International Journal of Group Psychotherapy

ISSN: 0020-7284 (Print) 1943-2836 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujgp20

The Group Psychotherapy Literature: 1975 W. Brendan Reddy, Donald B. Colson & Christopher B. Keys To cite this article: W. Brendan Reddy, Donald B. Colson & Christopher B. Keys (1976) The Group Psychotherapy Literature: 1975, International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 26:4, 487-545, DOI: 10.1080/00207284.1976.11492280 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207284.1976.11492280

Published online: 29 Oct 2015.

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Date: 24 June 2017, At: 17:25

The Group Psychotherapy Literature: 1975 Summarized by W. BRENDAN REDDY, PH .D., DONALD B. COLSON, PH.D., and CHRISTOPHER B. KEYS, PH .D .

THE FIELD oF GROUP PSYCHOTHERAPY, varied and extensive, is usually reflected in the literature - 1975 is no exception. The radical and reactionary are represented, with some moderates attempting to integrate the extremes. The literature is rich with ideas and techniques but the practitioner must labor in order to extract the effective from the less effective. The criticisms of the past must be made again: minimal programmatic research, overstatement of anecdotal findings , studies ill conceived and poorly controlled. Certainly there is a wish and a need to share methods, techniques, and results within the community of group psychotheraDr. Reddy is Associate Professor. Department of Psychology and Program Director, Community Psychology Institute, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dr. Colson is Senior Clinical Psychologist, The Menninger Foundation, To peka , Kansas. Dr. Keys is Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology. University of Illinois a t Chicago Circle , Chicago, Illinois. The authors thank Ms. Carol Strohmaier, Ms. Catherine Stecklein , and Mr. Rob Knourek for their invaluable assistance in the collection of references and in the organization and typing of the manuscript.

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pists. However, because of limitations in methodology many findings can only be viewed with suspicion as being of questionable reliab ility and validity . The three major sections of the present summary are : group psychotherapy , group counseling, and the small-group experience . As in the past , studies of marital therapy , family therapy , and the therapeutic community have been omitted . These areas are themselves extensive and require separate summaries.

GROUP PSYCHOTHERAPY This portion of the group work literature includes only those publications which deal specifically with group psychotherapy . The summary is organized under the following headlines : (1) Present Status (Past , Present, and Future ; Training and Supervision ; Problems and Techniques; Diagnosis and Patient Selection); (2) Theoretical Orientations (Learning Theory ; Encounter, Marathon, Gestalt Orientations; Systems Theory; Psychoanalytic Orientation) ; (3) Patient Populations (Couples and Families ; Children; Adolescents ; Severely Disturbed Patients; Medical and Handicapped Pa tients ; Racial , Ethnic and Social Class Issues ; Special Problems) ; (4) Research (Present Status; Treatment Modalities Compared ; Outcome and Follow-Up Investigations; Process Studies) .

PRESENT STATUS

Past, Present, and Future 1975 seems to have been a year for examining the theory and practice of group psychotherapy in historical perspective . In celebration of the 25th anniversary of this Journal , a special silver-colored issue reflects on the past , considers the present , and , more tentatively , looks to the future. Included are three pieces reprinted from the first issue of April 1951: an editorial by the late Dr . Lewis Loeser (271) and articles by S. R. Slavson (412 ) and J. D . Frank (141 ). Then articles offering historical notes and contrasting past

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and present issues in the life of the Journal and group psychotherapy are provided by S. R . Slavson (411), H . B. Peck (334), J. D. Frank (140), E.J. Anthony (15), and S. H. Foulkes (135). The anniversary part of the silver issue is concluded by greetings from Neto (316) and Hidas (199). In another issue of this Journal, Hadden (179) provides an article of historical interest in honor of S. R. Slavson. Hartley (187) also examines the past as a means of placing present issues of group psychotherapy in their proper perspective, and Durkin (119) describes the development of Systems Theory and its implications for theory and practice of group therapy. Articles with a broad historical and theoretical perspective are offered by Lieberman (263) and Naar (315) . The place of group psychotherapy in our society is discussed with elaboration of a sociocultural approach (Murphy [311]). The therapeutic mechanisms in group psychotherapy are the subject of two articles (Corsini and Rosenberg [95), Hill, W. F. [200]). These articles aim to reduce the number of therapeutic mechanisms to a relatively small number, thereby facilitating research, better communication among group therapists, and the effectiveness of group psychotherapy. Other articles of theoretical significance delve into peer influence in group psychotherapy (Goldberg [162]) and the use of Martin Buber's thoughts to illuminate value problems that arise in group psychotherapy (Friedman [144]). Boundary issues in group psychotherapy and their management are discussed by Singer et al. (406) and Gurowitz (176). Berger (41) spells out the value for group psychotherapy patients and therapists of greater interest in and utilization of nonverbal communication. Buirski (66) suggests that ethology, the study of social groupings of animals in nature, can serve as a model for understanding of group process in psychotherapy groups. The lack of protection group members have against disclosures compelled in court and the consequences of such a deficit is examined by Foster (133). Berne (49) reviews four books on group therapy, and Reddy et al. (354) summarize the 1974 group psychotherapy literature . The books mentioned in this section deal at least in part with group psychotherapy. Many of the articles included in edited books

