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The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20
The Impact of Shyness on Problematic Internet Use: The Role of Loneliness a
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Vivien S. Huan , Rebecca P. Ang , Wan Har Chong & Stefanie Chye
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Nanyang Technological University Published online: 21 Mar 2014.
Click for updates To cite this article: Vivien S. Huan, Rebecca P. Ang, Wan Har Chong & Stefanie Chye (2014) The Impact of Shyness on Problematic Internet Use: The Role of Loneliness, The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 148:6, 699-715, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2013.825229 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2013.825229
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The Impact of Shyness on Problematic Internet Use: The Role of Loneliness VIVIEN S. HUAN REBECCA P. ANG WAN HAR CHONG STEFANIE CHYE Nanyang Technological University
ABSTRACT. In recent years, research indicated that the problematic effects of Internet use must be examined together with individual differences present in its users with which such effects are contingent. This study examined loneliness in adolescents as a mediator of the relationship between shyness and their generalized problematic Internet use (PIU). A total of 1469 adolescents (48.5% male, 51.5% female) from Grade 8 and Grade 9 classes participated in this study. Using the Social Reticence Scale (SRS), the revised UCLA Loneliness scale and the Generalized Problematic Internet Use scale, initial findings indicated significant correlations among the three variables. Results from the study further revealed that loneliness completely mediated the relationship between shyness and generalized problematic Internet use. Implications for intervention work addressing both loneliness and shyness issues facing adolescents who are problematic users of the Internet were discussed. Keywords: adolescents, Internet, loneliness, shyness
THE EXPONENTIAL GROWTH IN THE USE of the internet among adolescents around the world is a well-established fact among researchers in this field (Cao & Su, 2006; Casale & Fioravanti, 2011; Gross, 2004; Kaltiala-Heino, Lintonen, & Rimpela, 2004; Kuo, Choi, Mahiznan, Lee, & Soh, 2002; Park, Kim, & Cho, 2008). Research has consistently shown that Internet use among adolescents has expanded rapidly and has become an integral part of the lives of teenagers today (Becker, 2000; Mythily, Qiu, & Winslow, 2008; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). However, this rapid growth in adolescent Internet use also raised questions among researchers as to the type of teenagers who are more likely to develop Internet-related problematic behaviors (Douglas et al., 2008; Pratarelli, Browne, & Johnson, 1999; Sanders, Field, Diego, & Kaplan, 2000; Yellowlees & Marks, 2007). Excessive Internet users have been termed as problematic, pathological, maladaptive, and addictive Address correspondence to Vivien S. Huan, National Institute of Education, 1, Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616, Republic of Singapore; [email protected] (e-mail). 699
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in the use of the Internet (Beard & Wolf, 2001; Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001; Huang et al., 2010). Although Caplan (2002) highlighted the lack of agreement among scholars in the definition of excessive Internet users almost a decade ago, the problem still persists today (Casale & Fioravanti, 2011). For this study, the term, problematic Internet use (PIU) will be used to define the cognitions and behaviors related to, “the use of the Internet that creates psychological, social, school and/or work difficulties in a person’s life” (Beard & Wolf, p. 378). The term, “problematic Internet use” is used as it covers a wider range of problematic behaviors ranging from the mild to severely disturbed ones (Caplan, 2002). However, the literature, further distinguished between specific and generalized problematic Internet use based on Davis’ (2001) cognitive-behavioral model of PIU. This model described how certain maladaptive cognitions and psychopathological correlates present in an individual, predisposed him to problematic use of the Internet. Specific PIU described the overuse of content-specific functions of the Internet such as viewing of sexual material or gambling but these behaviors can be expressed in alternative ways if the access to the Internet is not made available to the user. In contrast, generalized PIU is conceptualized as a multidimensional overuse of the Internet that results in negative consequences for the individual, such as maladaptive cognitions and behaviors that are not content-specific. In this study, generalized PIU is examined rather than specific PIU (Davis). Previous studies on adolescent Internet use tended to focus more on the consequences or impact of excessive usage. Findings from these studies had inferred that adolescents’ excessive use of the Internet led to potential harmful effects on the psychosocial well-being of the adolescents, both at school and at home (Beard & Wolf, 2001; Davis, 2001; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Young 1996, 1998). However, Internet users are not a homogenous and passive group of individuals upon whom the Internet acts on uniformly. The psychological effects of Internet use must be examined together with individual differences present in Internet users with which such effects are contingent (Weiser, 2001). In recent years, there is a growing interest among researchers in the field looking at pre-existing psychosocial problems, such as loneliness and shyness used this study, present within the adolescent that pre-dispose him/her to develop maladaptive cognitions and behaviors related to Internet use (Caplan, 2007; Casale & Fioravanti, 2011; Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; Davis; Kim, LaRose, & Peng, 2009). Shyness and Generalized PIU Findings from different research studies have indicated the association between shyness and frequent Internet use (Chak & Leung,2004; Roberts, Smith, & Pollack, 2000). Shy people generally have smaller friendship networks, less social support, decreased social interaction, poor self-projection, weaker social ties, and deficient communication (Jones & Carpenter, 1986; Lazarus, 1982; Roberts et al., 2000). Like nonshy individuals, self-presentation theory postulates that shy people
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attempt to control self-images or any information that relates to their identity so as to create a positive impression on others. The desired result is to gain approval and minimize disapproval from others (Edelmann, 1987; Goffman, 1959). However, unlike nonshy individuals, people who are shy tend to be less confident and competent, doubting their ability to make positive self-presentations or impressions on others (Alden & Wallace, 1995; Miller, 1995). To this, different research has shown that the Internet provides an environment that facilitates better quality relationships for shy people because of the perceived greater control over how they interact and present themselves online, largely in text-based environments. Taking their time to prepare, revise and respond to online messages, absence of face-to-face communication or direct observation which allows for anonymity, are features of the computer-mediated medium of the Internet that provides shy individuals with a safe and secure environment for social interaction. On the Internet, shy individuals can take time to form what they say and how they wish to say it because the time pressures for instantaneous responses are also removed (Brunet & Schmidt, 2007; McKenna, Green, & Gleason, 2002; Roberts et al., 2000). A study conducted by Scealy, Phillips, and Stevenson (2002) also supported the notion that shy individuals were more comfortable communicating online than offline possibly because of the absence of others. The presence of people could increase their anxiety, and high levels of anxiety posed difficulties for shy people who already faced difficulty in interacting with others. Feedback cues, verbal or nonverbal, given through face-to-face communication in the presence of others are often perceived by shy individuals as indications of their social incompetence or rejection from others. Through the Internet, any unpleasant feelings arising from the presence of others or from negative evaluation of their inept interaction patterns are substantially reduced. Nonverbal behavior is also largely absent in computer-mediated communications, which means fewer negative cues for shy people to notice, giving them greater confidence to freely convey their thoughts and feelings to others online. Social connections expand vastly online as communities and social relations formed on the Internet provide a safe haven for shy people to interact (Edelmann, 1987; Stritzke, Nguyen, & Durkin, 2004). As a result, these individuals ended up spending a substantial amount of time online and failed to acquire and maintained skills that were necessary for social interaction (Henderson & Zimbardo, 1998). At the same time, these individuals could create their own altered identities while in the faceless cyberspace and pretended to be someone else, yet satisfying their emotional and psychological needs through interactions that were less threatening, and possibly more intimate, than real life relationships (Sheeks & Birchmeier, 2007; Turkle, 1995). Earlier research revealed that shy individuals tended to face difficulty in fostering close relationships with others until they were comfortable with their own identities (Weaver, 1987). The anonymity feature of the Internet allowed its users to try out new ways of relating, take on new roles and identities and sometimes, switch gender (Curtis, 1992; Turkle, 1994). Young
