The impact of human activities on land use and land cover changes and environmental processes in the Gorce Mountains (Western Polish Carpathians) in the past 50 years.

Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2014) 1e11

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

The impact of human activities on land use and land cover changes and environmental processes in the Gorce Mountains (Western Polish Carpathians) in the past 50 years Anna Buca1a* Institute of Geography and Spatial Organizations, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Geoenvironmental Research, ul. Sw. Jana 22, 31-018 Krakow, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 21 December 2012 Received in revised form 9 December 2013 Accepted 22 January 2014 Available online xxx

The role of human impact on the natural environment was studied in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments in the Gorce Mountains (Western Polish Carpathians). Analysis of land use and land cover changes using GIS techniques and cartographic materials between 1954 and 2004 indicates an increase in forest area by 11.5% and 18.5%, respectively, at the expense of arable land and grassland areas. Agricultural abandonment often occurred on steep slopes (above 10 ) with skeletal (shallow) soils at higher elevations (above 800 m a.s.l.). In addition, the density of dirt roads decreased from 6.97 km/km2 in 1981 to 4.3 km/km2 in 2008. In former agricultural areas, long expanses of terraces have either disappeared or experienced shallow mass movements. The statistical reports and questionnaire survey indicate reduced income from farm activities in this region. As a result of LULC changes and stream transformation, the Jaszcze and Jamne stream channels were shortened, straightened, and narrowed, with tendency to incision estimated at 1 cm per year over the past 40 years. The changes observed in the environment under human impact, accelerated following 1989, are representative of the Western Polish Carpathians. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Land use GIS Human impact Mediumehigh mountains

1. Introduction Land use and land cover (LULC) changes in the Polish Carpathian Mountains correspond with a trend proceeding in other western European mountains, that is, a decrease in total acreage of cultivated areas and a increase in forested areas (Lipský, 2001; Kozak, 2005; Falcucci et al., 2007). For example, in the French Alps, afforestation began as early as the 19th century and was linked with a desire to reduce flood risk as a consequence of deforestation (Mather and Needle, 1998; Whited, 2000). Later, the increase in forest cover was linked also with an outflow of population from less fertile areas and the intensification of agriculture in the adjacent lowlands (MacDonald et al., 2000; Didier, 2001; Moreiral et al., 2001; Tasser et al., 2007). For many years, the widescale process of depopulation of less fertile areas has continued in the Sierra Morena in Spain (Ales, 1991). In the Swiss and Austrian Alps, the diversification of the economy had offered work beyond the agricultural sector, and led to a farming crisis and the abandonment of

* Tel.: þ48 692245212. E-mail address: [email protected].

traditional mountain agriculture and shepherding (Grötzbach, 1988; Lichtenberger, 1988). With respect to erosion and flood control, these LULC changes are positive (Tasser et al., 2003) and are in agreement with a concept of sustainable management devised for the Carpathians (Starkel, 1990; Starkel et al., 2007). Transformations observed in natural landscapes, including changes of flora of past meadows and pastures (Peco et al., 2006; Medwecka-Kornas, 2006), are consequences of agricultural abandonment (Lipský, 2001; Moreiral et al., , 2006; Latocha, 2009; Wolski, 2007; 2001; Latocha and Migon Buca1a, 2012). LULC changes in drainage basin or stream channel management have affected the natural tendency towards channel incision (Rinaldi and Simon, 1998; Kondolf et al., 2002; Liebault and Piégay, 2002; Korpak, 2007). GIS techniques and comparative cartographic methods have documented deforestation and agricultural LULC changes in mountain landscapes over several decades to several centuries (Pärtel et al., 1999; Petit and Lamin, 2002; Bender et al., 2005; Kozak, 2005, 2010; Main-Knorn et al., 2009). Various socioeconomic changes have occurred in the Polish Carpathians since the Second World War, which affected LULC and the spatial patterns of settlement and road density. These socioeconomic changes also impacted water circulation, soil degradation

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.01.036 0301-4797/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Buca1a, A., The impact of human activities on land use and land cover changes and environmental processes in the Gorce Mountains (Western Polish Carpathians) in the past 50 years, Journal of Environmental Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.01.036

2

A. Bucała / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2014) 1e11

and relief transformation. Two regionally differentiated transformations are apparent. In the eastern part of the Polish Carpathians (the Beskid Niski and the Bieszczady Mts.) agricultural practices ceased abruptly due to the relocation of local populations following the Second World War (Lach, 1975; Wolski, 1998, 2007). As a result, natural forest communities recovered. In the western part of the Polish Carpa thians (e.g. the Gorce Mts., Beskid Wysoki and Beskid Sredni) the changes in LULC progressed gradually and were stimulated by socioeconomic changes taking place in recent decades (Kozak, 2005; qajczak, 2005; Ostafin, 2009; Buca1a, 2012). Results of a sudden farming recession are to be observed in the Beskid Niski, which was abandoned by people of Ukrainian origin in the mid-1940s (Lach, 1975). The abrupt changes in LULC resulted in a gradual slowing of some relief-forming processes, while others accelerated. Population decreased by almost 54% from 1931 to 1950 (Soja, 2008), and a rapid increase in forested areas resulted (30.1% in 1931 and over 60% in 1988) (Soja, 2008). The most visible change in the landscape was the lowering of the forest-arable land boundary from 700 to 750 m a.s.l. to 400e450 m a.s.l. All of these effects exerted an influence in a weakening of surface wash and erosion on the slopes, as well as intensified channel downcutting. For example, the channel of the river Se˛ kówka was lowered by 0.5 m in the years 1953e60 (Lach, 1975). Also in the High Bieszczady Mountains, owing to mass relocations of the Ukrainian population after 1946, transformations of morphogenetic processes occurred (Wolski, 1998, 2007), as abandoned fields gradually reverted to forests. Initially, the fallow land was taken over by weeds and formerly cultivated plant species. At present, almost the entire rural area of the upper part of the Bieszczady Mts. is either meadowland (50.6%), which is neither mowed nor grazed, or forest (47.7%). In addition, the lowering of the forest-arable land boundary is evidenced in beech species which, being old trees growing at the margins of old pastures, are also present in young beech complexes. In the western part of the Polish Carpathians, inhabited by a population of Polish nationality, individual farming continued following the Second World War. However, agriculture underwent a transformation. This process was accelerated by socioeconomic changes following 1989. Over the past two decades traditional agriculture in mountain areas has become ever less profitable, and this has affected LULC and environmental change. LULC changes intensified in the period of Polish economic transformation following 1989, and are most evident in the Western Carpathians (Górz, 2003). Transition from a small-holder, but centrally planned economy to a free market economy favoured off-farm employment in rural areas. The changes, related to farmland abandonment and natural forest succession, were accompanied by additional changes in economic development, including the growth of services and other developmental initiatives. Unfortunately, income growth from nonagricultural activities coincided with a shortage of farm labour, decreasing farm yields (especially on infertile, steep slopes) and organizational inefficiency (e.g. in dairy and poultry management). The changes which occurred in the areas rapidly abandoned in the eastern part of Poland over 60 years ago indicate a prospective trend in landscape transformation in the Western Carpathians. The paper examines how human activity in the Gorce Mts. has affected the natural environment, particularly LULC, road density and stream channel transformation in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments. The period of the past 50 years is taken into consideration. This period includes two distinct stages of economic development: 1) the communist system from the end of the Second World War to 1989 and 2) the post-communist economic transformation. The Jaszcze and Jamne catchments were studied in detail in the 1960s (Gerlach and Niemirowski, 1968; Medwecka-

