Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1978

The Life Concept in Female College Students: An Exploratory Analysis Diane Ellen Papalia-Finlay 1 Received November 4, 19 77

In the present study a two-part animism questionnaire was devised and administered to 200 female undergraduate students who had fairly extensive course backgrounds in science. When these students were asked to classify each o f 15 objects as "living" or "nonliving," 67% (N = 134) gave evidence o f apparent animistic thought. Yet when the subjects were asked to choose which o f several statements reflected their own definition o f living, 66% (N = 132) claimed that "only plants and animals are living. "Scientific background did not relate to performance on either section o f the questionnaire. Results indicate that although the primary orientation o f many young adults toward the word living is not a biological one, most college students are able to classify stimuli according to this criterion.

INTRODUCTION

Piaget (1933) defines "animism" as the attribution of life and consciousness to inanimate objects. He holds that there are four stages in the formation of the mature life concept and that animism, while prevalent among children, should disappear by about age 11 or 12. He states: During the first stage (approximately 4-6 years) everything is regarded as living which has activity or a function or a use of any sort. During the second stage

1Associate Professor, Child and Family Studies Program, School of Family Resources and Consumer Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Madison. Received her Ph.D. in lifespan developmental psychology from West Virginia University in 1971. Primary research interest is cognitive functioning after childhood. 133 0 0 4 7 - 2 8 9 1 / 7 8 / 0 6 0 0 - 0 1 3 3 5 0 5 . 0 0 / 0 9 1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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Papalia-Finlay (approximately 6-7 years), life is defined by movement, all movement being regarded as in a degree spontaneous. During the third stage (approximately 8-10 years), the child distinguishes spontaneous movement from movement imposed by an outside agent and life is identified with the former. Finally, in the fourth stage (approximately 11 years and over), life is restricted to animals or to animals and plants (Piaget, 1929, pp. 194-195).

Other researchers have, for the most part, confirmed Piaget's stage-sequential formulation of the development of the life concept during childhood (e.g., Russell, 1940, 1942;Russell and Dennis, 1939). However, significant amounts of apparent animistic responding beyond childhood (generally in samples of college students) have been observed (e.g., Bell, 1954; Crannell, 1954; Crowell and Dole, 1957; Dennis, 1953; Lowrie, 1954; Mikulak, 1970; Simmons and Goss, 1957; Voeks, 1954). Yet the meaning of these apparently animistic responses (whether they are evidence of immature thought) remains to be determined. The present study was designed to explore responses to a two-part animism questionnaire in female college students. It was theorized that apparent animistic responses do not reflect immature thought structures (i.e., are not due to a belief that the qualities of function and/or movement are indicators that a stimulus is "living"), but indicate that the college student is choosing to employ a nonbiological criterion in assigning the term "living" to stimuli which are not living in a biological sense. Specifically, the following issues were addressed in this study: (1) What is the extent of animistic responding (i.e., the assignment of the term "living" to stimuli which are not biologically living) in college students? (2) What is the reasoning behind animistic responding to college students? (3) What is the effect of altering "response set" on animistic responses? (4) What is the effect of college level science education on animistic responses?

METHOD Subjects The subjects were 200 female undergraduate students (sophomores through seniors) enrolled in an introductory course in child development at the University of Wisconsin - Madison. The topic of animistic thought had not been covered in the course at the time of testing; therefore, it was assumed that the subjects were unfamiliar with Piaget's work in this area. Data were gathered concerning number and type of college level science courses taken by each subject. Since the class was composed primarily of students in nursing, physical therapy, and occupational therapy, the extent of their formal scientific training was quite extensive. The average number of natural science courses (e.g., biology, chemistry) taken by each student was 4.59 (range: 1-12).