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will appear in this summary under the most appropriate summary headings . Yalom (485) has revised and updated his classic text on group psychotherapy, adding a detailed discussion of encounter groups and a section on existential factors in group psychotherapy. Rosenbaum and Berger (366) also revised an earlier book on group psychotherapy and group function. A number of articles from the first edition have been updated by their authors and combined with some new papers. For the third year in succession an overview of group psychotherapy is presented by Walberg and Aronson (480) . Gazda (155) summarizes several basic approaches to group psychotherapy and group counseling, including psychoanalysis , psychodrama , existential group therapy, conjoint famil y therapy , and teleoanalytic (Adlerian) counseling. Theories and practices in group psycho~herapy for children are the central themes of a book by Slavson and Schiffer (413 ). Sugar (439) devotes a book to applications of group or family therapy to the adolescent . Several books although not dealing exclusively with group psychotherapy include sections relevant to group work : Suinn and Weigel (444) focus on innovative psychological therapies, Harper (183) on the "new" psychotherapies, and Liff (267) on group leadership. Two related books Qaffe [217]; Rosenbaum [365]) also appeared on the group scene .

Training and Supervision Stein (428) reviews basic principles of the training of the group therapist which he described ten years before. Today the use of sensitivity training, family and marital therapy , and new group approaches raise new questions about training. Berman (48) reviews a variety of models for training group therapists and discusses prob lems which accompany these models. A summary written by trainee cotherapists in their supervision is supplied to the patients and supervisor , improving the quality of supervision (Bloch et al. [55]). Spotnitz (423) describes use of a "demonstration group" as a method of teaching the principles of analytic group psychotherapy . In an article relevant to the selection and training of group therapists , MacLennan (280) examines the personalities of group leaders . Several authors write of the usefulness to therapists in training of

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being in the patient role in a psychotherapy group (Hadden [178]); Klapman [234]; Kratochvil [242]; Warkintin [469]). Alnoes et al. (8) attempt to measure the therapeutic and didactic effect on potential therapists of psychoanalytically oriented training groups. Efforts to employ leaderless groups for the purpose of peer training in group psychotherapy resulted in relative success for one group (Kline [235]) and in failure for another (Hunt and Issacharoff [2 10]). Group psychotherapy is a central part of training in a three-year general residency program (Labourdette and Rockland [247]).

Problems and Techniques Chance (81) describes recurrent problems in the management of treatment groups including control over the milieu, control over group process, disruptions of therapy, and control over processes within the group therapist. Certain structured group exercises are summarized which can be employed in encounter or therapy groups, in consultations, and in the classroom as demonstrations (Russell [376]). Pratt (341) uses "Dejerine's Methods" and Kruder and Heftner (245) describe "free" application as a form of "clientcentered" group therapy. The "vulnerable moment," an interval in which the patient is particularly open and honest, is accompanied by techniques to facilitate the working through of resistance blocking progress (Livingston [270]). Schilder (386) uses a written report of the patient concerning his life and relationships as the basis of group psychotherapy with severely neurotic patients. As a device to provide structure in a very anxious group, Yalom et al. (486) mailed written summaries of events in the group to the group members. The technique may improve the cognitive integration of group therapy for both patient and therapist. Other methods to increase the effectiveness of group psychotherapy include "coordinated meetings" (Kadis [224 ]), and "autonomy chair" technique (Baute [33]), and videotape (Berger et al. [44]; Heckel [195]) . Kaufman (227) examines techniques used in groups of addicts by ex-addict therapists. A few articles describe techniques developed for use with certain categories of patients . Strupp and Bloxom (437) prepare lower-class patients for group psychotherapy with a role induction film. Berger

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and Rosenbaum (43) offer suggestions concerning techniques for working with help-rejecting complainers during combined individual and group psychotherapy. Zilbergeld (490) describes group techniques used to treat sexually dysfunctional men . Several parameters of group psychotherapy and the related problems occupy a number of authors. Winkelmann (479) discusses the sudden changing of therapist within individual and group psychotherapy . The problems caused by introducing new members into psychotherapy groups are described (Greenfield [170]), and a procedure for orienting new members is outlined (Gauron and Rawlings [153]). The size of therapy groups is the central concern of articles by Geller (158) and Kratochvil et al. (243). Other articles focus on group therapy observers, their identifications (Chu et al. [82]), dynamics (Stone [432]), and effects on the group (Dupont et al.

[118]) . Diagnosis and Patient Selection As in previous years there are few articles focusing on diagnostic issues in group psychotherapy. Horner (209) describes why group therapy is especially indicated when the patient's character defenses constitute a source of rigidly maintained resistance in individual psychotherapy. Mullan and Rosenbaum (309 ) emphasize the importance of assessing suitability for group psychotherapy, with attention to early life experience and motivation to engage in a psychotherapeutic group. Berkovitz and Sugar (47) examine indications and contraindications for adolescent group therapy. Only one article appears on the use of group psychotherapy fox diagnostic study of the group members (Rabiner et al. [346]) . Foulkes (136) devotes a portion of a paper on group-analytic psychotherapy to group analysis as a diagnostic and prognostic test.

THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS

Learning Theory Liberman (261) provides a comprehensive picture of the variety of efforts made by behavior modifiers in groups and with couples and families. A framework for a behavioral group , including its assumptions , operating procedures, and supervision , is presented

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Qohnson, [220]). Activity Discussion Group Therapy is described and related to reinforcement and other concepts from a behavioral model (Egan [120]) . Pratt et al. (342) write about behavior modification as used to change hyperactive behavior in a children's group. Hand et al. (181) combine the behavior therapy technique of "flooding in vivo" with the social dynamics of the small group in the treatment of agoraphobia .

Encounter, Marathon, and Gestalt Orientations Diamond and Shapiro (105) provide a framework for the kinds of learning derived from encounter groups. Foulds (134) focuses on the theory and practice of the experiential-Gestalt growth group. The topic of marathon groups and the group movement is reviewed with an evaluation of relevant research (Dinges and Weigel [110]). Rachman (348) attempts a rapprochement of encounter and traditional psychotherapy with special emphasis on countertransference.

Systems Theory Systems theory, frequently converging with concepts from psychoanalytic theory, is increasingly the subject of articles on group psychotherapy. Durkin (119) describes the development of systems theory and its implications for the theory and practice of group psychotherapy . Kernberg (230) focuses on the boundary functions of the group leader in group dynamic groups, group psychotherapies , task groups, and administrative groups or organizations. Also focusing on boundary management in psychological work with groups, Singer et al. (406) examine six types of groups, using a social system organizational perspec tive . Other relevant papers deal with social system and psychoanalytic approaches to group dynamics (Butkovich et al. [69]) and spatia-temporal considerations in psychoanalytic group psychotherapy (Slavinsky-Holy [410]). Mendell (296) discusses the development of the Southwestern Group Psychotherapy Society from a systems perspective and argues that general systems theory is an invaluable aid to understanding group processes.

Psychoanalytic Orientation Many of the works cited in this section come from Rosenb a um and Berger's second edition of Group Psychotherapy and Group

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Function . Dreikurs ( 115) and Dinkmeyer ( 111 ) discuss group psychotherapy from the point of view of Adlerian psyc hology. Other articles focus on Jung's observations about present trends in group therapy (Illing [21 4 ]), the application of Harry Stack Sullivan 's theories (Goldman [164 ]), and Karen Horney's theory appli ed to psychoanalytic group psychotherapy (DeRosis [104]). There are two discussions of Bion 's analytic theory and its relation to group therapy and group dynamics (Sandner [379]; Whit aker ·and Thelen [477]). A revised psychoanalytic model of group psychology based on the structural theory is offered by Saravay (381). Rey (356) discusses in trapsyc hic object relations as manifested in the individual and the group and suggests that the task of group therapy is to alter object relations . Foulkes (137) describes the process of group analysis and the use of group analytic principles in teaching , research , a nd some wider applications. Other articles on psychoanalytic theory and principles as applied to group psychotherapy are provided by Schlegel (388) , Burrow (67) , and Wolf (481). Ackerman (2) compares psyc hoanal ysis and group psychotherapy, and Beukenkamp (51) examines transference and limitations of the concept as applied to analytic group psyc ho therapy. Reconstructive interpretations are used in analytic group psychotherap y (Kon ig [237]). The Oedipus m yth has a counterpart in group psychology in the voyage of the Argon au ts (Usand iv aras [457]). Two papers (Shafar [383 ); Schneider [3 90]) illustrate principles of analytic group psychotherapy with detailed clinical illustra tions. Rosenbaum (364) discusses reactions of psychoanalysts to the practi ce of analytically oriented group psychotherapy.

PATIENT POPULATIONS

Couples and Families Th is section includes only articles on multiple families or coup les trea ted in group psychotherapy structure . Some major aspects of married coup les' groups are described (Leichter [254]). No nve rbal communication in such groups is th e focus of an article by Neto

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(3 17). Low and Low (276), a husband and wife , are cotherapists in a couples' group. Other articles tangentially related to the treatment of couples are on the effects of group psychotherapy on marital consultations (Mrazova and Jochmanova [307]) and the use of separate groups for husband and wife (Gauron et al. [154]). Gurman (175) reviews the clinical and research literature on group mari tal therapy with emphasis on outcome studies and proposes a model for evaluating the outcome of couples' groups . The literature includes descriptions of recent advances (Bell [37]) and psychoanalytically oriented psychodrama (Drake [114]) in multiple family groups . Bartlett (30) and Berger ( 42) use multiple fam ily therapy groups with drug addicts and their families. Psychotherapy in a large open family group (Dinnen and Bell [112]) and "network therapy" (Speck and Rueveni [419]) are modifications of group work with families. Two articles by Bracher (61 ] and Markowitz (286) describe the use of a group psychotherapy-like format as an aid to parents in rearing their children . Chz"ldren