Kornas and Kornas, 1968; Niemirowska and Niemirowski, 1968; _ Sikora and Zytko, 1968; Adamczyk and Komornicki, 1969; Obre˛ bska-Starklowa, 1969). The state of the environment recorded in the 1960s forms a good basis for comparison with current changes resulting from socioeconomic transformation accelerated following 1989. 2. Study area The Gorce are mediumehigh mountains (600e1300 m a.s.l.) in the Polish Flysch Carpathians. They extend 33 km from west to east and form wide mountain ridges with steep slopes, deeply dissected by tributaries of the Raba and Dunajec rivers. Studies were carried out in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments (Ochotnica Dolna commune) which dissect the southern slopes (Fig. 1). The Jaszcze and Jamne catchments are representative of the Western Flysch Carpathians as a result of typical environmental features. The elevation differences (400e600 m) in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments (11.39 km2 and 8.95 km2, respectively) are typical of mediumehigh mountains. The Jaszcze and Jamne streams (9.3 km and 6.4 km long, respectively), which are left tributaries of the Ochotnica river, form the main valley network. The Jaszcze stream originates in bogs situated at a height of 1160 m a.s.l on the slopes of Mount Jaworzyna (1250 m a.s.l.). The stream outlet at which it joins the Ochotnica river is at 610 m a.s.l. The Jamne stream flows from a spring (discharging 0.05 l/s) on the slopes of Mount Gorc (1229 m a.s.l.) at a height of 1110 m a.s.l. Its junction with the Ochotnica river is at 600 m a.s.l. In the upper sections of the side valleys water flows periodically and forms a network of sporadic streams. Maximum discharges are in February, June and July and can reach up to 3.0 m3/s in the Jaszcze stream and up to 6.0 m3/s in the Jamne stream (Niemirowska and Niemirowski, 1968). In the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments, slopes are often steeper than 15 (over 70% of the area), and are convex or convex-concave in shape. South-facing slopes predominate in the upper parts of both valleys. At lower elevations, east- and west-facing slopes predominate. In terms of geology, both catchments are in the range of the Magura nappe of the Carpathian Flysch. Soils of the regions under discussion correspond with the rocks of parent material. These are mainly skeletal brown soils developed on weathered sandstone. The Jaszcze and Jamne valleys are located in two climatic vertical zones: 1) a temperate cold zone (of a mean annual temperature of 4e6 C) and 2) a cold zone (2e4 C), above 1100 m a.s.l. Mean annual air temperature decreases from 6 C in valley outlet sections to 3 C in summit parts (Obre˛ bska-Starklowa, 1969). Mean annual precipitation in the years 1958e2008 was 841 mm. Both catchments are overgrown with mixed forest (oak, spruce, pine) of the lower mountain zone (between 600 and 700 m a.s.l. and 1100 m a.s.l.) and a Carpathian spruce forest which occurs at elevations above 1100 m a.s.l. The upper parts of the valleys are within the borders of the Gorce National Park (GNP), formed in 1981. The study area experienced relatively slow socioeconomic changes (Buca1a, 2012), which contrasts with the rapid demographic in the Eastern Polish Carpathians (Wolski, 2007). Since the 16th century human activities have affected the biophysical environment (Czajka, 1987). Settlement activities were accompanied by forest clearing for agropastoral use. Over time, rising populations accelerated a process of agricultural lot partitioning and farmland fragmentation. Until the mid-20th century farming and pasturing were critical income sources in Ochotnica Dolna commune. By the end of the 1980s, however, farming incomes began to decline as other income sources became available (from economy sectors) and this trend has continued to the present. In addition, in the 1970s a new source of livelihood e agritourism e



3

Fig. 1. The location of the study area e the border of the Gorce Range is marked with a dashed line (after Starkel, 1972).

appeared in Ochotnica Dolna commune (Czajka, 1987). New holiday homes have been built, with agritourism becoming very popular and new tourist trails and cycling routes increasingly being established in this area (Buca1a, 2012). This is particularly true in the GNP, where 105 km of tourist paths and trails are available for different types of tourism: hiking, cycling and horse riding. Trails are designed largely for hikers and bikers (60% and 38% of the lengths of all trails, respectively). Horse riding is practically negligible (Tomczyk, 2011).

3. Materials and methods (fieldwork and GIS analyses) 3.1. Fieldwork Fieldwork was performed in the spring and summer of 2007 and 2008. Geomorphologic mapping of natural and anthropogenic landforms, combined with validation of the findings of T. Gerlach and M. Niemirowski (1960s), was critical. Geomorphologic mapping was carried out using topographic maps (1:10,000) and GPS positioning with a Garmin receiver. Changes in the network of dirt roads and forest tracks were registered and referenced with topographic maps (1:10,000) from 1981. Documentation of the current road network helped to indicate: 1) roads not used at present, 2) roads used from 1981 until now (2008) and 3) new roads formed after 1981. The functional structure of the roads was verified. Basic parameters of the road cuts and the forest clearing tracks were measured: length, width and depth. Mapping included anthropogenic elements of the Jaszcze and Jamne stream channels which were formed with channelization works (concrete buttressing and gabions for lateral erosion control, wooden and concrete steps etc.) as well as those related to farming practices (agricultural terraces and stone heaps). Assessment of maintenance sources of the inhabitants of the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments was based on household survey questions. In 2008, a questionnaire survey was conducted in 92 households (38 in Jaszcze, 54 in Jamne), which represented 80% of the households. In the questionnaire survey, inhabitants were asked about the number of people living in the household, maintenance sources, number of persons economically active, the

number of unemployed, farm-tourism services, type of farm animal and cultivated plant etc. Also presented was photographic documentation, made available by Dr. M. Niemirowski from a private collection which records the state of land use and stream channels of the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments in the mid-1960s. 3.2. GIS analyses The topographic maps, aerial photos and orthophotos were transferred into digital form and rectified together with the satellite image, to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system in a GIS (ILWIS, version 3.3) environment (International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, 1997). The author used aerial photos from 1954 (scale 1:20,000), 1997 (scale 1:9000) and digital, black-and-white orthophotomaps from 2003 to 04 (scale 1:13,000) to examine tendencies in LULC changes. LULC conformed to six categories: 1) forests, 2) grassland (meadows and pastures), 3) arable land, 4) groups of trees and bushes, 5) treeshrub belts along roads and 6) buildings. An additional land use map was devised from topographic maps from 1981 (1:10,000). Owing to difficulties in assigning six classes of land use based on the topographic map, only three classes were actually used: 1) forests, 2) farmland (comprising meadows, pastures and arable land together) and 3) built-up. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was prepared for the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments by referencing topographic maps (1:10,000). The DEM served to generate derivative maps of slope inclination, vertical zone and aspect. The maps were used to examine the impact of relief on changes in forest acreage across various time scales. 4. Results 4.1. Changes in LULC in the years 1954e2004 From 1954 to 2004, similar LULC changes were observed in both catchments, although their initial states were notably different. In 1954 in the Jaszcze catchment, over half of the area was occupied by forest, forming a continuous complex which covered the middle and higher basin elevations. The continuous forest complex