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(1997) revealed that on the Internet, shy individuals could enhance their own image or even play a different role from who they are, in real life. Because of the reduced verbal or nonverbal cues of the Internet environment, shy individuals were able to manipulate their own identities and decide how much of their “true self” to disclose or change while interacting with others in cyberspace. One danger of this manipulation of one’s role and identity in cyberspace, is the possibility of losing the coherence of one’s sense of self if the various aspects of “self” were not well integrated (McKenna & Bargh, 2000). In an exploratory study looking at the impact of personality variables such as shyness on frequent use of the Internet among adolescents, Chak and Leung (2004) found that high levels of shyness were associated with increases in Internet addiction that were statistically significant. Similar findings were obtained in a study conducted among college students showing that students who scored high on shyness in face-to-face situations were less shy online. Face-toface communications create discomfort for shy individuals in social situations and online communication help eliminate this discomfort or any negative feelings that accompany them. These shy students were found to feel more confident when interacting online and relied primarily on this aspect of technology to communicate, resulting in online dependency and significant impairment in individual functioning (Yang & Tung, 2007; Yuen & Lavin, 2004). In a more recent study which looked at the relationship between shyness and online networking sites, Baker and Oswald (2010) found that shy individuals found greater satisfaction and developed closer friendships with other Internet users via the network site. Increased friendship quality and social support from fellow cyber users were also found. This supports the notion that the Internet provides an alternative environment for shy individuals to gratify their social and emotional needs, resulting in some of them gravitating heavily toward the Internet. Hence, the more time they spend online, the less time they would engage in offline social interactions. This could eventually lead to a strong dependency on the Internet which could create social isolation and greater shyness (Russell, Flom, Gardner, Curtona, & Hessling, 2003). The Mediating Role of Loneliness Although empirical evidence above has documented how problematic Internet use among shy adolescents creates further dependency for online activities eventually leading to social maladjustment, the mechanisms by which shyness exerts its influences remains unclear. This study explores whether the effects of shyness on problematic Internet use are mediated by the effects of the user’s level of loneliness on problematic use of the Internet by the adolescent. In particular, two broad areas of research will be reviewed in this section: (a) the influence of shyness on adolescent’s problematic Internet use, and (b) the influence of adolescent’s level of loneliness on problematic use of the Internet.
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Shyness and Loneliness Extensive research has demonstrated the existence of a close relationship between shyness and loneliness (Anderson & Harvey, 1988; Fitts, Sebby, & Zlokovich, 2009; Gokhan, 2010; Woodhouse, Dykas, & Cassidy, 2012). Ashe and McCutcheon (2001) found that shy individuals tended to avoid social interactions and are less involved in social activities, hold more negative evaluations of themselves and others, have smaller network of friends, thus contributing to them having a stronger sense of loneliness. Similarly, in a study which looked at explaining the association between shyness and loneliness on college students, Jackson and his colleagues found that feelings of diminished social competence, and experiences of reduced social support from friends of highly shy college students, contributed significantly to their experiences of loneliness (Jackson, Fritch, Nagasaka, & Gunderson, 2002). Similarly, past research also showed that shyness is inversely correlated with social competence with individuals feeling less lonely when they felt satisfied with their level of social competence, and the social network and activities they were involved in (Crozier, 1995; Jones & Moore, 1987; Pierce, Sarason, & Sarason, 1991). Earlier on, Cheek and Buss (1981) in their study of undergraduate students provided evidence on the impact shyness has on loneliness. In their study, new undergraduates in an introductory psychology course completed measures of shyness and loneliness at both beginning and end of the Spring semester. Although loneliness levels declined from the beginning to end of semester for both shy and non-shy students, shy undergraduates were significantly lonelier than their non-shy college mates at both time periods. In a separate study, the long term impact of childhood shyness measured in terms of social withdrawal and social competence, on adolescent maladaptation was examined by Rubin and his colleagues in a longitudinal project (Rubin, Chen, McDougall, Bowker, & McKinnon, 1995). Predictors in the study included aggregated measures of social withdrawal and social competence derived from three sources-behavioral observations, peer assessments and teacher ratings. Participants in this study comprised children whose social competence and loneliness were measured from Grades 2 to 9. Results obtained revealed that childhood social withdrawal which included shyness, uniquely and significantly contributed to the prediction of loneliness in adolescents, among other problems. More recently, Gokhan (2010) conducted a research examining the relationship between shyness and loneliness among 470 elementary school students in Turkey. Data measuring shyness and loneliness in the students were collected using scales with good psychometric properties. Results obtained from this study revealed that besides being positively correlated at a significant level, shyness was a significant predictor of the students’ level of loneliness.
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Loneliness and Generalized PIU Quite a few research studies examining the relationship between loneliness and generalized PIU have found that lonely individuals tend to spend a great deal of time on the Internet (Amichai-Hamburger & Ben-Artzi, 2003; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000). Morahan-Martin and Schumacher (2000) in their study on undergraduate Internet users found that those who scored significantly higher on loneliness were also problematic Internet users. The findings indicated that these lonely individuals were more likely to go online to relax and find support from people who share similar interests as them. They also tended to be more open and friendly, always seeking out new friendships and gaining social confidence while online. Because of the expanded social networks, and increased possibilities of belonging and companionship provided by the Internet, social interaction online is altered in ways that attract lonely individuals who are not satisfied with their real life social relationships. These changed social interaction patterns online may also aid them in modulating their negative moods often associated with loneliness, leading them to use the Internet more. With increased usage of the Internet, research showed that these lonely adolescents reported more daily disturbances in terms of their social activities, work, school, and overall adjustment (Loytskert & Aiello, 1997; Morahan-Martin, 1999; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2003; Peplau, Russell, & Heim, 1979; Young, 1998). Likewise, a study on Turkish students looking at the predictors of problematic Internet use, found that loneliness was the strongest predictor of problematic Internet use. This finding supported the view mentioned earlier that individuals with pre-existing psychosocial problems were more likely to develop problematic behaviors and cognitions with their use of the Internet (Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008). Lonely individuals tended to have a higher preference for online interaction as they perceived the Internet as, “socially liberating, the Prozac of social communication” (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000, p. 26). The Internet provides them with an ideal environment to interact with others as it allows for greater anonymity and greater control over his own interaction since no immediate response is required. The anonymity online is liberating for individuals who are lonely and some even took on different identities and gender type while online. As mentioned earlier, this manipulation of different identities by the individual could lead to a loss of coherent sense of self if the individual failed to integrate the various aspects well (McKenna & Bargh, 2000). In a separate study, Kim and his colleagues (2009) conducted an online research with undergraduate students looking at the relationship between psychological well-being of individuals and subsequent Internet use. Results of this study revealed that individuals who are lonely not only find it difficult to maintain healthy social relationships in their real lives but faced great challenge regulating their Internet use. Such compulsive use of the Internet can result in negative outcome such as lowered academic achievement, missing from school or work and avoiding social appointments. Gradually, they become more drawn to their online
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activity, using it as a means to diminish or escape from struggles with real life social interactions, further isolating them and increasing loneliness more.