One of the few books on group psychotherapy with children is a uthored by Slavson and Schiffer (413). A broad perspective on group psychotherapy for children is provided by Rosenbaum and Kraft (367) and includes discussion of a variety of techniques. Haizlip et al. (180) describe the solutions found in creating and running therapy groups for preschool children and in integrating parent counseling with this treatment. Group psychotherapy with latency children is discussed in four a rticles : Crowdes (96) offers a wide perspective on group therapy with pre-adolescent boys , Belluci (38) focuses on adopted children and their parents, Dannefer et al. (99) develop a combined activity and verbal group , and Levy and Derrien (258) emphasize the use of games. Behavior modification techniques are used to change hyperactive behavior in a children's group (Pratt et al. [342]). The theory and practice of "fantasy therapy" is described and ill ustrated through a description of the treatment of a six-year-old girl with psychogenic m egacolon in a group setting (Coche and Freedman [85 ]) .

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In reviewing the references to group psychotherapy with children, one wonders why th~re are so few articles on group work with girls.

Adolescents Variations m the structure and setting of adolescent therapy groups contain implications for patient selection and group management (Sugar [443]). Button (68) discusses adolescent needs and suggests techniques through which the group worker can help adolescents define their identities. Combining family and group therapy is viewed as a necessity in the treatment of disturbed adolescents (Mendell [295 ]) . The indications and contraindications for treatment of adolescents in group therapy are reviewed by Berkovitz and Sugar (47). Sugar (442), a prolific author in the area of group psychotherapy with adolescents, describes network therapy (selfselected peer therapy group) for the adolescent . Group psychotherapy is attempted with adolescents in the psychiatric hospital therapeutic community (Lordi [275 ]). Spruiell (424) claims that the misunderstanding and mishandling of normal narcissistic needs and defenses against them account for a sizable number of failures in the group therapy process with adolescents. With regard to particular classifications of adolescents in group therapy , Sugar (441) focuses on pubescent boys with absent fathers and Etters (124) describes group therapy for adolescent retardates .

Severely Disturbed Patients A large cluster of articles focus on special problems and techniques of group psychotherapy with psychiatric hospital patients . Frank (139) considers the effects of group therapy in the hospital on patients and the relation of such therapy to the therapeutic community. The dynamics of group psychotherapy as practiced at Hillside Hospital are reviewed (Wender [4 74]) . In a similar vein , Bass (31) presents an overview of psychoanalytic milieu therapy as practiced in Germany in a day-hospital setting. Other articles on therapeutic group work in the psychiatric hospital are presented by Wedler et al. (471 ), Gould et al. (168), and Spielman (421 ). Group work in a day-hospital is limited to six weeks and is used as an alter-

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native to full-time hospitalization (Fidler [126]). Similarly, a four-day-a-week group program is offered as an economical alternative to a day-hospital (Comstock and Jones [87]). Arfsten et al. (18) describe the use of group psychotherapy in the hospital with "problem-patients." Other articles describe group psychotherapy with various classifications of patients considered to be severely disturbed. Shinedling et al. (404) focus on group psychotherapy for impulsive patients. Copeland and Resnick (93) describe a group treatment for chronically ill patients, and Pines (340) discusses group therapy with "difficult" patients, most of whom are self-involved, hypersensitive, angry people who fall into the "borderline" category. Group psychotherapy with patients classified as psychotic or schizophrenic is also the subject of several publications (Day and Semrad [100]; Frost [147]; Gootnick [166]; Standish and Semrad [425]).

Medical and Handicapped Patients A review of the group psychotherapy summaries of the last several years suggests that there is increasing use of group methods in the treatment and rehabilitation of severely medically ill and handicapped patients. Bilodeau and Hackett (52) and Segev et al. (395) describe the use of group therapy with patients who have suffered myocardial infarction, while others focus on group therapy for stroke patients (Oradei and Waite [327]). Rosin (369) suggests that group discussions play an important part in a rehabilitation and reintegration program for chronic disease patients. Group treatment of families of burn-injured patients provide support to relatives and help them to understand problems that occur after discharge from the hospital (Abramson [1]). There are multiple problems and benefits in group work with mentally retarded (Payne and Williams [333]). The relationship of group psychotherapy to the treatment of psychosomatic disorders is presented by Ammon (9) and Preuss (343). The use of group methods in respiratory autogenic training is described in three articles (Calderaro [72]; Carcu [77]; Patella [332]). Of tangential relevance to this section is an article (Sandison [380]) which examines and compares group therapy and drug therapy.

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Racial, Ethnic, and Social Class Issues Several of the articles to follow appear in a symposium on group therapy with minority group patients presented in this Journal. Ruiz (375) documents the value of group psychotherapy with minorities and suggests that therapists for such groups require special education in unique cultural characteristics of America's minorities. Along similar lines , Werben and Hynes (475) discuss transference and cultural issues in a group of Latin-American patients . Bilingualism exerts a considerable influence on communication in groups (Ruiz [374]). Other articles describe group psychotherapy with Greek immigrants (D unkas and Nikelly [117]) , southern blacks (Heckel [193]) , and American Indian women (McDonald [290]) .