4


Fig. 2. Land use and land cover in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments in 1954.

persisted largely as a result of the steep gradients and north-facing slopes, the latter also affecting duration of snow cover. Grassland covered 24.47% of the surface area, arable land only 9.4%. In the past half century, forested areas increased by 11% of the total surface area of the Jaszcze catchment, while grassland areas decreased from 24.47% to 20.71%. Arable land area decreased by over 80% to 2004, and is currently only 2% of the cultivated catchment. In 1954 in the Jamne catchment, farmland (arable land and grassland) covered more surface area than forest. Farmland occupied 61.33% (with arable land at 19.28% and grassland at 42.05%) of the surface area, forest 36.96%. Forest grew mainly on the slopes of deeply incised tributary valleys and the upper parts of the Jamne valley. Only a small area of the catchment was occupied by groups of trees and bushes, or belts of trees and shrubs along the roads (1.58%). Built-up areas (houses and farm storage buildings) located in the lower part of the valley occupied only 0.13%. As in the case of the Jaszcze catchment, the arable land area in the Jamne catchment decreased by 80% from 1954 to 2004. The arable land remained close to houses, at lower elevations and on gentler slopes. Although grassland areas decreased from 42.05% to 39.45%, forested areas increased by almost 1/3 (18.50%) when compared with the total surface area of the Jamne catchment in the same period (Figs. 2e4, Table 1). In order to identify LULC change in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments, additional maps of land use were devised based on topographic maps (1981) and aerial photos (1997). Based on the land use map of 1997, arable land in the Jaszcze occupied ca. 3% and in the Jamne ca. 6% of the total areas of the catchments being examined. When compared to 1997, arable land area had in 2004 decreased by almost one half. The structure of LULC, both in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments, did not change significantly from 1954 to 1981 (under the communist system) e a slight rise in forested area, a small decrease in farmland and a significant growth in built-up areas were observed. Notable land use changes occurred only in the years

1981e97. At this time, forested areas in the Jaszcze catchment increased by 6.5%, at the expense of farmland, and in the Jamne by 10%. The fall in built-up area during the period likely resulted from the collapse of many structures (shelters, sheds, log cabins) at higher elevations, as a consequence of the cessation of pasturing and cultivation. After 1997, these trends appear to continue (Fig. 5). Analysis reveals a strong correlation between slope gradient and LULC changes. In both catchments, the same trend towards abandonment of cultivation on steeper slopes was apparent, as the largest decrease in arable land (in %) occurred on slopes steeper than 10 . However, in the Jaszcze catchment a significant decrease in the area of arable land (50%) was also observed on slopes inclined at 0e5 , although, at present, arable land occurs only on slopes along the flat valley bottoms. Furthermore, in the Jamne catchment, which is less forested, slopes of different gradients continue to be cultivated. Across all slope gradients, arable land decreased by 16% in the Jamne catchment and by over 7% in the Jaszcze. In the Jamne catchment, the largest increase in forested area occurred on slopes of an inclination of up to 10 , ca. 50% in each slope gradient class. However, in the Jamne catchment the corresponding increase was greatest on the lowest gradients and amounted to around 30%. The decrease in forest cover followed a similar pattern in LULC change across slope gradients. This resulted from a natural plant succession onto arable land which predominated on gently inclined slopes in both catchments in the 1950s, but which were later abandoned. However, continuous forest complexes prevailed on steeper slopes, where there was a limited increase. Forest succession progresses at the highest rates in abandoned meadows and intra-forest glades occurring on ridges or along streams (Table 2). The results of the effect of gradients on land use changes are statistically significant (p < 0.05). Analysis of forested areas in 100 m height intervals shows an increase in forested areas with elevation. In the Beskids, forested



5

Fig. 3. Land use and land cover in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments in 2004.

Fig. 4. The Jamne catchment in 1968 and 2008 (photo. M. Niemirowski, A. Buca1a).

areas exceed 90% above 900 m a.s.l. (Kozak, 2005; Main-Knorn et al., 2009). In the Jaszcze catchment the percentage of forested areas in the highest elevations (1000e1100 m a.s.l.) is similar (in the Jaszcze 92.34%, but in the Jamne this is lower, at 73.28%). The largest forested areas occurring simultaneously with grassland and arable land were observed at 900e1000 m a.s.l., both in the Jaszcze (in 1954 77.36%, in 2004 84.53) and in the Jamne (in 1954 49.82%, in 2004 65.19%). At 800e900 m a.s.l., the largest percentage increase in forested area was 22.46% for the Jamne stream valley and 14.41% for the Jaszcze stream valley. Grassland and arable land still predominate in the lower parts of the Jaszcze and Jamne valleys (600e 700 m a.s.l. and 600e800 m a.s.l., respectively) and amount to over one half of the land used. In the past 50 years, housing development has occurred in both valleys. Based on aerial photos of 1954, an approximate number of households was estimated, at 36 in the Jaszcze catchment and 39 in the Jamne. During this period, concentrated settlement occurred only in the valley bottoms, from the outlet as far as 1.5 km upstream. Based on the questionnaire survey and data obtained from analyses of the aerial photos, a significant increase in housing occurred during the 1970s and 1980s. Growth was related to the ski, 2008). In 2008, the transfer of urban lifestyles to rural areas (Ban numbers of houses stand at 49 in Jaszcze and 66 in Jamne. Of these, 27 in Jaszcze and 25 in Jamne were recorded on the aerial photos of 1954 and are still inhabited. The development of settlements saw an expansion in house construction onto steeper slopes, and the construction of new dirt roads followed. The construction of holiday homes eventually occurred alongside the permanent rural houses. Many of these are now being purchased by city dwellers as second residences. In the mid-1990s, following the cessation of pasturing and cultivation at the higher elevations, log cabins, sheds and other shelters began gradually to collapse. The study area also holds the ruins of houses, cellars and farmsteads. Households were


6


Table 1 Land use and land cover in 1954 and 2004. Jamne catchment (km2)

Land use Jaszcze and land cover catchment (km2) 1954 Forest Grassland Arable land Group of trees and bushes on grassland Tree belts along roads Buildings

2004

Jaszcze catchment (%)

1954 2004 1954 3.308 3.764 1.725 0.131

2004

Jamne catchment (%) 1954

2004

7.429 2.789 1.072 0.083

8.742 2.360 0.195 0.048

4.963 3.530 0.277 0.087

65.18 24.47 9.40 0.73

76.70 20.71 1.71 0.42

36.96 42.05 19.28 1.46

55.46 39.45 3.10 0.97

0.014

0.020 0.011 0.068

0.12

0.17

0.12

0.75

0.011 0.033 0.011 0.025 0.10 0.29 0.13 0.27 11.398 11.398 8.950 8.950 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Fig. 5. Land use and land cover in 1954, 1981, 1997 and 2004.