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Present Study As reviewed in the preceding sections of this article, findings across different research have demonstrated that shy individuals tended to report greater loneliness than those who are less shy, and that loneliness is positively correlated with generalized PIU. Although Davis’ (2001) cognitive-behavioral model of PIU proposed that certain psychopathological characteristics present within an individual, predisposed him to PIU, research findings above also suggest the feasibility of a mediating model by which shyness lead to problematic Internet use in individuals via loneliness. To the best of our knowledge, no research has investigated the role of loneliness between shyness and generalized PIU in an adolescent sample thus far. There remains an important question as to what role loneliness plays in this sequence. Hence, this study hypothesized loneliness to mediate in the relationship between these two variables. Mediators establish how one variable predicts an outcome variable. A mediator can be defined as a variable that explains the relation between a predictor and an outcome. It is the mechanism through which a predictor influences an outcome variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Holmbeck, 1997; James & Brett, 1984). In this study, the authors attempt to establish how loneliness help explain the process by which shyness predicts problematic Internet use in adolescents. Multiple regression analyses were used to test for mediation effects in a sequential manner. We had four predictions. First, shyness was predicted to associate positively and significantly with problematic Internet use. Second, a significant and positive association between shyness and loneliness was also expected. Third, loneliness was predicted to be significantly and positively associated with problematic Internet use. Lastly, loneliness was expected to mediate the relationship between shyness and problematic Internet use. Method Participants Data was collected from 1469 adolescents from 5 different secondary schools in Singapore. A total of 712 boys (48.5%) and 757 girls (51.5%) from Grades 8 and 9, with a mean age of 14.56 years (SD = .62) participated in this study. Of this population, 1189 (80.7%) are Chinese, 81 (5.8%) are Malays, 142 (9.6%) are Indians, 13 (0.9%) are Eurasians, and 44 students (3.0%) endorsed Others which includes all other ethnic groups not listed. Consent Procedures Permission to carry out this study was first sought through the university’s ethics clearance board. Application was also made through the Ministry of Education, data administrative center to obtain consent for data collection from the five
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secondary schools. Both participant and parental consent were also sought prior to the administration of the questionnaires. Subsequent to obtaining approval at all levels, the purpose of the study was then explained to the students, and consent to participate in the study was obtained from all students involved. Participation was strictly voluntary, and students’ responses were kept confidential. Students were also informed that they could refuse or discontinue participation in the study at any time. All questionnaires were administered in English. No translation was needed as English is the medium of instruction for all schools in Singapore. Measures Shyness in the participants was measured using the Social Reticence Scale (SRS) by Jones and Briggs (1986). The SRS is a 20-item, self-report instrument containing statements describing problems associated with shyness. Participants rate on a Likert scale of 1 to 5 with 1 being “not at all characteristic of me” and 5 being “extremely characteristic of me”. Obtaining high scores on this measure indicates higher level of shyness in an individual while the reverse is true for low scores. The SRS yields a total score with 2 subscale scores. For the purpose of this study, only the total score was used. Reliability estimate for the total scale was high, with a Cronbach value of 0.85.The shyness scores ranged from 20 to 89 with a mean of 51.51 (SD = 11.25) Loneliness in participants was measured using the revised UCLA Loneliness scale developed by Russell, Peplau, and Cutrona (1980). This is a 20-item scale, half consisting of items indicating the participant’s satisfaction with his/her social relationships and half reflecting dissatisfaction. Items on this scale are scored from a Likert scale of 1 to 4, with 1 being “never” to 4 being “often.” The loneliness scores ranged from 20 to 77 with a mean of 40.25 (SD = 9.69). Reliability estimate for this scale was high with a Cronbach value of 0.91. Generalized Problematic Internet Use in participants was measured using the 29-item GPIUS scale (Caplan, 2002). This scale was designed to measure the frequency of cognitions, behaviors, and other negative outcomes associated with general problematic use of the Internet within an individual. Participants’ responses to each item are scored on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) with higher scores indicating intensity of generalized problematic Internet use cognitions, behaviors and outcomes. The GPIUS yields a total score with 7 subscale scores. For the purpose of this study, only the total score was used. Reliability estimate for the total score yielded an excellent Cronbach value of 0.92. The GPIUS scores ranged from 29 to 131 with a mean of 75.04 (SD = 16.79). Data Analytic Plan The data was analyzed according to Baron and Kenny’s (1986), Holmbeck’s (1997), and Preacher and Hayes’ (2004) conceptual and statistical
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Predictor Variable: Shyness
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Outcome Variable: GPIUS
A Path c’
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B Predictor Variable: Shyness
Path a
Mediator Variable: Loneliness
Path b
Outcome Variable: GPIUS
FIGURE 1. Diagram of paths in the hypothesized mediational model.
recommendations for assessing the presence of mediator effects. Three equations were tested using multiple regression analyses. First multiple regression was used to regress GPIUS on the variable on shyness, to establish the significant association between the independent and the dependent variables (Path c in Figure 1A). Following that, the measure of loneliness was regressed on the shyness variable using multiple regression to establish Path a (see Figure 1B) in the mediational sequence. Third, the measure of GPIUS was regressed on both the loneliness and shyness variables. This equation will indicate whether loneliness is related to GPIUS (Path b) and it provides an estimate of the relation between the variables of shyness and GPIUS controlling for the loneliness variable (Path c’). To demonstrate loneliness functioned as a mediational variable in this model, the strength of the relation between shyness (predictor variable) and GPIUS (outcome variable) should either be eliminated or significantly reduced. Results The means, standard deviations, and inter-correlations of the three variables used in this study are presented in Table 1. Cronbach alphas were calculated for shyness, loneliness and GPIUS. Shyness was significantly correlated with both loneliness and GPIUS in the expected direction: shyness was positively correlated with loneliness (r = .53, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 1.26), and GPIUS (r = .17, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 0.35). Both correlations of .53 and .17 are statistically significant at the p < .01 level and correspond to effect sizes that lie between medium to the large range (Cohen, 1988). The variable loneliness also positively correlated with GPIUS (r = .25, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 0.51) as expected. The correlation of .25 is statistically significant at the p < .01 level and represents a medium effect size according to Cohen’s (1988) definition.
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TABLE 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Intercorrelations, and Reliability Estimate for Variables Variable
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1. Shyness 2. Loneliness 3. Generalized PIU
M
SD
51.52 40.25 75.04
11.25 9.68 16.79
Alpha
1
2
3
.85 .91 .92
—
.53 ∗∗ —
.17 ∗∗ .25 ∗∗ —
Note. Alpha = Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. ∗∗ p < .01.
To test for mediation according to the steps outlined earlier, the significant association between shyness (predictor variable) and GPIUS (outcome variable) needs to be established by regressing GPIUS on shyness (Step 1). Shyness was significantly associated with GPIUS (B = .266, β = .175, p < .001), path c was significant and the condition for mediation in step 1 was met. To establish that shyness was related to the hypothesized mediator loneliness, we regressed loneliness on shyness (Step 2). Shyness was also significantly associated with loneliness (B = .461, β = .531, p < .001) and the condition for step 2 was met (Path a was significant). To assess whether the hypothesized mediator, loneliness, was related to the outcome variable, GPIUS, we regressed GPIUS simultaneously on both shyness and loneliness (Step 3). Loneliness was significantly associated with GPIUS controlling for shyness (B = .399, β = .228, p < .001). Path b was significant and condition for step 3 was met. This third regression also provided an estimate of path c’, the relation between shyness and GPIUS controlling for loneliness. Findings from the regression equation showed that path c’ became nonsignificant suggesting complete mediation (B = .082, β = .054, ns). Alternatively, the Sobel test for mediation was used to further confirm if the variable, loneliness, completely mediates the relationship between shyness and GPIUS. The Sobel statistic obtained (Sobel test statistic = 4.05, p < .001) was shown to be significant, which indicates clearly that the mediator, loneliness, completely mediated the relationship between shyness and the dependent variable, GPIUS. In addition to using the Sobel test, the nonparametric bootstrapping method was also used to establish the mediational model of loneliness as a mediator of the relationship between shyness and GPIUS (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Results based on 5000 bootstrapped samples indicated that whilst the total effect of shyness on GPIUS was significant (TE = 6.33, SE = .032, p < .001), the direct effect was not (TE = 1.68, SE = .049, ns). Loneliness fully mediated the relationship between shyness and GPIUS (lower 95% CI = .13, upper 95% CI = .25) and because zero is not in the 95% confidence interval, the indirect effect is significantly different from zero at p < .05.
