible et unique. Elle se rattache aux conditions itconomiques de la famille et a son statut social, peu importe ses origines raciales. Pour ce aui en est des abus physiques et sexuels, ils se produisent chez une population plus jeune que precedemment observe. L’article discute des politiques qui dkcoulent de ces constats. Resumen-Este trabajo examina el efecto relacionado con las caracteristicas demograficas de1 niiio, la estructura familiar y variables economican en varios tipos de abuse y negligencia a 10s niiios. El an%sis presente esta basado en 10s datos de1 Segundo &studio National de lncidencia de1 Abuso y la Neghgencia a 10s Nifios (NISI?), que recogib information de agencias tanto CPS coma las que no lo son (e.g., escuelas, hospitales) en una muestra national de 29 poblaciones (Westat, 1986). El NIS-2 ofrece oportunidad especial para examinar aspectos de abuso y una negligencia en una matriz de datos national extensa. Este trabajo estudia una serie de modelos de regresi6n logistica exploratoria para distinguir cuatro tipos diferentes de maltrato: (a) abuso fisico, (b) abuso sexual, (c) maltrato emotional, y (d) negligencia fisica. Nuestros resultados demuestran que el abuso fisico, en comparacion con 10s dem& tipos de abuse, puede predecirse e identificarse mejor. Esta m&s ctaramente relacionado con factores econ6micos coma bajos ingreSOSy status Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), sin importar la raza a que pertenezca. AdemLs, tanto el abuso sexual coma la negligencia tisica suceden en edades mucho m&s tempranas en comparacion con 10s resultados conocidos anteriormente. Se discuten las implicaciones que estos resultados tienen en la politica.

: vl

Variables

* Statistically significant at the .05 level.

0.25 (0.20) -0.43 (0.18)*

0.46 (0.15)* -0.24 (0.13)

2338.9 1916

1380.0 I188

0.3 I (0.14)* 0.28 (0.24)

(0.18)* (0.2@* (0.22) (0.28)

0.24 (0. IO)* 0.45 (0.19)*

0.49 0.67 0.41 0.41 0.76 (0.23)* 0.98 (0.25)* 0.28 (0.25)

(O.I4)* (0.15)* (o.ls)* (0.20)

-0.17 (0.16) 0.13 (0.17)

0.56 (0.15)+ 0.51 (0.18)* 0.25 (0.16)

0.38 0.54 0.71 0.33

0.54 (0.12)* 0.47 (0.13)*

-0.2 I (0.16) -0.44 (0.20)*

-0.27 (0.18) -0.21 (0.20)

-0.69 (0.15)” 0.20 (0.14)

-0.07 (0.13) --0.07 (0.14)

-0.22 (0.16) -0.49 (0.19)* 0.23 (0.4 1)

(0.26) (0.24) (0.27) (0.25)* (0.59)

0.11 (0.12) -0.21 (0.14) 0.25 (0.34)

0.20 0.004 0.26 0.50 0.22 0.17 (0.13) 1.97 (1.27)

(0.16) (0.16)* (0.20)* (0.18)* (0.37)

0.21 (o.lo)* lSO(l.11)

-0.31 -0.93 - 1.06 -1.37 0.16

Phvsical Abuse

VS.

VS.

Physical Abuse

Emotional Abuse

Neglect

1429.4 1284

-0.15 (0.13) -0.13 (0.27)

0.52 (0.22)* 0.66 (0.25)* 0.33 (0.23)

(0.17) (0.19j (0.21) (0.27)

(0.18) (0.20)’ (0.2 I)* (0.28)

1459.3 1570

-0.39 (0.14)9 -0.57 (0.26)*

-0.43 (0.21)* -0.20 (0.24) -0.14 (0.22)

-0.21 -0.46 -0.64 -0.43

-0.75 (0.16)* -0.49 (0.17)*

0.07 (0.16) 0.23 (0.17) 0.23 0.16 0.12 -0.08

-0.09 (0.18) 0.37 (0.19)*

-0.07 (0.17) 0.44 (0.19)

-0.21 (0.19) 0.20 (0.18)

0.14 (0.21) -0.35 (0.18)

(0.22) (0.24) (0.26) (0.35)

982.7 842

-0.48 (0.16)* -0.17 (0.30)

-0.45 (0.29) -0.61 (0.3 I) -0.26 (0.31)

-0.30 -0.30 -0.2 I -0.13

0.003 (0.19) -0.02 (0.20)

0.25 (0.21) 0.90 (0.24)*

(0.19) (0.2 1) (0.22) (0.29)

1458. I 1474

0.07 (0.14) -0.17 (0.24)

0.30 (0.22) 0.54 (0.25)* 0.03 (0.25)

0.08 0.03 -0.28 0.11

-0.63 (0.16)’ -0.32 (0.17)

-0.43 (0.18)’ -0.62 (0.21).

-0.31 (0.18) -0.15 (0.19)

0.42 (0.20)* -0.17 (0.20)

0.2 I (0.22) -0.14 (0.24)

0.96 (0.19)’ -0.37 (0.19)

-0.07 (0.18) -0.14 (0.19)

0.068 (0.24) 0.25 (0.23)

-0.23 (0.16) -0.16 (0.19) 0.3 I (0.39)

-0.10 (0.20) 0.059 (0.22) -0.47 (0.52)

(0.24) (0.23)’ (0.26)* (0.24); (0.47) 0.017 (0.13) 0. I 1 (0.76)

0.43 0.90 1.23 1.9 I 0.12

-0.32 (0.16)* 0.10 (0.19) -0.20 (0.45)

(0.33)* (0.32)* (0.34)* (0.32) (6.29)

-0.30 (0.16) -0.39 (O.lS)* -0.10 (0.46)

1.31 0.91 0.9 I 0.15 -6.05

Abuse

Emotional Abuse vs. Neglect

1.67 (0.17)* 0.19 (1.27)

1.73 (0.24)’ 1.93(0.24)* 2.16 (0.27)* 2.07 (0.26)* -4.05 (3.82)

Emotiozl

Sexual Abuse

1.71 (0.15)* 0.29(1.11)

(0.26)* (0.26)* (0.28)* (0.26) (4.84)

Neglect

VS.

Sexual Abuse

2.01 (0,15)* 1.85 (1.49)

1.44 1.00 1.01 0.33 -5.58

Pbvsical Abuse

VS.

Sexual Abuse

Appendix. Logit Estimates Predicting the Likelihood of Types of Maltreatment (Standard Errors in Parentheses)

Unknown AFDC (vs. No) Yes Unknown Employment Status Mother (vs. Not Working) Working Unknown Family Structure (vs. two-parent) Single Parent Unknown Number of Children (vs. 1 Child) 2 Children 3 Children 4+ Children Unknown Age of Mother (vs. 12-25 yrs) 26-34 35-70 Unknown Residence (vs. Iarge SMSA) Other SMSA Non-SMSA Constant -2 Log Likelihood Degrees of Freedom

Age (vs. O-2 yrs.) 3-5 6-9 IO-12 12-b years Unknown Sex (vs. male) Female Unknown Race (vs. White) Black Other Unknown Ing~$; under S 15,000)

-