Special Problems Group psyc hotherapy is described for the following classifications of patients: alcoholics (Gliedman et al. [161] ; Fox [138] ; Nierojewski [3 19]) ; geriatric patients (Rathbone-McCuan and Levenson [351 ]; Ross [370]); widows (Hiltz [204] ; Miles et al. [297]) ; prisoners (Battegay et al. [32]); and teachers (Multari [310]). Konig (238) discusses a silent schizoid patient in an analytic group. Morris and Prescott (305) describe experiences in a university counseling center with three therapy groups for recently divorced people. Grotjahn (172) discusses technical variations that help integrate the rich, the famous and the "beautiful" into cohesive groups . Group psychotherapy for patients who attempt suicide seems to be an effective intervention (Comstock and McDermott [86]) . Group therapy in outpatient clinics is examined by Hart (186), Heigl (196), and Marsh (288). RESEARCH

Current Status An article entitled "Some Problems of Research in Group Psychotherapy" by Jerome Frank (140) is reprinted from the first issue of this Journal and re-examined in light of current research developments (Frank [141]). Grunebaum (173) offe rs a "soft -hearted"

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review of "hard-nosed" research on groups, attempting to put research data in a form which is clinically relevant and meaningful. Cartwright (79) reviews research on risk-taking by individuals and groups in order to identify facts requiring explanation in the "risky shift" phenomenon. Asch (19) describes some experiments m an investigation of the effects of group pressure.

Treatment Modalities Compared Furst (148) compares homogeneous and heterogeneous group therapies. A comparison of biofeedback-mediated relaxation therapy and group therapy in the treatment of chronic anxiety suggests that the biofeedback modality is more effective (Townsend et al. [454]). Subotnik (438) contrasts client-centered group therapy a nd behavior modification in changing inappropriate behavior of elementary school children. Other comparisons reported include family therapy versus group therapy (Heckel [194 ]), various treatment modalities as treatment for sexual dysfunction (Ohler [322]), and a study of the degree to which people seek out four kinds of services for obtaining help with psychological problems (Lieberman [265]).

Outcome and Follow- Up Investigations Dick (107) reports results of a study of 93 outpatients after psychoanalytic group psychotherapy. Only patients for whom previous psychiatric treatments had proved unsuccessful were included in the study . Of the 93 patients, 87 percent showed positive change. A technique for measuring patients' progress and outcome in group therapy is presented (Fielding [128]). Cabral et al. (71) describe a six -month follow-up investigation of process and outcome in group therapy. The results of brief intensive group experiences are described (Kilmann et al. [223] ; Vernallis et al. [463]).

Pro cess Studies Rohrbaugh and Bartels (362) studied participants' perceptions of "curative factors" in therapy and growth groups. Correlations between clients' and observers' assessments are used to evaluate group therapy (Cabral and Paton [70]). A methodology for studying the effect of therapist style on the process of group therapy was

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developed and applied to two early sessions of two different therapy groups (Nichols and Taylor [318]). Another study concerned primaril y with effects of particular therapist styles examines the closeness or distance of the therapist to the group and consequences for group cohesion (Speierer [420]). Shapiro et al. (400 ) compare questionnaire changes with events in a psychotherapy group. Other researchers focus on assessment of group atmosphere (Silbergeld et al. [405]), repertory grid measures (Caplan et al. [76]), self-disclosure (Strassberg et al. [435]), and structured group interaction for modifying locus of control (Moser [306]). A research project focuses on group dynamic treatment methods in juvenile delinquency institutions (Stephan et al. [430]), and another study examines the use of group therapy to assist with weight reduction (M urray et al. [312]). Beard and Scott (36) evaluate the efficacy of group psychotherapy by nurses for hospitalized patients, finding support for the use of such groups particularly with chronic, regressed patients . The use of group psychotherapy with dying patients is examined in an exploratory study by Zuehlke and Watkins (491).

GROUP COUNSELING This summary of the group counseling literature includes relevant journal articles and books published in 1975 (and available by January 1976) and 1974 publications not available in time for inclusion in the 1974 summary (Reddy et al. [354 ]). It does not include conference presentations or dissertations . Descriptions of counseling groups , outcome research, and group techniques are presented primarily in terms of the client population involved . The major areas considered are : (1) Overview of Theory, Technique, and Research ; (2 ) College Student Groups; (3) Child Groups ; (4) Adolescent Groups ; (5) Parent Groups ; (6) Adult Groups ; and (7) Training.

Overview of Theory, Technique, and Research This section includes publications on theory, technique, and research which are intended to be broadly applicable to several client populations and / or the entire field of group counseling .