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Discussion This study examined the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU in a sample of school-going adolescents and specifically testing whether loneliness mediated this relationship. Measures used in this study were also employed by previous adolescent research studies (Eastburg & Johnson, 1990; Gamez-Guadix, Villa-George, & Calvete, 2012; Lasgaard, Goossens, & Elklit, 2011). Results obtained were in line with our expectations. Using Baron and Kenny’s (1986) and Holmbeck’s (1997) conceptual and statistical recommendations for assessing the presence of mediator effects, four predictions were examined and tested. Loneliness completely mediated the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU. The previously found relationship between shyness and generalized PIU disappeared when the loneliness variable was included in the model. The impact of shyness on generalized PIU was nullified when the adolescent’s loneliness was taken into account. These findings clearly indicated that loneliness play a uniquely incremental and complete mediating role in this developmental sequence. It illustrated the mechanism by which shyness (predictor variable) exerted its influence on generalized PIU (outcome variable). Specifically, loneliness is the mechanism by which shy individuals develop generalized PIU. In practical terms, this means that the power of shyness to affect generalized PIU did not occur via a direct pathway; rather, shyness first influenced loneliness, which in turn influenced generalized PIU in adolescents. Findings from this study demonstrated a significant empirical step forward in the scientific exploration of the roles of shyness and loneliness in individuals in the development of their problematic Internet use. Specifically, the impact of shyness on PIU can be explained by the impact of a third variable: loneliness. Through the mediation of loneliness, higher scores on shyness are associated with greater PIU and conversely, lower levels of shyness are associated with lower PIU. This means that adolescents who are socially anxious and have weaker social ties may experience greater loneliness which leads to problematic use of the Internet. With decreased face-to-face social interaction and deficient communication (Roberts et al., 2000), these adolescents may feel lonely which prompts them to go online to seek new friendship networks and social relationships (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000). These results have implications for prevention and early intervention work with adolescents, with respect to generalized PIU. While earlier research has established the impact of adolescent shyness on generalized PIU (Brunet & Schmidt, 2007; McKenna et al., 2002; Roberts et al., 2000), this study extended these findings in the literature, showing loneliness as a mediator in this relationship. Separately, both variables were found to exert influence on generalized PIU, a result similarly supported in a meta-synthesis study by Douglas and his colleagues (2008), which found that feelings of loneliness and shyness were strong antecedents that facilitated heavy Internet use with negative consequences.
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In a separate study, Caplan (2002) examined the relationship between different psychosocial variables with generalized PIU and found that loneliness was the strongest predictor of generalized PIU among them. To a large extent, interventions focusing on adolescent shyness may face limited effectiveness because loneliness in adolescents is the mechanism through which shyness exerts its influence on generalized PIU. There is robust empirical evidence supporting the benefits of prevention and early intervention for a wide range of child and adolescent problems (Karoly, Kilburn, & Cannon, 2005; Tully, 2007). Early intervention programs, when conducted well, benefited children and adolescents in their social-emotional competencies, academic achievement, health, and other domains (Karoly et al.). The results suggest that intervention programs aimed at reducing generalized PIU among adolescents might want to address issues of loneliness in addition to focusing on issues concerning their level of shyness. In this study, shyness not only correlates significantly with loneliness, but predicts it. What this means is that intervention programs designed to reduce generalized PIU among shy adolescents would need to find out the level of loneliness experienced by these adolescents. Dill and Anderson (1999) suggested that given the close association between shyness and loneliness, any treatment for either psychosocial variable should be examined for possible value for treatment of the other. Limitations and Future Research In view of the limitations of this study, qualification of the results obtained above warrant some comments. Our study found an association between shyness and generalized PIU with loneliness mediating this relationship. Although these results supported the hypotheses of the study, the cross-sectional research design does not allow for a formal assessment of causality. It could also be likely that generalized PIU contributed to adolescents’ level of shyness. Such issues of directionality can only be addressed in a longitudinal research design. Thus far, research is still unresolved about the direction of causality between shyness and generalized PIU (e.g., Casale & Fioravanti, 2011; Henderson & Zimbardo, 1998; Russell et al., 2003). Hence, it would be worthwhile to further examine the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU despite directionality. It is also important to note that for this study, shyness and loneliness were not psychosocial variables that were arbitrarily selected as antecedents, and generalized PIU as outcome, instead, Davis (2001) theoretical model formed the basis for the selection. Another limitation to this study is that it is based on Davis (2001) cognitive-behavioral model, which is psychological in perspective. However, other approaches to examining Internet addiction have arisen in recent years. One possible direction for future research is to examine PIU from a biological perspective, which have been found in some studies (Ha et al., 2007; Pratarelli et al., 1999). Furthermore, to have a better understanding of Internet-related problematic behaviors, it would be helpful to include a greater range of variables in future research.