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135 Procedure

All students were given a two-part animism questionnaire in one group session of approximately 20 minutes. In Part I, subjects were required to categorize each of 15 printed, consecutively presented verbal stimulus items (2 were living; 13 were nonliving) as either "living" or "nonliving." The items were as follows: "comb," "lightning," "unlighted match," "bicycle being ridden," "electric clock plugged in," "parked truck," "radio turned on," "wind," "sun," "ocean," "lighted match," "frog," "stars,," "t~ee," "the earth." Nonliving items were chosen because they could exhibit spontaneous or induced movement or a function of some sort. Subjects were given a stage designation based upon their most primitive response selection. In other words, a stringent criterion of mature thought was used in which one animistic response resulted in a subject being classified as animistic. Subjects were designated as in Stage 1 if they classified as living any of the following items: comb, unlighted match, parked truck. Subjects assigned to Stage 2 claimed that a bicycle being ridden, an electric clock plugged in, a lighted match, and/or a radio turned on were living, but did not attribute life to the items critical to Stage 1. The most primitive response of subjects assigned to Stage 3 was to designate lightning, wind, sun, ocean, stars, and/or the earth as living. Subjects assigned to Stage 4 only described frog and tree as living. These classifications were based on Piaget's description of the character of animistic thought at each of the four stages. In Part II of the questionnaire subjects were asked to select the statement or statements which described their personal concept of "living" from among the following: (1) Everything is living which has activity, or a function, or a use of any sort; (2) Everything is living which has movement whether it occurs spontaneously or is imposed by an outside agent; (3) Everything is living which moves spontaneously; (4) Only plants and animals are living; (5) Other (please specify). The first four categories conformed to Piaget's descriptions of response rationales characteristic of Stages 1 through 4. Category 5 was provided to determine if subjects were employing additional classification systems in defining the life concept.

RESULTS

Only 33% (N = 66) of the subjects gave responses consistently characteristic of Stage 4 thought in Part I of the questionnaire (i.e., confined the term "living" to frog and tree). One hundred thirty-four subjects (67%) did not limit their concept of living to plants and animals, contrary to Piaget's theory for adult subjects. The percentage of subjects in each stage was as follows: Stage 1, 2% (N = 4); Stage 2, 16.5% (N = 33); Stage 3, 48.5% (N = 97); Stage 4, 33% (N = 66).

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Papalia-Finlay

Analysis of the number of science courses taken by members of each of the four stages indicated no significant between-group differences. Average number of scientific courses was 5.4, 4.3, 4.3, and 4.5 for subjects in Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Therefore, it did not appear that scientific instruction influenced responses. An item analysis indicated that each stimulus was considered living by at least several subjects. Although all subjects agreed that frog and tree were living, there was great inconsistency in classifying the remaining stimuli. Very few subjects attributed life to comb (1.5%), unlighted match (1.5%), and parked truck (1%). Somewhat more frequently the term "living" was used to describe bicycle being ridden (16%), electric clock plugged in (16%), radio turned on (16%), and lighted match (20%). Animistic responses were most frequently noted for lightning (33%), wind (35%), sun (38%), ocean (55.5%), stars (35%), and the earth (64%). Analysis of Part ii of the questionnaire was performed to determine which of several definitions subjects held Concerning the concept of living. One hundred ninety-one subjects selected a rationale from the four Piagetian-based choices on the questionnaire. Only 9 subjects did not designate a Piagetian stage description as characteristic of their life concept (i.e., they chose Statement 5) when presented with a list of such criteria. One hundred thirty-two subjects selected a Stage 4 judgment (i.e., Statement 4); 59 chose rationale based upon function or movement of the stimulus (i.e., Statements 1, 2, or 3); 59 subjects added their own personal definition of living. A comparison of subjects' answers to Parts I and II of the questionnaire indicated some discrepancy between the rationale selected in Part II of the questionnaire and the state designation assigned to the subject for responses to Part I alone (see Table I). Although 67% (N---134) of the subjects were classified as animistic (assigned to Stages 1, 2, or 3) based on Part I, 66% (N = 132) of the total sample agreed with the statement, "only plants and animals are living." Twice as many subjects received Stage 4 designations under Part II than under Part I. This apparent inconsistency between performance on the two parts of the questionnaire may elucidate the reasoning underlying certain living and nonliving Table I. Frequency of Most Primitive Response Rationales Used by Students in