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Reddy et al. (354) summarized the 1974 group counseling literature . In the second edition of the useful compendium Basic Approaches to Group Psychotherapy and Group Counseling, Gazda (1 55) and Gazda and Peters (156) provide an overview of history, research, and ethical guidelines in group counseling. Feldman and Wodarski (125) summarize a variety of approaches to group counseling. Several group theorists discuss their particular approaches. In a reissue of Attention and Interpretation, Bion (53) extends the psychoan alytic understanding of group processes. Sonstegard and Dreikurs (418) outline an Adlerian approach to group counseling, while Gazda (155) articulates a careful definition of developmental group counseling and applies it to client groups of different ages. Vriend (464) presents his method of group counseling. An introduction to behavioral group counseling is contributed by Thoreson and Potter (451) . Liberman et al. (262) describe their behavioral approaches to training in assertiveness and other social skills . Another approach with a behavioral emphasis, task-centered group work , is explained by Garvin (152) . Ivey (216) argues for exp anding m icrocounseling to families and other nonschool popula tions . In addition to the presentation of particular theoretical approaches, a potpourri of general theoretical issues in group counseling are considered. Several authors examine issues important to the dynamics of the large group . Foulkes (137) identifie s the organizational context, intensity and duration , open versus closed membership, inappropriate members, external contacts, and size as key factors in conducting a large group. Turquet (456) conceptualizes the development of member identity in the large group as an equilibrium between alienation and fusion, and discusses threats to this equilibrium. The hindering aspects of projective processes in large groups are of concern to Main (284). Sm all group issues include a systems approach for counselors to use in selecting appropriate interventions (Kernberg [230]). Vassiliou and Vassiliou (462) describe the problem of cross-cultural differen ces in sharing feelings in groups . Haskell (190) analyzes the value assumptions underlying group work. In an all too infrequent displ ay of wit, Zeitlyn (488) pokes fun at the unending groups m which mental health professionals find themselves.

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In the realm of techniques, Deffenbacher (101) outlines modifications in group desensitization procedures which enable the counselor to desensitize individuals with different phobias simultaneously in the same group. Using group art expression , Wolff (482) describes several techniques, such as drawing an important fear , which facilitate the counseling process. Cassel (80) sketches a computer-assisted counseling technique which can be applied to groups . In a helpful review of the use of videotape in counseling, Marks et al. (287) summarize findings from disparate sources . They conclude that videotape can often be useful, although careful planning, selection, discussion , and adequate leadership are essential. Blythe (56), and Vriend and Dyer (465) discuss methods for handling silence in groups. In addition to general theory and technique, group research of broad applicability was evident. Kamenow (225) examines the dynamic structure of the small group in terms of communication patterns and their impact on aggressiveness and interpersonal relations. Speierer (420) finds little difference between group participants' perceptions of analytic and client-centered group leaders on dimensions of helping , openness , and closeness . Adelson (6 ) studies the relation of feedback to group development . The effect of group treatment on rigidity is examined by Parker and Vaughn (331). Fromme et al. (146 ) report on the effectiveness of group modification of an individual's feeling statements.

College Student Croups In contrast to the diversity of the theories , techniques , and research in the overview section, the literature on group counseling with college students is focused. One major treatment orientation , behavioral group counseling, and two prot !em areas , academic performance and dating , predominate . In a survey of one university campus, Oles (326 ) found 65 percent of the respondents identified anxiety as a problem and that 85 percent of the respondents expressed a willingness to participate in a group desensitization program . In testing Wolpe and Goldfriend's alternative conceptions of systematic desensitization, Zemore (489) found that college students learn desensitization as a general skill which reduces both treated and untreated fears rather than as a situation-specific

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procedure for fear reduction. Stoudenmire (434) reports that both muscle relaxation and soothing music reduce state but not trait anxiety . In comparing desensitization, behavior rehearsal, self-instructional training, and placebo group treatments for improving assertiveness , Thorpe (452) learned that self-instructional training is most effective and that desensitization was relatively ineffective. In a relatively thorough follow-up study, Galassi et a!. (150) ob tained support for long-term (one year) effects of assertive tra;ning. Microcounseling, a combination of the humanistic orientation of encounter groups and the precision of behavioral methods, is one major approach to interpersonal skill training (Ivey [216]). Clack et a!. (83) report that an interpersonal skills workshop using microcounseling methods was effective in improving participant skills in attendi ng , sensitivity, listening, and feedback . Pyke and Neely (345) improve group discussion skills using videotape, role play, skill practice, and group interaction. In dealing with academic performance problems, several group counselo rs have relied on behavioral methods to treat test anxiety. Calef et a!. (73) found conventional group desensitization to be effective, and demonstrated an increased desensitization effect in reducing test anxiety when relaxation training is paired with a tone stimulus. In comparing systematic desensitization and cue-controlled relaxation , Russell et a!. (377) report that both reduce test anxiety. Kostka and Galassi (241) found that group desensitization and covert positive reinforcement are comparable and both are generally effective in reducing test anxiety although not in improving test performance . Richa rds (357) examines the effects of several behavioral approaches on studying and finds that bibliotherapy treatment with minimal counselor intervention offers considerable potential for making behavior modification more universally available. He also concludes that self-monitoring is an effective treatment addition to bibliotherapy and advice , but that stimulus control procedures are not. Mitchell et a!. (300; 301) studied the effects of systematic desensitization, re-ecucative training, structured group discussion, and applied relaxation training in modifying the academi.: performance of failing college students. The authors focus on a