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To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the attempt to investigate into the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU, with loneliness as the mediator of this relationship in an adolescent sample is unprecedented. However, one limitation that arose from studying a sample of school going adolescents is in the slight restriction of range for the variables examined. For example, the range of scores for shyness in this sample was from 20 to 89 with a mean of 51.51 (SD = 11.25), for loneliness, scores ranged from 20 to 77 with a mean score of 40.25 (SD = 9.69), and generalized PIU range of scores in this study was from 29 to 131 with a mean score of 75.04 (SD = 16.79). Although there was sufficient range and variance for this sample, having an additional clinical sample of adolescents for comparison would be a good follow up for future research. Another limitation that is of concern in this study is the low correlation coefficient (r = .17) and small effect size (d = .35) found between shyness and generalized PIU. Although the authors are aware that this significance could be attributed to the study’s large sample size, this relationship between shyness and generalized PIU has been previously established in the literature which helps provide further evidence beyond just this specific study with respect to this particular relation (Chak & Leung, 2004; Russell et al., 2003). In conclusion, the limitations notwithstanding, the current study has extended previous research findings in showing loneliness as a complete mediator between shyness and generalized PIU in an adolescent sample. Findings from this study have important implications for intervention in that programs aimed at reducing generalized PIU among adolescents might want to address issues of loneliness in addition to focusing on issues concerning their level of shyness. AUTHOR NOTES Vivien S. Huan is an associate professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her current research interests include juvenile delinquency, deviant behaviors, and pathological Internet use. Rebecca P. Ang is an associate professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her research interests pertain to child and adolescent developmental psychopathology and related interventions. Wan Har Chong is an associate professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her current research interests are positive adolescent development, self-processes in development, motivation and learning, and issues in school counseling. Stefanie Chye is an assistant professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her research interests include self-regulated learning, motivation, problem-based learning, and classroom discourse. REFERENCES Alden, L. E., & Wallace, S. T. (1995). Social phobia and social appraisal in successful and unsuccessful social interactions. Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 33, 497–505. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(94)00088-2
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Original manuscript received September 21, 2012 Final version accepted July 8, 2013
The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20
The Impact of Shyness on Problematic Internet Use: The Role of Loneliness a
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Click for updates To cite this article: Vivien S. Huan, Rebecca P. Ang, Wan Har Chong & Stefanie Chye (2014) The Impact of Shyness on Problematic Internet Use: The Role of Loneliness, The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 148:6, 699-715, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2013.825229 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2013.825229
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The Impact of Shyness on Problematic Internet Use: The Role of Loneliness VIVIEN S. HUAN REBECCA P. ANG WAN HAR CHONG STEFANIE CHYE Nanyang Technological University
ABSTRACT. In recent years, research indicated that the problematic effects of Internet use must be examined together with individual differences present in its users with which such effects are contingent. This study examined loneliness in adolescents as a mediator of the relationship between shyness and their generalized problematic Internet use (PIU). A total of 1469 adolescents (48.5% male, 51.5% female) from Grade 8 and Grade 9 classes participated in this study. Using the Social Reticence Scale (SRS), the revised UCLA Loneliness scale and the Generalized Problematic Internet Use scale, initial findings indicated significant correlations among the three variables. Results from the study further revealed that loneliness completely mediated the relationship between shyness and generalized problematic Internet use. Implications for intervention work addressing both loneliness and shyness issues facing adolescents who are problematic users of the Internet were discussed. Keywords: adolescents, Internet, loneliness, shyness
THE EXPONENTIAL GROWTH IN THE USE of the internet among adolescents around the world is a well-established fact among researchers in this field (Cao & Su, 2006; Casale & Fioravanti, 2011; Gross, 2004; Kaltiala-Heino, Lintonen, & Rimpela, 2004; Kuo, Choi, Mahiznan, Lee, & Soh, 2002; Park, Kim, & Cho, 2008). Research has consistently shown that Internet use among adolescents has expanded rapidly and has become an integral part of the lives of teenagers today (Becker, 2000; Mythily, Qiu, & Winslow, 2008; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). However, this rapid growth in adolescent Internet use also raised questions among researchers as to the type of teenagers who are more likely to develop Internet-related problematic behaviors (Douglas et al., 2008; Pratarelli, Browne, & Johnson, 1999; Sanders, Field, Diego, & Kaplan, 2000; Yellowlees & Marks, 2007). Excessive Internet users have been termed as problematic, pathological, maladaptive, and addictive Address correspondence to Vivien S. Huan, National Institute of Education, 1, Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616, Republic of Singapore; [email protected] (e-mail). 699
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in the use of the Internet (Beard & Wolf, 2001; Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001; Huang et al., 2010). Although Caplan (2002) highlighted the lack of agreement among scholars in the definition of excessive Internet users almost a decade ago, the problem still persists today (Casale & Fioravanti, 2011). For this study, the term, problematic Internet use (PIU) will be used to define the cognitions and behaviors related to, “the use of the Internet that creates psychological, social, school and/or work difficulties in a person’s life” (Beard & Wolf, p. 378). The term, “problematic Internet use” is used as it covers a wider range of problematic behaviors ranging from the mild to severely disturbed ones (Caplan, 2002). However, the literature, further distinguished between specific and generalized problematic Internet use based on Davis’ (2001) cognitive-behavioral model of PIU. This model described how certain maladaptive cognitions and psychopathological correlates present in an individual, predisposed him to problematic use of the Internet. Specific PIU described the overuse of content-specific functions of the Internet such as viewing of sexual material or gambling but these behaviors can be expressed in alternative ways if the access to the Internet is not made available to the user. In contrast, generalized PIU is conceptualized as a multidimensional overuse of the Internet that results in negative consequences for the individual, such as maladaptive cognitions and behaviors that are not content-specific. In this study, generalized PIU is examined rather than specific PIU (Davis). Previous studies on adolescent Internet use tended to focus more on the consequences or impact of excessive usage. Findings from these studies had inferred that adolescents’ excessive use of the Internet led to potential harmful effects on the psychosocial well-being of the adolescents, both at school and at home (Beard & Wolf, 2001; Davis, 2001; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Young 1996, 1998). However, Internet users are not a homogenous and passive group of individuals upon whom the Internet acts on uniformly. The psychological effects of Internet use must be examined together with individual differences present in Internet users with which such effects are contingent (Weiser, 2001). In recent years, there is a growing interest among researchers in the field looking at pre-existing psychosocial problems, such as loneliness and shyness used this study, present within the adolescent that pre-dispose him/her to develop maladaptive cognitions and behaviors related to Internet use (Caplan, 2007; Casale & Fioravanti, 2011; Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; Davis; Kim, LaRose, & Peng, 2009). Shyness and Generalized PIU Findings from different research studies have indicated the association between shyness and frequent Internet use (Chak & Leung,2004; Roberts, Smith, & Pollack, 2000). Shy people generally have smaller friendship networks, less social support, decreased social interaction, poor self-projection, weaker social ties, and deficient communication (Jones & Carpenter, 1986; Lazarus, 1982; Roberts et al., 2000). Like nonshy individuals, self-presentation theory postulates that shy people
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attempt to control self-images or any information that relates to their identity so as to create a positive impression on others. The desired result is to gain approval and minimize disapproval from others (Edelmann, 1987; Goffman, 1959). However, unlike nonshy individuals, people who are shy tend to be less confident and competent, doubting their ability to make positive self-presentations or impressions on others (Alden & Wallace, 1995; Miller, 1995). To this, different research has shown that the Internet provides an environment that facilitates better quality relationships for shy people because of the perceived greater control over how they interact and present themselves online, largely in text-based environments. Taking their time to prepare, revise and respond to online messages, absence of face-to-face communication or direct observation which allows for anonymity, are features of the computer-mediated medium of the Internet that provides shy individuals with a safe and secure environment for social interaction. On the Internet, shy individuals can take time to form what they say and how they wish to say it because the time pressures for instantaneous responses are also removed (Brunet & Schmidt, 2007; McKenna, Green, & Gleason, 2002; Roberts et al., 2000). A study conducted by Scealy, Phillips, and Stevenson (2002) also supported the notion that shy individuals were more comfortable communicating online than offline possibly because of the absence of others. The presence of people could increase their anxiety, and high levels of anxiety posed difficulties for shy people who already faced difficulty in interacting with others. Feedback cues, verbal or nonverbal, given through face-to-face communication in the presence of others are often perceived by shy individuals as indications of their social incompetence or rejection from others. Through the Internet, any unpleasant feelings arising from the presence of others or from negative evaluation of their inept interaction patterns are substantially reduced. Nonverbal behavior is also largely absent in computer-mediated communications, which means fewer negative cues for shy people to notice, giving them greater confidence to freely convey their thoughts and feelings to others online. Social connections expand vastly online as communities and social relations formed on the Internet provide a safe haven for shy people to interact (Edelmann, 1987; Stritzke, Nguyen, & Durkin, 2004). As a result, these individuals ended up spending a substantial amount of time online and failed to acquire and maintained skills that were necessary for social interaction (Henderson & Zimbardo, 1998). At the same time, these individuals could create their own altered identities while in the faceless cyberspace and pretended to be someone else, yet satisfying their emotional and psychological needs through interactions that were less threatening, and possibly more intimate, than real life relationships (Sheeks & Birchmeier, 2007; Turkle, 1995). Earlier research revealed that shy individuals tended to face difficulty in fostering close relationships with others until they were comfortable with their own identities (Weaver, 1987). The anonymity feature of the Internet allowed its users to try out new ways of relating, take on new roles and identities and sometimes, switch gender (Curtis, 1992; Turkle, 1994). Young