Each Stage Designation Rationales selected in Part II Stage designation Imposed Spontaneous Plants/ in Part I Usefulness movement movement animals Other 1

4

0

0

0

1

2 3 4

16 4 0

15 2 0

0 18 0

0 66 66

7 36 15

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designations. Particularly striking is the discrepancy between Stage 3 designations (based on Part I) and rationale selection in Part II. Although each of the 97 subjects assigned to Stage 3 for Part I responses attributed life to some stimulus (or stimuli) other than frog or tree, 66 (68%) of these subjects agreed with the statement in Part II that "only plants and animals are living." Only 24 subjects (25%) in this group did not agree with the above statement but with the statements in which the life criteria include the attributes of movement or function (i.e., statements 1, 2, or 3). Thirty-six of the subjects assigned to Stage 3 offered other definitions of living - 29 of these were stated by subjects in addition to their selection of one of the four alternatives. Closer scrutiny of the Stage 3 responses indicated that 54 subjects (56%) were assigned to this category solely because they designed ocean and/or earth as living. Of these 54 subjects, 51 subjects claimed that "only plants and animals are living." Therefore, it seems that at least for some individuals the life concept may encompass something other than the traditional biological definition would imply. Subjects appeared to be including within their life concept that which functions to support life (i.e., ocean and earth) as well as that which is biologically living (i.e., frog and tree). As is evident from Table I, 44 subjects assessed as below Stage 4 in Part I included their own unique life concept among the response rationales; none of these descriptions were based on the attributes of usefulness or spontaneous or induced movement. These spontaneously generated categorization systems were mentioned alone as well as in addition to Piagetian rationales. Of these subjects, 59% specifically mentioned a definition which included as living (1) natural phenomenon (e.g., "Anything involving nature or purely natural phenomena is living"; "Things which man cannot or did not make") or (2) that which supports life (e.g., "Living is that which gives life"; "Ocean and earth must qualify because they have life within them"). Additional rationales included attributing life (I) to the intangible (e.g., "Intangible things also live, for example, ideas and thoughts, whether they are real or fantasy - not in a biological sense, but that's only one definition"; "Something is alive if it has a quality of giving joy or pleasure in watching it") and (2) to that which has energy (e.g., Something is living which "gives off energy or has energy but is not man-made"). Several subjects noted the difficulty inherent in defining living (e.g., "I don't agree with any of the above definitions but I'm at a total loss in defining living"). All subjects assigned to Stage 4 (N -- 66) based on Part I of the questionnaire, agreed with the statement that "only plants and animals are living." Fifteen subjects in Stage 4 also included additional information about their life concept. Their statements did not actually provide novel (i.e., nonbiological) definitions; rather, each embellished on the biological life concept by pointing out that life includes that ability to grow, metabolize, reproduce, respirate, excrete, and die.