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range of target behaviors: stressors in study conditions, course commitment, academic and vocational goal setting, academic application , test anxiety, and study habits . They report combinations of treatment methods are more effective than single ones on academic outcome measures. Results also indicate that changes occur only in academic target behaviors treated directly. Therefore , counselors need to use a variety of techniques to treat the various behavior problems contributing to underachievement. Taylor (449 ) describes a rational-emotive workshop concerned with overcoming procrastination and study blocks. In dealing with dating problems, counselors utilize behavioral approaches widely . McGovern et al. (292) compare group discussion and behavior rehearsal in a natural setting and find these procedures are effective in increasing skills and comfort in heterosexual interactions. MacDonald (278) also finds that behavior rehearsal and group feedback procedures are effective in improving dating skills . Curran (97) and Curran and Gilbert (98) conclude that both social skills training and systematic desensitization can reduce dating anxiety . In evaluating behavioral and humanistic approaches to treating heterosexual dating anxiety, Bander et al. (24) report that specific treatment approaches, whether behavioral (re -educative behavior rehearsal and homework) or humanistic (micro-lab) are more effective than nonspecific approaches. In other research on group counseling with college students. Schwartz et al. (392) studied the relative effects of re-evaluation counseling groups, T-groups , and training groups for discussion group leaders . Members of re-evaluation counseling groups show more improvement than members of other groups on measures of emotional style , self-attitudes, self-disclosure , and guilt. Kochendofer (236) investigated the relative effectiveness of an individual interview versus a questionnaire in preparing clients for group counseling. Surprisingly, in the first group session, clients who completed a questionnaire were more likely to express personally relevant material concerning their problems than were those who had been interviewed. Coyne et al. (88) present the findings of a national survey of group experiences in university counseling centers. Generally , larger public institutions offer the greatest variety of groups. Most groups are designed for relatively adequate individuals and are intended to enhance present skills.

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In sum, the literature on group counseling of college students shows a continued interest in academic performance problems, an increased interest in dating problems, and a decreased interest in vocational counseling in comparison with the 1974literature. There is growing emphasis on behavioral approaches and on outcome research.

Child Groups As in college group counseling, behavioral approaches are well represented although not predominant. Barabasz (25) demonstrates that elementary school classroom teachers can use systematic desensitization to reduce text anxiety among their students. McLaughlin (293) and Litow and Pumroy (269) offer literature reviews of group contingency procedures in the classroom. In his excellent book Child Without Tomorrow, Graziano (169) presents a group-oriented behavioral approach to the treatment of severely disturbed children. Rosenbaum et al. (36 8) evaluate the effectiveness of group contingencies and individual rewards in modifying classroom behavior of hyperactive boys. They find that both methods are successful and that teachers prefer the group contingency approach. Several alternatives to behavioral group counseling are presented. Amundson (11) and Arnold et al. (17) discuss the use of transactional analysis groups. Activity group guidance, a modified form of play therapy (Hillman et al. [203]), and the feelings class, a role play and discussion group (Gumaer et al. [174 ]), are described. Hart (185) recommends specific activities teachers can use to prepare students for group work in the classroom. Riester (359) presents a group counseling program which included successful innovations such as taking field trips and having a child assume the therapist role.

Adolescent Groups Adolescent group counseling is an area of many group treatment methods and many target problems. Three central concerns are school problems, marital and sexual problems , and working with economically deprived adolescents. Harris and Trujillo (184) compare self-management groups and group discussion in improving study habits of junior high students with low reading skills and I.Q. scores . They found that both methods are successful

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in increasing grade point average and infer that young teenagers with few academic skills can benefit from the use of self-management techniques . Smith and Troth (417) sought to increase students' achievement motivation using group counseling procedures. Participation increases level of academic achievement motivation , reduces feelings of external control, but does not affect grade point average , test anxiety level, or teacher ratings of student performance . Sharma (401) describes a program of rational group counseling for anxious underachievers. Using a modified form of Bion's approach, Clark (84) conducts groups with potential schoolleavers. Brooks (62) reports that a combination of group sessions , a modified token economy , and a contract are successful in reducing school truancy . In the area of marital and sexual issues , Saur (382) describes a group activity for exploring marital expectations . Dickens et a!. (108) conduct group discussions on human sexuality topics such as contraception , sexual physiology, and male-female relations. Schiller (387) and Sharpe (402) discuss their group counseling efforts with pregnant school-age women. In working with economically deprived adolescents , Reiser (355) formed a short-term drop-in group . O 'Shea (329 ) describes the dynamics of a group of black male delinquent adolescents , and Stebbin (427) presents her experiences in leading a group of black female teenagers in the ghetto. Barnes (28) discusses group work with deprived male adolescents who are violent, antisocial , and / or withdrawn in school. Other group counseling efforts with adolescents are diverse. Button (68 ) stresses the benefits of building on already existing groups and interpersonal relationships in creating a counseling group with adolescents. MacLennan and Felsenfeld (281) provide an overview of group counseling and group psychotherapy with adolescents. Erskine and Maisenbacher (122) examine the effects of a transactional analysis class on high school students with interpersonal problems . Enns (121) describes how he learned that all -male groups are usually less active and effective than groups with both males and females , especially in working with passive adolescent boys. Hymmen (213 ) questions the role of group guidance classes .