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(1997) revealed that on the Internet, shy individuals could enhance their own image or even play a different role from who they are, in real life. Because of the reduced verbal or nonverbal cues of the Internet environment, shy individuals were able to manipulate their own identities and decide how much of their “true self” to disclose or change while interacting with others in cyberspace. One danger of this manipulation of one’s role and identity in cyberspace, is the possibility of losing the coherence of one’s sense of self if the various aspects of “self” were not well integrated (McKenna & Bargh, 2000). In an exploratory study looking at the impact of personality variables such as shyness on frequent use of the Internet among adolescents, Chak and Leung (2004) found that high levels of shyness were associated with increases in Internet addiction that were statistically significant. Similar findings were obtained in a study conducted among college students showing that students who scored high on shyness in face-to-face situations were less shy online. Face-toface communications create discomfort for shy individuals in social situations and online communication help eliminate this discomfort or any negative feelings that accompany them. These shy students were found to feel more confident when interacting online and relied primarily on this aspect of technology to communicate, resulting in online dependency and significant impairment in individual functioning (Yang & Tung, 2007; Yuen & Lavin, 2004). In a more recent study which looked at the relationship between shyness and online networking sites, Baker and Oswald (2010) found that shy individuals found greater satisfaction and developed closer friendships with other Internet users via the network site. Increased friendship quality and social support from fellow cyber users were also found. This supports the notion that the Internet provides an alternative environment for shy individuals to gratify their social and emotional needs, resulting in some of them gravitating heavily toward the Internet. Hence, the more time they spend online, the less time they would engage in offline social interactions. This could eventually lead to a strong dependency on the Internet which could create social isolation and greater shyness (Russell, Flom, Gardner, Curtona, & Hessling, 2003). The Mediating Role of Loneliness Although empirical evidence above has documented how problematic Internet use among shy adolescents creates further dependency for online activities eventually leading to social maladjustment, the mechanisms by which shyness exerts its influences remains unclear. This study explores whether the effects of shyness on problematic Internet use are mediated by the effects of the user’s level of loneliness on problematic use of the Internet by the adolescent. In particular, two broad areas of research will be reviewed in this section: (a) the influence of shyness on adolescent’s problematic Internet use, and (b) the influence of adolescent’s level of loneliness on problematic use of the Internet.
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Shyness and Loneliness Extensive research has demonstrated the existence of a close relationship between shyness and loneliness (Anderson & Harvey, 1988; Fitts, Sebby, & Zlokovich, 2009; Gokhan, 2010; Woodhouse, Dykas, & Cassidy, 2012). Ashe and McCutcheon (2001) found that shy individuals tended to avoid social interactions and are less involved in social activities, hold more negative evaluations of themselves and others, have smaller network of friends, thus contributing to them having a stronger sense of loneliness. Similarly, in a study which looked at explaining the association between shyness and loneliness on college students, Jackson and his colleagues found that feelings of diminished social competence, and experiences of reduced social support from friends of highly shy college students, contributed significantly to their experiences of loneliness (Jackson, Fritch, Nagasaka, & Gunderson, 2002). Similarly, past research also showed that shyness is inversely correlated with social competence with individuals feeling less lonely when they felt satisfied with their level of social competence, and the social network and activities they were involved in (Crozier, 1995; Jones & Moore, 1987; Pierce, Sarason, & Sarason, 1991). Earlier on, Cheek and Buss (1981) in their study of undergraduate students provided evidence on the impact shyness has on loneliness. In their study, new undergraduates in an introductory psychology course completed measures of shyness and loneliness at both beginning and end of the Spring semester. Although loneliness levels declined from the beginning to end of semester for both shy and non-shy students, shy undergraduates were significantly lonelier than their non-shy college mates at both time periods. In a separate study, the long term impact of childhood shyness measured in terms of social withdrawal and social competence, on adolescent maladaptation was examined by Rubin and his colleagues in a longitudinal project (Rubin, Chen, McDougall, Bowker, & McKinnon, 1995). Predictors in the study included aggregated measures of social withdrawal and social competence derived from three sources-behavioral observations, peer assessments and teacher ratings. Participants in this study comprised children whose social competence and loneliness were measured from Grades 2 to 9. Results obtained revealed that childhood social withdrawal which included shyness, uniquely and significantly contributed to the prediction of loneliness in adolescents, among other problems. More recently, Gokhan (2010) conducted a research examining the relationship between shyness and loneliness among 470 elementary school students in Turkey. Data measuring shyness and loneliness in the students were collected using scales with good psychometric properties. Results obtained from this study revealed that besides being positively correlated at a significant level, shyness was a significant predictor of the students’ level of loneliness.
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Loneliness and Generalized PIU Quite a few research studies examining the relationship between loneliness and generalized PIU have found that lonely individuals tend to spend a great deal of time on the Internet (Amichai-Hamburger & Ben-Artzi, 2003; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000). Morahan-Martin and Schumacher (2000) in their study on undergraduate Internet users found that those who scored significantly higher on loneliness were also problematic Internet users. The findings indicated that these lonely individuals were more likely to go online to relax and find support from people who share similar interests as them. They also tended to be more open and friendly, always seeking out new friendships and gaining social confidence while online. Because of the expanded social networks, and increased possibilities of belonging and companionship provided by the Internet, social interaction online is altered in ways that attract lonely individuals who are not satisfied with their real life social relationships. These changed social interaction patterns online may also aid them in modulating their negative moods often associated with loneliness, leading them to use the Internet more. With increased usage of the Internet, research showed that these lonely adolescents reported more daily disturbances in terms of their social activities, work, school, and overall adjustment (Loytskert & Aiello, 1997; Morahan-Martin, 1999; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2003; Peplau, Russell, & Heim, 1979; Young, 1998). Likewise, a study on Turkish students looking at the predictors of problematic Internet use, found that loneliness was the strongest predictor of problematic Internet use. This finding supported the view mentioned earlier that individuals with pre-existing psychosocial problems were more likely to develop problematic behaviors and cognitions with their use of the Internet (Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008). Lonely individuals tended to have a higher preference for online interaction as they perceived the Internet as, “socially liberating, the Prozac of social communication” (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000, p. 26). The Internet provides them with an ideal environment to interact with others as it allows for greater anonymity and greater control over his own interaction since no immediate response is required. The anonymity online is liberating for individuals who are lonely and some even took on different identities and gender type while online. As mentioned earlier, this manipulation of different identities by the individual could lead to a loss of coherent sense of self if the individual failed to integrate the various aspects well (McKenna & Bargh, 2000). In a separate study, Kim and his colleagues (2009) conducted an online research with undergraduate students looking at the relationship between psychological well-being of individuals and subsequent Internet use. Results of this study revealed that individuals who are lonely not only find it difficult to maintain healthy social relationships in their real lives but faced great challenge regulating their Internet use. Such compulsive use of the Internet can result in negative outcome such as lowered academic achievement, missing from school or work and avoiding social appointments. Gradually, they become more drawn to their online
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activity, using it as a means to diminish or escape from struggles with real life social interactions, further isolating them and increasing loneliness more.