abandoned largely as a result of their location far from the main valley bottoms and poor access to major roads. 4.2. Maintenance sources of the inhabitants Under the communist system up to the end of the 1980s the main source of income for the residents of Ochotnica Dolna commune was the agricultural sector (Table 3). Between 1950 and the early 1970s, the number of residents making their living beyond the agricultural sector had risen more than eightfold. The main source of income for almost 80% of the population was agriculture. The increased quantity of off-farm work coincided with the gradual abandonment of arable land, particularly on the upper parts of steep slopes with skeletal soils. The dwindling incomes from agriculture induced the residents to enter employment in nearby towns and villages in the non-farming sector (Czajka, 1987). At the end of the 1980s, a decline in the proportion of the population

earning their living from agriculture was observed. These changes intensified during the period of the economic transformation of Poland following 1989. By 2002 only ca. 26% of the population were living from agriculture, while the number of people living on nonearned sources had also increased. These were mainly people who acquired either retirement or state pensions based on their work in agriculture. In 2002 this fraction of the population amounted to over 30%. The progressive changes in sources of income were confirmed by questionnaire studies conducted in the Jaszcze and Jamne valleys in 2008. In addition, the evident decrease in arable land in the study area points indirectly to the abandonment of agricultural management as the principal source of income. Based on the questionnaire performed in 2008, 111 adults (above 18 years of age) lived in the Jaszcze catchment. Of these individuals, 35 (32%) were retired and 16 (14%) were pensioners. An additional 46 (41%) were employed and 14 (13%) unemployed. In the Jamne catchment, the corresponding numbers are as follows: 142 adults, including 40 (28%) retired persons, 19 (13.5%) pensioners, 56 (39.5%) employed and 27 (19%) unemployed. Female housekeepers and individuals engaged in casual work were designated as unemployed. The pensions of the retired inhabitants were received for their work in the agricultural sector or for the Harnas cooperative. The basic source of income for the inhabitants is off-farm work. In Jaszcze and Jamne, 83% and 91% of inhabitants, respectively, are off-farm employed. Building construction is the leading off-farm sector. The inhabitants of this region work for construction companies largely in southern Poland (Ochotnica Dolna, Nowy Sa˛ cz, , Wroc1aw) and Kraków, Katowice, Da˛ browa Górnicza, Ustron abroad (Germany, Norway). In this case the male spouse is often the sole income earner. For this reason, 12 housewives in the Jaszcze catchment and 24 in the Jamne are classified as unemployed. Considering the employment structure, female employment amount to over 25% in both catchments. Women work as teachers, administrative clerks, sellers, tailors or nurses. An income from farming was declared by eight people (17%) living in the Jaszcze catchment and by five people (9%) in the Jamne. These people practised subsistence agriculture or animal husbandry. The husbandry most often includes cows, horses, swine and poultry. Potatoes, oats and barley are the most often cultivated plants. However, none of the households lives exclusively from subsistence agriculture, since such farming, being unprofitable for many inhabitants, is only a supplementary income. Families also work odd jobs, including in building construction, forestry or outwork. Seven persons in each of the catchments (including two unemployed in Jaszcze and three unemployed in Jamne) live from casual work. Moreover, the income of residents is supplemented with: 1) EU reimbursements paid for mowing mountain meadows (in Jaszcze 12 households, in Jamne 16 households), 2) sale of forest fruits (berries, mushrooms) picked in the summer season and 3) year-round agritourism conducted at 11 households in the Jaszcze

Table 2 Structure of LULC in slope gradient intervals in 1954 and 2004. Slope gradient intervals ( )

0e5 5e10 10e15 15e20 20e30 >30

Jaszcze catchment (%) Forest

Jamne catchment (%)

Grassland

Arable land

Others

Forest

Grassland

Arable land

Others

1954

2004

1954

2004

1954

2004

1954

2004

1954

2004

1954

2004

1954

2004

1954

2004

0.50 2.25 13.36 22.24 22.32 4.53 65.18

0.74 2.90 15.78 25.92 26.10 5.27 76.70

1.35 1.95 5.89 7.49 6.70 1.10 24.47

1.69 1.81 4.80 6.27 5.42 0.73 20.71

1.18 0.75 1.56 2.79 2.76 0.37 9.40

0.52 0.17 0.22 0.37 0.39 0.04 1.71

0.12 0.06 0.14 0.22 0.33 0.08 0.94

0.19 0.11 0.14 0.19 0.22 0.04 0.88

0.27 0.99 4.37 12.03 15.62 3.68 36.96

0.55 1.98 7.90 18.05 22.08 4.91 55.46

1.85 3.66 9.41 13.90 11.53 1.70 42.05

1.62 3.76 10.54 13.82 8.92 0.80 39.45

0.63 1.59 5.68 6.89 4.15 0.35 19.28

0.38 0.36 1.07 0.96 0.30 0.02 3.10

0.06 0.09 0.24 0.49 0.66 0.13 1.71

0.24 0.21 0.26 0.47 0.67 0.13 1.95


A. Bucała / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2014) 1e11 Table 3 Main source of maintenance in Ochotnica Dolna commune, 1950e2002. Years

1950 1960 1970 1978 1986 2002

Population

4223 4674 4605 4496 4585 7794

Maintenance sources of the inhabitants In agriculture

Outside agriculture

Non-earned sources

97.5 93.4 84.7 81.1 67.3 26.1

2.5 6.2 13.9 16.3 28.6 40.8

e 0.4 1.4 2.6 4.1 33.1

Source: Czajka (1987), Central Statistical Office (2002).

catchment and 14 in the Jamne. The number of rooms per tourist farm varies from three to six. In addition to accommodation, the majority of the owners provide food, offering produce from their own farms (milk, cheese, eggs, meat). The majority of holiday visitors to the Gorce region come from Warsaw, Szczecin, Opole, , Silesia or Cracow. This trend of a new Wroc1aw, qód z, Poznan source of livelihood (agritourism) has been noted for most of the households in Ochotnica Dolna commune. In addition, the inhabitants of this region migrate in search of work. This is particularly the case in the Jamne valley, where six residents departed in search of work (two persons to the USA, two to Italy, one to Norway and one to Germany). 4.3. Changes in road networks and anthropogenic landforms A direct expression of human activity in the natural environment are anthropogenic landforms (road networks, agricultural terraces, stone heaps), a remnant of the former agricultural activities. Population increases resulted in agricultural expansion, which, in turn, increased the extent of dirt access roads. The dirt

7

roads often deepened as a result of runoff and erosion, at times forming concave landforms. Deepening of roads in the Gorce Mts. can reach 8 cm per annum (Wa1dykowski, 2006). However, most of them, if unused, become overgrown with plants and disappear. Although by 2008 most agriculture had ceased in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments, the roads, especially incised roads, continued to function as a drainage network. In the case of the Jaszcze catchment, the total length of dirt roads was 77.6 km in 1981 and 75 km in 2008, with 26.4 km of the roads unused. Of the roads used in 2008 (48.6 km), ca. 27.3% were built after 1981. An analogous situation was observed in the Jamne catchment, where road length was 64.4 km in 1981 and 60.5 km in 2008, with 21.5 km of roads unused in 2008. Of the roads currently in use (39.0 km), 17.7% were built after 1981 (Figs. 6 and 7). The unused roads were found in largely on slopes steeper than 15 . These roads represent 95% of all unused roads in the Jaszcze catchment and 80% in the Jamne. In 2008, the density of road networks had decreased only slightly in the case of used and unused roads, when considered jointly. But if analyzed separately, the density of roads used in 2008 decreased in both catchments from 6.97 km/km2 in 1981 to 4.3 km/ km2. In the catchments examined, forest tracks are used for tree clearing, and following 1981 serve mainly that purpose. The length of clearing tracks in the Jaszcze valley is 11 km, in the Jamne valley 8.2 km. Tree clearing is a result of a bark beetle plague and the formation of wind-fallen trees. Tree cutting is carried out in the GNP, where forests are subject to partial preservation, as well as by local people in private forests. In some areas, the track incision formed by the logs transported measures 0.80 m wide and 0.60 m deep. The incision narrows downward to 0.15 m. At the exits to these roads alluvial cones often form. At times, tree clearing tracks meet to form a single route measuring up to 2 m wide and 0.90 m deep. The tree clearing tracks are not lasting forms, and if unused

Fig. 6. The road network in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments in 1981.