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Papalia-Finlay DISCUSSION

The presence of animistic responses in college students has been noted and its meaning debated (e.g., Bell, 1954; Crannell, 1954; Crowell and Dole, 1957; Dennis, 1953; Lowrie, 1954; Mikulak, 1970; Simmons and Goss, 1957; Voeks, 1954). Such findings have been greeted with amazement and some dismay. Crannell (1954) points out that "we have evidence that a significant minority of college students have not even learned 'what life is all about'" (p. 55). But perhaps Crannell's judgment (1954) is too harsh. The discrepancy in the present study between responses to the two sections of the questionnaire may shed some light on the meaning of apparent animistic responses in adulthood. That the majority of subjects chose the Stage 4 definition in Part II indicates that most subjects do possess a mature definition of living; in other words, they are able to use biological classification criteria when called upon to do so. Their scientific background should also ensure this. The attribution of life to inanimate objects, as found in responses to Part I, may simply reflect that the subject's primary orientation to the term "living" is not a biological one. Rather, when subjects were not specifically instructed to reply "as a biologist," they chose to define living in a broader sense. This alternate definition was often an ecological one which may reflect the current preoccupation among college students and others with the environment. It appears, then, that most subjects can employ biological criteria in defining life but may not always choose to do so unless specifically required. Therefore, the type of methodology employed to assess animism is crucial in determining the extent of animistic responding. Such an interpretation is feasible if one considers the many different ways in which the word living is employed in daily conversation - a "living religion," a "live wire," a "living language," to name a few. Voeks (1954) mentions several alternate uses of the word living. Attributing life to an electric clock because electricity flows through it reflects a physicist's notion of live electric wires. Glaciers are referred to as living by geologists. Yet, we do not infer from this that glaciers and electric circuits possess the attributes included in a biologist's definition of living. Perhaps college students are manifesting the same phenomenon. That young adults frequently do not choose to employ a biological definition of living does not necessarily imply that they are incapable of doing so. The presence of animistic responses, then, does not necessarily indicate that many college students possess immature categorization systems such as are evidenced by children who define living in terms of movement or function. Rather, college students, in attributing the term "living" to stimuli which are not biologically living, may be exhibiting a broader concept of life than Piaget claims should characterize adult thought. In choosing alternative categorization systems, young adults may be reflecting characteristics of thought which enable them to deal with concepts flexibly rather than in the very rigid, restricted manner of the schoolchild.

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The present findings suggest directions for future research on animism. This study, limited to college women, reveals nothing about the evolution of the life concept in childhood and early adolescence. In other words, we know nothing about the cognitive path these subjects followed to arrive at their present mode of responding, including whether these women formerly used biological criteria as the predominant method of classification. Longitudinal studies using the present testing materials are needed to evaluate if age changes in performance confirm Piaget's stage-sequential formulation and then to determine if there is further evolution of the life concept beyond the stage where life is restricted to plants and animals. The current findings do, however, indicate that not all college women evidence Stage 4 responding, as Piaget's theory would predict, and that the testing method used greatly influences the degree to which animistic responding is noted.

REFERENCES Bell, C. R. (1954). Additional data on animistic thinking. Sci. Monthly 79: 67-69. Crannell, C. N. (1954). Responses of college students to a questionnaire on animistic thinking. Sci. Monthly 78: 54-56. Crowell, D. H., and Dole, A. A. (1957). Animism and college students. J. Educ. Res. 50: 391-395. Dennis, W. (1953), Animistic thinking among college and university students. Sci. Monthly 76: 247-249. Lowrie, D. E. (1954). Additional data on animistic thinking. Sci. Monthly 79: 69-70. Mikulak, A. (1970). A note on Piaget's animism. J. Exper. Educ. 38(3): 59-60. Piaget, J. (1929). The Child's Conception of the World, Harcourt Brace, New York. Piaget, J. (1933). Children's philosophies. In Murchi~on, C. (ed.), A Handbook of Child Psychology, 2nd ed., Clark University Press, Worcester, Mass. Russell, R. W. (1940). Studies in animism: II. The development of animism. J. Genet. Psychol. 56: 353-366. Russell, R. W. (1942). Studies in animism: V. Animism in older children. J. Genet. Psychol. 60: 329-335. Russell, R. W., and Dennis, W. (1939). Studies in animism: I. A standardized procedure for the investigation of animism, J. Genet. Psychol. 55: 384-400. Sheehan, N., and Papalia, D. (1974). The nature of the life concept across the lifespan. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Gerontological Society, Portland, Oct. 28-Nov. 1. Simmons, A. J., and Goss, A. E. (1957). Animistic responses as a function of sentence contexts and instructions. J. Genet. Psychol. 91: 181-189. Voeks, V. (1954). Sources of apparent animism in students. Sci. Monthly 79: 406-407.

The life concept in female college students: An exploratory analysis.

In the present study a two-part animism questionnaire was devised and administered to 200 female undergraduate students who had fairly extensive cours...
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