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Present Study As reviewed in the preceding sections of this article, findings across different research have demonstrated that shy individuals tended to report greater loneliness than those who are less shy, and that loneliness is positively correlated with generalized PIU. Although Davis’ (2001) cognitive-behavioral model of PIU proposed that certain psychopathological characteristics present within an individual, predisposed him to PIU, research findings above also suggest the feasibility of a mediating model by which shyness lead to problematic Internet use in individuals via loneliness. To the best of our knowledge, no research has investigated the role of loneliness between shyness and generalized PIU in an adolescent sample thus far. There remains an important question as to what role loneliness plays in this sequence. Hence, this study hypothesized loneliness to mediate in the relationship between these two variables. Mediators establish how one variable predicts an outcome variable. A mediator can be defined as a variable that explains the relation between a predictor and an outcome. It is the mechanism through which a predictor influences an outcome variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Holmbeck, 1997; James & Brett, 1984). In this study, the authors attempt to establish how loneliness help explain the process by which shyness predicts problematic Internet use in adolescents. Multiple regression analyses were used to test for mediation effects in a sequential manner. We had four predictions. First, shyness was predicted to associate positively and significantly with problematic Internet use. Second, a significant and positive association between shyness and loneliness was also expected. Third, loneliness was predicted to be significantly and positively associated with problematic Internet use. Lastly, loneliness was expected to mediate the relationship between shyness and problematic Internet use. Method Participants Data was collected from 1469 adolescents from 5 different secondary schools in Singapore. A total of 712 boys (48.5%) and 757 girls (51.5%) from Grades 8 and 9, with a mean age of 14.56 years (SD = .62) participated in this study. Of this population, 1189 (80.7%) are Chinese, 81 (5.8%) are Malays, 142 (9.6%) are Indians, 13 (0.9%) are Eurasians, and 44 students (3.0%) endorsed Others which includes all other ethnic groups not listed. Consent Procedures Permission to carry out this study was first sought through the university’s ethics clearance board. Application was also made through the Ministry of Education, data administrative center to obtain consent for data collection from the five
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secondary schools. Both participant and parental consent were also sought prior to the administration of the questionnaires. Subsequent to obtaining approval at all levels, the purpose of the study was then explained to the students, and consent to participate in the study was obtained from all students involved. Participation was strictly voluntary, and students’ responses were kept confidential. Students were also informed that they could refuse or discontinue participation in the study at any time. All questionnaires were administered in English. No translation was needed as English is the medium of instruction for all schools in Singapore. Measures Shyness in the participants was measured using the Social Reticence Scale (SRS) by Jones and Briggs (1986). The SRS is a 20-item, self-report instrument containing statements describing problems associated with shyness. Participants rate on a Likert scale of 1 to 5 with 1 being “not at all characteristic of me” and 5 being “extremely characteristic of me”. Obtaining high scores on this measure indicates higher level of shyness in an individual while the reverse is true for low scores. The SRS yields a total score with 2 subscale scores. For the purpose of this study, only the total score was used. Reliability estimate for the total scale was high, with a Cronbach value of 0.85.The shyness scores ranged from 20 to 89 with a mean of 51.51 (SD = 11.25) Loneliness in participants was measured using the revised UCLA Loneliness scale developed by Russell, Peplau, and Cutrona (1980). This is a 20-item scale, half consisting of items indicating the participant’s satisfaction with his/her social relationships and half reflecting dissatisfaction. Items on this scale are scored from a Likert scale of 1 to 4, with 1 being “never” to 4 being “often.” The loneliness scores ranged from 20 to 77 with a mean of 40.25 (SD = 9.69). Reliability estimate for this scale was high with a Cronbach value of 0.91. Generalized Problematic Internet Use in participants was measured using the 29-item GPIUS scale (Caplan, 2002). This scale was designed to measure the frequency of cognitions, behaviors, and other negative outcomes associated with general problematic use of the Internet within an individual. Participants’ responses to each item are scored on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) with higher scores indicating intensity of generalized problematic Internet use cognitions, behaviors and outcomes. The GPIUS yields a total score with 7 subscale scores. For the purpose of this study, only the total score was used. Reliability estimate for the total score yielded an excellent Cronbach value of 0.92. The GPIUS scores ranged from 29 to 131 with a mean of 75.04 (SD = 16.79). Data Analytic Plan The data was analyzed according to Baron and Kenny’s (1986), Holmbeck’s (1997), and Preacher and Hayes’ (2004) conceptual and statistical
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Outcome Variable: GPIUS
A Path c’
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B Predictor Variable: Shyness
Path a
Mediator Variable: Loneliness
Path b
Outcome Variable: GPIUS
FIGURE 1. Diagram of paths in the hypothesized mediational model.
recommendations for assessing the presence of mediator effects. Three equations were tested using multiple regression analyses. First multiple regression was used to regress GPIUS on the variable on shyness, to establish the significant association between the independent and the dependent variables (Path c in Figure 1A). Following that, the measure of loneliness was regressed on the shyness variable using multiple regression to establish Path a (see Figure 1B) in the mediational sequence. Third, the measure of GPIUS was regressed on both the loneliness and shyness variables. This equation will indicate whether loneliness is related to GPIUS (Path b) and it provides an estimate of the relation between the variables of shyness and GPIUS controlling for the loneliness variable (Path c’). To demonstrate loneliness functioned as a mediational variable in this model, the strength of the relation between shyness (predictor variable) and GPIUS (outcome variable) should either be eliminated or significantly reduced. Results The means, standard deviations, and inter-correlations of the three variables used in this study are presented in Table 1. Cronbach alphas were calculated for shyness, loneliness and GPIUS. Shyness was significantly correlated with both loneliness and GPIUS in the expected direction: shyness was positively correlated with loneliness (r = .53, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 1.26), and GPIUS (r = .17, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 0.35). Both correlations of .53 and .17 are statistically significant at the p < .01 level and correspond to effect sizes that lie between medium to the large range (Cohen, 1988). The variable loneliness also positively correlated with GPIUS (r = .25, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 0.51) as expected. The correlation of .25 is statistically significant at the p < .01 level and represents a medium effect size according to Cohen’s (1988) definition.
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TABLE 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Intercorrelations, and Reliability Estimate for Variables Variable
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1. Shyness 2. Loneliness 3. Generalized PIU
M
SD
51.52 40.25 75.04
11.25 9.68 16.79
Alpha
1
2
3
.85 .91 .92
—
.53 ∗∗ —
.17 ∗∗ .25 ∗∗ —
Note. Alpha = Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. ∗∗ p < .01.
To test for mediation according to the steps outlined earlier, the significant association between shyness (predictor variable) and GPIUS (outcome variable) needs to be established by regressing GPIUS on shyness (Step 1). Shyness was significantly associated with GPIUS (B = .266, β = .175, p < .001), path c was significant and the condition for mediation in step 1 was met. To establish that shyness was related to the hypothesized mediator loneliness, we regressed loneliness on shyness (Step 2). Shyness was also significantly associated with loneliness (B = .461, β = .531, p < .001) and the condition for step 2 was met (Path a was significant). To assess whether the hypothesized mediator, loneliness, was related to the outcome variable, GPIUS, we regressed GPIUS simultaneously on both shyness and loneliness (Step 3). Loneliness was significantly associated with GPIUS controlling for shyness (B = .399, β = .228, p < .001). Path b was significant and condition for step 3 was met. This third regression also provided an estimate of path c’, the relation between shyness and GPIUS controlling for loneliness. Findings from the regression equation showed that path c’ became nonsignificant suggesting complete mediation (B = .082, β = .054, ns). Alternatively, the Sobel test for mediation was used to further confirm if the variable, loneliness, completely mediates the relationship between shyness and GPIUS. The Sobel statistic obtained (Sobel test statistic = 4.05, p < .001) was shown to be significant, which indicates clearly that the mediator, loneliness, completely mediated the relationship between shyness and the dependent variable, GPIUS. In addition to using the Sobel test, the nonparametric bootstrapping method was also used to establish the mediational model of loneliness as a mediator of the relationship between shyness and GPIUS (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Results based on 5000 bootstrapped samples indicated that whilst the total effect of shyness on GPIUS was significant (TE = 6.33, SE = .032, p < .001), the direct effect was not (TE = 1.68, SE = .049, ns). Loneliness fully mediated the relationship between shyness and GPIUS (lower 95% CI = .13, upper 95% CI = .25) and because zero is not in the 95% confidence interval, the indirect effect is significantly different from zero at p < .05.