8


Fig. 7. The road network in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments in 2008.

they become overgrown with plants and covered with forest litter. In the study area, tourist trails and education paths follow the road sections in places (usually in summit parts of the ridges). In the Jaszcze catchment, in addition to the tourist trails, educational paths follow the Jaszcze stream and Magurki Ridge. The total length of tourist trails in the Jaszcze valley is 12.5 km, and in the Jamne 7.5 km. Agricultural terraces and stone heaps are also prominent landscape features. Common forms are terraces 0.5e2 m high and formed on long, graded slopes dissected by side valleys. The comparative analysis of cadastral maps and aerial photos revealed that a majority of the landforms predate 1846, confirmed by radiocarbon dating of an agricultural terrace (cal AD 1691e1730) (Buca1a, 2012). Terraced slopes are more numerous in the Jamne catchment where their lengths total 4.8 km. In the Jaszcze catchment they total only 2.2 km. Agricultural terraces are reinforced only sporadically with clumps of trees and bushes. The edges of a terrace often disappear over sections of several metres in length owing to the geomorphic effects of shallow mass movements. Erosion of terrace systems often leads to agricultural abandonment on steep slopes with underdeveloped soils, the cultivation of which is seldom profitable. In the study area, stones originating from frost heaving and rain washing had been removed from the fields, forming numerous stone heaps. The stones were removed during spring and autumn ploughing then piled on field margins (survey information, qajczak, 2005). The piles were mound-shaped, slightly elongated downslope, and could reach 2 m in height. They were found on slopes of various aspects and inclinations as well as on fields and meadows being overgrown. The stone heaps had become habitats for heliophilous and thermophilous plants, as well some small animals. If

overgrown with grass, bushes and trees the stone heaps generate small forest complexes which, over time, as a result of plant succession, result in larger forested terrains. The stone heaps are more numerous in the Jamne catchment (n ¼ 64) than the Jaszcze (n ¼ 17). 4.4. Stream channel engineering and transformation The fluvial system of the Jaszcze and Jamne channels was strongly influenced by human activities. These transformations were produced by channelization and bank protection works, gravel mining and LULC changes (a decrease in arable land and reforestation). All of these factors influenced the sediment budget causing a remarkable drop in bedload supply to stream channels and their downcutting. Stream channels were wider, at up to 20 m, prior to channelization works. As is visible in a 1954 aerial photo, the lower course of the Jamne stream displayed a braided pattern. In the longitudinal profile, the bottoms of these streams were graded, while in crossprofiles, several branches separated by gravel bars were distinguishable, particularly those of the Jamne stream. The gravel bars were numerous and their areas were larger in the past. In 2008, the stream channel was singular, winding in the lower courses with widths not exceeding than 8 m. The banks of both streams were regular, protected with various structural measures (Fig. 8). The most significant channelization and bank protection works were carried out only in the lower and middle courses of the streams e such measures were unnecessary in the upper courses where streams were incised in solid, stable rocks. The first documented channelization in the lower course of the Jamne stream occurred only in 1994. Subsequent works were carried out in 2001



and 2003. In addition to the hydro-technical structures built in those years, older measures e concrete retaining walls and gabions, likely originating in the 1970s e were found along the whole of the stream lengths. Unfortunately, no information on the reconstruction of hydro-technical protective structures following the flood of 1997 was available. Following the flood of 2008, inhabitants themselves repaired damaged structures and set bank erosion control measures. In 2008, 14 concrete structures and six gabions (of a total length of 834 m) were identified in the Jaszcze stream, while 15 concrete structures and 22 gabions (of a total length of 899 m) were found in the Jamne stream. In the Jaszcze stream, 6.4% of the right-bank length and 2.5% of the left-bank length were regulated. In the Jamne stream, 7% of the stream length had been reinforced (concrete measures and gabions) on both right and left banks. In addition, artificial steps (wooden and concrete steps) designed to reduce channel gradient and stream debris load were identified in the stream channels. In 2008, of six artificial steps present in the Jaszcze stream in the 1960s, only two were located at their original sites. In the Jamne stream, of four identified steps, only one is currently located at its original site. At a further two sites, the original wooden steps had been replaced with concrete structures. As a result of channelization, the channels were shortened, straightened, and narrowed. In the case of the Jamne stream, stream length along the segment at 700 m to 3640 m from the outlet was reduced by 180 m, and as a result, the channel gradient increased from 39& in 1954 to 41& in 2004. Moreover, the Jaszcze and Jamne streams experienced a reduced supply of debris from banks reinforced by concrete structures, which brings about a deepening of the streams. The trend has continued since 1964; in the years 1964e68 the annual rate of channel deepening was 0.24 cm per year in the Jaszcze stream and 0.32 cm per year in the Jamne stream (Niemirowski, 1974). The mean annual rate of stream deepening for the Jamne is estimated at 1 cm per year for the past 40 years. In the lower course of the Jamne stream, the lowering of the stream bottom resulted in dissection of alluvia and transformation of the alluvial channel which existed in the 1960s (Niemirowski, 1974) into a more rocky channel. Stream incisions

9

have also been accelerated by the mining of gravel from the stream beds. The magnitude of the practice is unfortunately not known. Although now prohibited by law, this activity continues (Buca1a and Radecki-Pawlik, 2011).

5. Discussion The LULC changes which occurred in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments were accelerated during the Polish economic transformation begun in 1989. These changes are representative of the Western Polish Carpathians, and manifest chiefly in a reduction in ski, 2011; Kozak, 2003, 2005). Two main agricultural land (Ban factors influencing the economic decline of farming in the mountain areas following 1989 were: 1) the removal of a state budget subsidy for mountain farmsteads and 2) the introduction of a law on private economic entities (Górz, 2002, 2003). In the 50-year period analyzed here, both catchments were characterized by a notable decline in the area occupied by arable land, grassland and groups of trees and bushes. This coincided with an increase in forest cover. The proportion of forests has increased from 65.18% to 76.70% in the Jaszcze catchment and from 36.96% to 55.46% in the Jamne since 1954. Similar results were achieved with reference to the vertical distribution of areas of change. The most notable increase in forest area occurred at 800e900 m a.s.l. (22.46% for the Jamne stream valley and 14.41% for the Jaszcze stream valley). Such trends are observed in other parts of the Western Polish Carpathians (Kozak, 2005; Main-Knorn et al., 2009; Ostafin, 2009). Moreover, in both catchments investigated a small increase in the areas of tree belts along roads and in the built-up areas was noticeable, with the latter due in particular to development of agritourism and holiday homes. It may be expected that the current trend in increased forest cover will continue. The reduced income of the inhabitants was a driving force in the LULC changes. By the end of the 1980s, in Ochotnica Dolna commune, farming incomes declined and local residents migrated to find work in nearby cities. Off-farm incomes increased as a share of total income. The number of inhabitants living on non-earned sources also increased.

Fig. 8. The Jamne stream channel in 1968 and 2008 (photo. M. Niemirowski (a, c), A. Buca1a (b, d)).


10


The socioeconomic changes have affected the landscapes of the Jaszcze and Jamne stream valleys. Given the changes in employment structure, many inhabitants have abandoned farming, particularly at higher elevations. As a result, forest cover has increased. These LULC changes have reduced the intensity of geomorphic processes, e.g. slope degradation has progressed slowly as a result of the dense root systems and compact sward cover of newly developed meadow communities. What is more, reduced surface wash has greatly limited the amount of suspended load in rivers and streams, which in turn has resulted in _ the interruption of aggradation on floodplains (Wyzga, 1993; Korpak, 2007). The trend of intensified channel erosion has been noted for most of the Carpathian streams (Korpak, 2007). Average bed erosion for Jaszcze and Jamne streams has been estimated at 1 cm per year in the past 40 years, calculated on the basis of fieldwork. In the future the lowering of the water table in the incising channel will be accompanied by a lowering of the groundwater table in the valley bottoms and by drainage of soil-slope covers. Moreover, the downcutting will likely result in an increase in relative elevations of the former floodplains, which will only sporadically be inundated during floods. In the study area, the downcutting is also favoured by extraction of fluvial gravels, which are used by the local residents to reinforce dirt roads (Buca1a and Radecki-Pawlik, 2011) and channel banks when setting gabions during stream engineering works. These activities remove the armouring which protects the channels against excessive erosion _ (Wyzga, 1993, 2001; Kondolf, 1994; Liebault and Piégay, 2002; Lach _ and Wyzga, 2002; Korpak, 2007), leads to exposure and undermines bridgeheads and pillars of retaining structures. Such tendencies are characteristic of the upper courses of the main Carpathian rivers and their mountain tributaries (Soja, 1977; _ Wyzga, 1993, 2001; Korpak, 2007). Today the dirt road density in the Polish Carpathians is 4 km/ km2. This is higher than the corresponding natural drainage density, which totals 3.5 km/km2 (Soja, 2002). The density of roads used in 2008 decreased in both catchments from 6.97 km/km2 to 4.3 km/km2 when compared with that in 1981 and corresponds to the average road density for the Carpathians. The dirt roads, particularly those dissecting steeper slopes, can gradually erode into road incisions, which, over time, function as incision valleys. Terraces stabilized with grass-bush vegetation are either partially destroyed by slope wash or their scarps are damaged by slides triggered by extreme precipitation events. Following agricultural abandonment, recreational and holiday tourism developed and began to play an important role in shaping the valley landscape. The qualities of the nature and landscape and the vicinity of the Podhale region, as well as a number of tourist trails, formed by the GNP, mean that Ochotnica Dolna commune, including the valleys of the Jaszcze and Jamne streams, may become an important starting point for hiking. The total length of tourist trails in both valleys is 20 km. The old, traditional building styles, still common in the 1950s, have been supplanted by modern housing, including many holiday homes. The excessive development of housing and holiday settlements are also associated with threats to the natural environment and rural landscape. Furthermore, the expansion of housing developments onto the higher, steeper slopes brought with it a network of new dirt roads, which has affected intensity of geomorphic processes (linear erosion) (Starkel, 1980, 1990). In addition, new dirt roads dissected the aquifers and resulted in soil draining and slope desiccation. The housing developments with their road infrastructure are also built on landslide slopes. Because of the excessive loading, these structures can trigger mass movements, especially linked with the increased frequency of extreme

precipitation events since 1995 (Starkel, 2006). In 2010, a huge landslide in K1odne near Limanowa served as an example. 6. Conclusions The effects of human activity occurring in the Jaszcze and Jamne catchments are typical of the Beskidian parts of the Western Polish Carpathians. These changes intensified after 1989 during the period of accelerated economic transformation in Poland. As a result, much of the arable land in the catchments was abandoned. Indicators of farmland abandonment include: 1. the gradual transition of agricultural landscapes to fallow, uncultivated areas e the total acreage of arable land decreased by around 80%; 2. increased income from off-farm activities as a percentage of total income, a shift attributed to the declining profitability of agriculture, which also drives the fragmentation of farmsteads; 3. a change in the composition and extent of building structures, particularly an increase in the numbers of holiday homes being built; 4. a change in road density e the density of roads in use decreased by around 33%, from 6.97 km/km2 in 1981 to 4.3 km/km2 in 2008. The impacts of these changes on the natural environment include: 1. an increase in forest cover by ca. 15% (by 11.5% in the catchment and 18.5% in the Jamne); 2. acceleration of channel downcutting (given a simultaneous channelization) as a result of channel straightening and shortening. Observations of the changes which occurred in the areas suddenly abandoned by the Ukrainian population (over 60 years ago) indicate that a similar trend in landscape transformation is progressing also in the Gorce Mts. Ongoing LULC changes in the Gorce Mts., which have resulted from pressing socioeconomic changes, have both positive and negative effects. This indicates a need to modify regional policy with respect to spatial management in the mountains, particularly in the case of managing water, pasturing and tourism. This might be achieved by: 1. preservation of plant cultivation and animal husbandry as well as restoring pastoral management in the mountains (even to reduced extents) which could protect valuable plant species from extinction e in 2007 controlled sheep pasturing was restored in the meadows in the Gorce National Park; 2. development of a spatial management plan for mountain areas which could protect them from chaotic building on the slopes, especially in places which are particularly attractive owing to their scenic views, or establishing new roads and trails accelerating runoff during heavy rains; 3. renaturalization of river channels. These scientific approaches should assist managers in planning more effective regional management policies and can also contribute to more effective and economical planning of activities, particularly in protected areas. Acknowledgements The author offers her cordial thanks to Prof. Leszek Starkel for his assistance, discussions and constructive criticism.