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Discussion This study examined the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU in a sample of school-going adolescents and specifically testing whether loneliness mediated this relationship. Measures used in this study were also employed by previous adolescent research studies (Eastburg & Johnson, 1990; Gamez-Guadix, Villa-George, & Calvete, 2012; Lasgaard, Goossens, & Elklit, 2011). Results obtained were in line with our expectations. Using Baron and Kenny’s (1986) and Holmbeck’s (1997) conceptual and statistical recommendations for assessing the presence of mediator effects, four predictions were examined and tested. Loneliness completely mediated the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU. The previously found relationship between shyness and generalized PIU disappeared when the loneliness variable was included in the model. The impact of shyness on generalized PIU was nullified when the adolescent’s loneliness was taken into account. These findings clearly indicated that loneliness play a uniquely incremental and complete mediating role in this developmental sequence. It illustrated the mechanism by which shyness (predictor variable) exerted its influence on generalized PIU (outcome variable). Specifically, loneliness is the mechanism by which shy individuals develop generalized PIU. In practical terms, this means that the power of shyness to affect generalized PIU did not occur via a direct pathway; rather, shyness first influenced loneliness, which in turn influenced generalized PIU in adolescents. Findings from this study demonstrated a significant empirical step forward in the scientific exploration of the roles of shyness and loneliness in individuals in the development of their problematic Internet use. Specifically, the impact of shyness on PIU can be explained by the impact of a third variable: loneliness. Through the mediation of loneliness, higher scores on shyness are associated with greater PIU and conversely, lower levels of shyness are associated with lower PIU. This means that adolescents who are socially anxious and have weaker social ties may experience greater loneliness which leads to problematic use of the Internet. With decreased face-to-face social interaction and deficient communication (Roberts et al., 2000), these adolescents may feel lonely which prompts them to go online to seek new friendship networks and social relationships (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000). These results have implications for prevention and early intervention work with adolescents, with respect to generalized PIU. While earlier research has established the impact of adolescent shyness on generalized PIU (Brunet & Schmidt, 2007; McKenna et al., 2002; Roberts et al., 2000), this study extended these findings in the literature, showing loneliness as a mediator in this relationship. Separately, both variables were found to exert influence on generalized PIU, a result similarly supported in a meta-synthesis study by Douglas and his colleagues (2008), which found that feelings of loneliness and shyness were strong antecedents that facilitated heavy Internet use with negative consequences.
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In a separate study, Caplan (2002) examined the relationship between different psychosocial variables with generalized PIU and found that loneliness was the strongest predictor of generalized PIU among them. To a large extent, interventions focusing on adolescent shyness may face limited effectiveness because loneliness in adolescents is the mechanism through which shyness exerts its influence on generalized PIU. There is robust empirical evidence supporting the benefits of prevention and early intervention for a wide range of child and adolescent problems (Karoly, Kilburn, & Cannon, 2005; Tully, 2007). Early intervention programs, when conducted well, benefited children and adolescents in their social-emotional competencies, academic achievement, health, and other domains (Karoly et al.). The results suggest that intervention programs aimed at reducing generalized PIU among adolescents might want to address issues of loneliness in addition to focusing on issues concerning their level of shyness. In this study, shyness not only correlates significantly with loneliness, but predicts it. What this means is that intervention programs designed to reduce generalized PIU among shy adolescents would need to find out the level of loneliness experienced by these adolescents. Dill and Anderson (1999) suggested that given the close association between shyness and loneliness, any treatment for either psychosocial variable should be examined for possible value for treatment of the other. Limitations and Future Research In view of the limitations of this study, qualification of the results obtained above warrant some comments. Our study found an association between shyness and generalized PIU with loneliness mediating this relationship. Although these results supported the hypotheses of the study, the cross-sectional research design does not allow for a formal assessment of causality. It could also be likely that generalized PIU contributed to adolescents’ level of shyness. Such issues of directionality can only be addressed in a longitudinal research design. Thus far, research is still unresolved about the direction of causality between shyness and generalized PIU (e.g., Casale & Fioravanti, 2011; Henderson & Zimbardo, 1998; Russell et al., 2003). Hence, it would be worthwhile to further examine the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU despite directionality. It is also important to note that for this study, shyness and loneliness were not psychosocial variables that were arbitrarily selected as antecedents, and generalized PIU as outcome, instead, Davis (2001) theoretical model formed the basis for the selection. Another limitation to this study is that it is based on Davis (2001) cognitive-behavioral model, which is psychological in perspective. However, other approaches to examining Internet addiction have arisen in recent years. One possible direction for future research is to examine PIU from a biological perspective, which have been found in some studies (Ha et al., 2007; Pratarelli et al., 1999). Furthermore, to have a better understanding of Internet-related problematic behaviors, it would be helpful to include a greater range of variables in future research.
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To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the attempt to investigate into the relationship between shyness and generalized PIU, with loneliness as the mediator of this relationship in an adolescent sample is unprecedented. However, one limitation that arose from studying a sample of school going adolescents is in the slight restriction of range for the variables examined. For example, the range of scores for shyness in this sample was from 20 to 89 with a mean of 51.51 (SD = 11.25), for loneliness, scores ranged from 20 to 77 with a mean score of 40.25 (SD = 9.69), and generalized PIU range of scores in this study was from 29 to 131 with a mean score of 75.04 (SD = 16.79). Although there was sufficient range and variance for this sample, having an additional clinical sample of adolescents for comparison would be a good follow up for future research. Another limitation that is of concern in this study is the low correlation coefficient (r = .17) and small effect size (d = .35) found between shyness and generalized PIU. Although the authors are aware that this significance could be attributed to the study’s large sample size, this relationship between shyness and generalized PIU has been previously established in the literature which helps provide further evidence beyond just this specific study with respect to this particular relation (Chak & Leung, 2004; Russell et al., 2003). In conclusion, the limitations notwithstanding, the current study has extended previous research findings in showing loneliness as a complete mediator between shyness and generalized PIU in an adolescent sample. Findings from this study have important implications for intervention in that programs aimed at reducing generalized PIU among adolescents might want to address issues of loneliness in addition to focusing on issues concerning their level of shyness. AUTHOR NOTES Vivien S. Huan is an associate professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her current research interests include juvenile delinquency, deviant behaviors, and pathological Internet use. Rebecca P. Ang is an associate professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her research interests pertain to child and adolescent developmental psychopathology and related interventions. Wan Har Chong is an associate professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her current research interests are positive adolescent development, self-processes in development, motivation and learning, and issues in school counseling. Stefanie Chye is an assistant professor at the National Institute of Education, NTU. Her research interests include self-regulated learning, motivation, problem-based learning, and classroom discourse. REFERENCES Alden, L. E., & Wallace, S. T. (1995). Social phobia and social appraisal in successful and unsuccessful social interactions. Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 33, 497–505. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(94)00088-2
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Original manuscript received September 21, 2012 Final version accepted July 8, 2013