References Adamczyk, B., Komornicki, T., 1969. Charakterystyka gleboznawcza dolin potoków Jaszcze i Jamne. Stud. Naturae, Ser. A 3, 102e153 (in Polish with English summary). Ales, R.F., 1991. Effect of economic development on landscape structure and function in the Province of Seville (SW Spain) and its consequences on conservation. In: Baudry, J., Bunce, B. (Eds.), Land Abandonment and its Role in Conservation, Options Mediterraneennes, serie A, Seminaires Mediterraneens, vol. 15, pp. 61e69. ski, J., 2008. Przemiany funkcjonalno-przestrzenne terenów wiejskich. In: Ban Ekspertyzy. Do koncepcji przestrzennego zagospodarowania kraju 2008e2033, vol. 1. Warszawa, pp. 393e433. ski, J., 2011. Changes in agricultural land ownership in Poland in the period of Ban the market economy. Agric. Econ. 57 (2), 93e101. Bender, O., Boehmer, H.J., Jens, D., Schumacher, K., 2005. Analysis of land-use change in a sector of Upper Franconia (Bavaria, Germany) since 1850 using land register records. Landsc. Ecol. 20, 149e163. Buca1a, A., 2012. Wspó1czesne zmiany srodowiska przyrodniczego dolin potoków Jaszcze i Jamne w Gorcach. In: Prace Geograficzne, vol. 231. IGiPZ PAN, Warszawa (in Polish with English summary). Buca1a, A., Radecki-Pawlik, A., 2011. Wp1yw regulacji technicznej na zmiany morfologii górskiego potoku: potok Jamne, Gorce. Acta Sci. Pol. 10 (1), 3e16 (in Polish with English summary). skiej wsi 1416e1986 (Jelenia Góra). Czajka, S., 1987. Ochotnica dzieje gorczan Didier, L., 2001. Invasion patterns of European larch and Swiss stone pine in subalpine pastures in the French Alps. For. Ecol. Manag. 145 (1e2), 67e77. Falcucci, A., Maiorano, L., Boitani, L., 2007. Changes in land-use/land-cover patterns in Italy and their implications for biodiversity conservation. Landsc. Ecol. 22, 617e631. Gerlach, T., Niemirowski, M., 1968. Charakterystyka geomorfologiczna dolin Jaszcze i Jamne. In: Medwecka-Kornas, A. (Ed.), Doliny potoków Jaszcze i Jamne w Gorcach, Studia Naturae Ser. A, vol. 2, pp. 11e22 (in Polish with English summary). Górz, B., 2002. Wspó1czesne przemiany na obszarach wiejskich Podhala. In: Przegla˛ d Geograficzny 74, vol. 3. IGiPZ PAN, pp. 451e468 (in Polish with English summary). stwo i gospodarka Podhala w okresie transformacji. Górz, B., 2003. In: Spo1eczen Akademia Pedagogiczna, Kraków. Grötzbach, E., 1988. High mountains as human habitat. In: Allan, N.J.R., Knapp, G.W., Stadel, C. (Eds.), Human Impact on Mountains. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, pp. 24e35. International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, 1997. ILWIS e the Integrated Land Water Information System (Use’s Guide). Enschede, The Netherlands. Kondolf, G.M., 1994. Geomorphic and environmental effects of instream gravel mining. Landsc. Urban Plan. 28, 225e243. Kondolf, G.M., Piégay, H., Landon, N., 2002. Channel response to increased and decreased bedload supply from land use change: contrasts between two catchments. Geomorphology 45, 35e51. Korpak, J., 2007. The Influence of River Training on Mountain Channel Changes (Polish Carpathians Mountains) vol. 92. Geomorphology, pp. 166e181. Kozak, J., 2003. Forest cover change in the Western Carpathians in the past 180 years, A case study in the Orawa region in Poland. Mt. Res. Dev. 23 (4), 369e375. Kozak, J., 2005. Zmiany powierzchni lasów w Karpatach Polskich na tle innych gór swiata. Uniwersytet Jagiellon ski, Kraków. Kozak, J., 2010. Forest cover changes and their drivers in the Polish Carpathian Mountains since 1800. In: Nagendra, H., Southworth, J. (Eds.), Reforesting Landscapes Linking Pattern and Process. Springer, pp. 257e273. Lach, J., 1975. In: Ewolucja i typologia krajobrazu Beskidu Niskiego z uwzgle˛ dnie_ niem gospodarczej dzia1alnosci cz1owieka. Naukowe Wyzszej Szko1y Pedagogicznej, Kraków. _ Lach, J., Wyzga, B., 2002. Channel incision and flow increase of the upper Wis1oka River, southern Poland, subsequent to the reafforestation of its catchment. Earth Surf. Process. Landform. 27, 445e462. _ qajczak, A., 2005. Antropopresja w górach e rozwój w czasie i zróznicowanie w uk1adzie wysokosciowym, na przyk1adzie masywu Pilska w Zachodnich Beskidach. In: qajczak, A. (Ed.), Wp1yw cz1owieka na ekosystemy gór srednich, Antropopresja w górach srednich strefy umiarkowanej i skutki geo morfologiczne, na przyk1adzie wybranych obszarów Europy Srodkowej, vol. 2. ˛ ski, Sosnowiec, pp. 3e20. Wydzia1 Nauk o Ziemi, Uniwersytet Sla Latocha, A., 2009. Land use changes and longer-term human-environment interactions in a mountain region, (Sudetes Mountains, Poland). Geomorphology 108, 48e57. , P., 2006. Geomorphology of medium-high mountains under Latocha, A., Migon changing human impact: from managed slopes to nature restoration: a case study from the Sudetes, SW Poland. Earth Surf. Process. Landform. 31, 1657e1673. Lichtenberger, E., 1988. The succession of an agricultural society to a leisure society: the high mountains of Europe. In: Man, N.J.R., Knapp, G.W., Stadel, C. (Eds.), Human Impact on Mountains. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, pp. 218e227. Liébault, F., Piégay, H., 2002. Causes of 20th century channel narrowing on mountain and piemont rivers of southeastern France. Earth Surf. Process. Landform. 27, 425e444. Lipský, Z., 2001. Present land use changes in the Czech cultural landscape: driving forces and environmental consequences. Morav. Geogr. Rep. 9 (2), 2e14. MacDonald, D., Crabtree, J.,R., Wiesinger, G., Dax, T., Stamou, N., Fleury, P., Gutierrez Lazpita, J., Gibon, A., 2000. Agricultural abandonment in mountain areas of Europe: environmental consequences and policy response. J. Environ. Manage. 59, 47e69.

11

Main-Knorn, M., Hostert, P., Kozak, J., Kuemmerle, T., 2009. How pollution legacies and land use histories shape post-communist forest cover trends in the Western Carpathians. For. Ecol. Manag. 258, 60e70. Mather, A.S., Needle, C.L., 1998. The forest transition: a theoretical basis. Area 30 (2), 117e124. _ n ski, W. (Ed.), Gorczan ski Park Medwecka-Kornas, A., 2006. Szata roslinna. In: Róza Narodowy, 25 lat ochrony dziedzictwa przyrodniczego i kulturowego Gorców, Pore˛ ba Wielka, pp. 65e84 (in Polish with English summary). Medwecka-Kornas, A., Kornas, J., 1968. Zbiorowiska roslinne dolin Jaszcze i Jamne. In: Medwecka-Kornas, A. (Ed.), Doliny potoków Jaszcze i Jamne w Gorcach, Studia Naturae Ser. A, vol. 2, pp. 49e91. Moreiral, F., Regol, F.C., Ferreira, P.G., 2001. Temporal (1958e1995) pattern of change in a cultural landscape of northwestern Portugal: implications for fire occurrence. Landsc. Ecol. 20 (1), 101e112. Niemirowska, J., Niemirowski, M., 1968. Stosunki hydrograficzne zlewni potoków Jaszcze i Jamne. In: Medwecka-Kornas, A. (Ed.), Doliny potoków Jaszcze i Jamne w Gorcach, Studia Naturae Ser. A, vol. 2, pp. 39e48 (in Polish with English summary). Niemirowski, M., 1974. Dynamika wspó1czesnych koryt potoków górskich (na przyk1adzie potoków Jaszcze i Jamne w Gorcach). In: Zeszyty Naukowe UJ, Prace Geograficzne, vol. 34. Kraków. (in Polish with English summary). Obre˛ bska-Starklowa, B., 1969. Stosunki mikroklimatyczne na pograniczu pie˛ ter lesnych i pól uprawnych w Gorcach. In: Zesz. Nauk. UJ, Prace Geograficzne, vol. 23. Kraków. (in Polish with English summary). Ostafin, K., 2009. Zmiany granicy rolno-lesnej w srodkowej cze˛ sci Beskidu Sredniego od po1owy XIX wieku do 2005 roku. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu skiego, Kraków. Jagiellon Pärtel, M., Mändla, R., Zobel, M., 1999. Landscape history of a calcareous (alvar) grassland in Hanila, western Estonia, during the last three hundred years. Landsc. Ecol. 14, 187e196. Peco, B., Sánchez, A.M., Azcárate, F.M., 2006. Abandonment in grazing systems: consequences for vegetation and soil. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 113, 284e294. Petit, C.C., Lambin, E.F., 2002. Impact of data integration technique on historical land use/land-cover change: comparing historical maps with remote sensing data in the Belgian Ardennes. Landsc. Ecol. 17, 117e132. Rinaldi, M., Simon, A., 1998. Bed-level adjustments in the Arno River, central Italy. Geomorphology 22, 57e71. _ Sikora, W., Zytko, K., 1968. Warunki geologiczne dolin Jaszcze i Jamne. In: Medwecka-Kornas, A. (Ed.), Doliny potoków Jaszcze i Jamne w Gorcach, Studia Naturae, Seria A, vol. 2, pp. 23e38 (in Polish with English summary). Soja, R., 1977. Deeping of channel in the light of the cross profile analysis. Stud. Geomorphol. Carpatho-Balcanica 11, 127e138 (in Polish with English summary). Soja, R., 2002. Hydrologiczne aspekty antropopresji w polskich Karpatach. In: Prace Geograficzne IGiPZ PAN, vol. 186, p. 130 (in Polish with English summary). Soja, M., 2008. Cykle rozwoju ludnosci Karpat polskich w XIX i XX wieku. IGiGP UJ, Kraków. Starkel, L., 1972. Zachodnie Karpaty Zewne˛ trzne (fliszowe). In: Klimaszewski, M. (Ed.), Geomorfologia Polski, vol. 1. PWN, Warszawa, pp. 52e115. Starkel, L., 1980. Erozja gleby a gospodarka wodna. In: Zeszyty Problemowe Poste˛ pów Nauk Rolniczych, vol. 235, pp. 103e118. Starkel, L., 1990. Ewolucja srodowiska przyrodniczego Karpat w okresie dzia1alnosci cz1owieka. In: Problemy Zagospodarowania Ziem Górskich, vol. 29, pp. 34e46. Starkel, L., 2006. Geomorphic Hazards in the Polish Flysch Carpathians. In: Studia Geomorph. Carpatho-Balcan, vol. 40, pp. 7e19. _ Starkel, L., Pietrzak, M., qajczak, M., 2007. Wp1yw zmian uzytkowania ziemi i wzrostu cze˛ stotliwosci ekstremalnych opadów na obieg wody i erozje˛ oraz ochrone˛ zasobów przyrodniczych Karpat. In: Problemy Zagospodarowania Ziem Górskich, vol. 54, pp. 19e31 (in Polish with English summary). Tasser, E., Mader, M., Tappeiner, U., 2003. Effects of land use in alpine grasslands on the probability of landslides. Basic Appl. Ecol. 4, 271e280. Tasser, E., Walde, J., Tappeiner, U., Teutsch, A., Noggle, W., 2007. Land-use changes and natural reforestation in the Eastern Central Alps. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 118, 115e129. Tomczyk, A.M., 2011. A GIS assessment and modelling of environmental sensitivity of recreational trails: the case of Gorce National Park, Poland. Appl. Geogr. 31 (1), 339e351. Wa1dykowski, P., 2006. Wp1yw dróg górskich na dynamike˛ procesów morfogenetycznych w rejonie Turbacza. In: Ochrona Beskidów Zachodnich, vol. 1. Gorc ski Park Narodowy, Pore˛ ba Wielka, pp. 67e79 (in Polish with English zan summary). Whited, T., 2000. Extinguishing disaster in alpine France: the fate of reforestation as technocratic debacle. GeoJournal 51 (3), 263e270. Wolski, J., 1998. Land use and cover changes in the evacuated rural areas (the case of Bieszczady Mts.). Misc. Geogr. 8, 29e40. Wolski, J., 2007. Przekszta1cenia krajobrazu wiejskiego Bieszczadów Wysokich w cia˛ gu ostatnich 150 lat. In: Prace Geograficzne, vol. 214. IGiPZ PAN, Warszawa (in Polish with English summary). _ Wyzga, B., 1993. River response to channel regulation: case study of Raba River, Carpathians, Poland. Earth Surf. Process. Landform. 17, 541e556. _ Wyzga, B., 2001. A geomorphologist’s criticism of the engineering approach to channelization of gravel-bed rivers: case study of the Raba river, Polish Carpathians. Environ. Manage. 27, 341e358.


The impact of over 80 years of land cover changes on bee and wasp pollinator communities in England.

Land use and land cover changes in Zêzere watershed (Portugal)--Water quality implications.

Impacts of land use changes on soil properties and processes.

Impacts of future climate and land cover changes on threatened mammals in the semi-arid Chinese Altai Mountains.

Weakening of Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall due to Changes in Land Use Land Cover.

The transparency, reliability and utility of tropical rainforest land-use and land-cover change models.

Land Use Land Cover Changes in Detection of Water Quality: A Study Based on Remote Sensing and Multivariate Statistics.

China's Land-Use Changes during the Past 300 Years: A Historical Perspective.

land cover changes in Munessa-Shashemene landscape of the south-central highlands of Ethiopia.

land use change and impacts on environment in South Asia.

Effects of Microclimate Condition Changes Due to Land Use and Land Cover Changes on the Survivorship of Malaria Vectors in China-Myanmar Border Region.

Modeling land use and land cover changes in a vulnerable coastal region using artificial neural networks and cellular automata.

Stormwater runoff quality in correlation to land use and land cover development in Yongin, South Korea.

Hotspots of uncertainty in land-use and land-cover change projections: a global-scale model comparison.

Inferring land use and land cover impact on stream water quality using a Bayesian hierarchical modeling approach in the Xitiaoxi River Watershed, China.

Hydrological response to land cover changes and human activities in arid regions using a geographic information system and remote sensing.

A global dataset of crowdsourced land cover and land use reference data.

land cover water quality nexus: quantifying anthropogenic influences on surface water quality.

use for Europe between 1900 and 2010.

land cover classes of the coastal zones of Cochin, India.

Temporal changes in land cover types and the incidence of malaria in Mangalore, India.

GIS analysis of land cover changes on the territory of the Prokuplje Municipality.

NASA Land Cover and Land Use Change (LCLUC): an interdisciplinary research program.

Present-day vegetation helps quantifying past land cover in selected regions of the Czech Republic.