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Bergland et al. (45) find no treatment effects for structured group interaction, videotaped models , and a combination of both structured group interaction and videotaped models in helping students make informed vocational choices. Brown and Kingsley (64) consider the effect of a combination of individual contracting and guided group interaction on the self-concept of adolescents with behavior disorders. The three phases of The Pupil Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP) , the expressive mode, the emphatic mode, and the facilitator mode are described by Hatch and Guerney (191). Bayrakal (35) discusses his group experience with chronically disabled adolescents, and Grold (171) explains the use of a youth group with adolescents in a psychiatric hospital. In a study of the effects of large group (n = 92) counseling on mood among navy recruits , LaRocco et al. (249) report less anger and more pleasure for treatment groups when compared with controls. In an unusual use of group counseling procedures, Sugar (440) uses small group meetings for students, faculty, and parents to cope with racial tension in a high school.

Parent Groups In 1975 as in 1974 group counselors report using reflective approaches more than behavioral ones in treating parents. There was a substantial increase in reflective group counseling for parents who want to improve their general functioning as parents but who are not facing severe emotional , behavioral, or physical problems. In their group, Ledet and Rabinowitz (253) encourage parents to support their infant's curiosity . Working with parents of nursery school children, Atkeson and Guttentag (20) consider a range of issues from discipline to sexual exploration. An Adlerian program of parent counseling is used in an elementary school setting (Agati and Iovino [7]) . In a post-test only, comparative outcome study, Freeman (143) found that mothers from Adlerian study groups are less restrictive and play more with their children than did mothers from traditional discussion groups. Hillman and Perry (202) evaluate the parent discussion groups of a parent-teacher education center, and Can toni (75) describes family life education groups. Using microcounseling procedures, Duehn (116) demonstrates that

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parents can transfer interpersonal skills from a counseling group for parents to parent -child interactions. Kurzman (246) presents a parent-adolescent communication skills seminar which is intended to reduce the probablity of adolescent drug use and other socially dysfunctional behavior. In a relatively well-designed study, Gabel (149) found that mothers who participate in group discussions are perceived by their adolescents as permitting greater freedom and showing increased positive parent -child involvement. Many counselors use reflective group counseling to address specific parental issues concerning both the parents' role and the child's problem. Van Rooijen-Smoor (460) describes a group counseling program for young non -married mothers. Taylor (447) and Goodridge (165) develop group counseling programs for adopting parents. Schaefer (384) uses group counseling for parents as one component of a non-drug treatment program for hyperactive chil dren . To facilitate a child's admission to a psychiatric hospital , Spitz ( 422 ) held a preparatory discussion group for parents . Bracher (61 ) explains his psychodynamic approach to parent "counseling-activity" groups . Esterson et al. (123) attempt to remedy children's underachievement by conducting group counseling with parents . In a group for parents of hearing-impaired children , Berrett and Kelley (50) discuss methods of increasing familial cohesion and improving discipline procedures. Flint (131) and Kelley et al. (229) describe programs for counseling parents of handicapped children . More generally, Markowitz (286) considers the problem of giving advice to parents . Rapp et al. (350) outlined four major roles of a parent discussion group leader : facilitator , resource person , teacher , and model. Several professionals use behavioral group counseling with parents . Fishman (129) conducted group train ing for mothers of children with birth defects . Rinn et al. (360 ) perform a follow-up evaluation of a program in applied operant learning for parents of children with behavior disorders . In treating overweight children , Aragona et al. (16) found parental training and contracting to be effective initially. However, weight loss was not maintained in a 31-week follow-up study. In a valuable comparative study, Tavormina (446) found behavioral group counseling with mothers of retarded children to be more effective than reflective group

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counseling in modifying parental attitudes, mother-child interactions , target behavior problems, and mothers' reports of change. In general, the literature in parent group counseling is rapidly expanding. Reports of group counseling with parents of adolescents and comparative outcome studies are on the increase. One questionable aspect of this literature, at a time when many men are becoming more actively involved in raising their offspring, is the tendency to consider the term "parent" as synonomous with "mother. "

Adult Groups The four major kinds of adult counseling groups reported in 1975 are groups for treating sexual concerns, groups for couples, groups for treating overweight, and groups for mental patients or ex -mental patients. Vandervoort and Blank's (459) description of the sex counseling program at a university medical center reflects the general increase in the use of groups to treat sexual problems. Women's groups, couple's groups, educational seminar groups, bisexual groups, men's groups, gay men 's groups, social enhancement groups , and sex counselor training groups are included in their program . Zil bergeld (490) utilizes relaxation training, assertion training, and self-disclosure techniques to treat sexual dysfunction in men without partners. Using films, Barlow (27) counsels groups of male homosexuals concerning problems of impotence, societal disapproval, and sexual anxieties. Meier (294) conducted a group for emotionally disturbed women to deal with issues related to body functions, such as guilt concerning menopause. Barbach (26) and Wallace and Barbach (467) describe a counseling group for preorgasmic women. Two of the articles concerning couple's groups also focus on sexrelated issues . For engaged couples, Horejsi (208) leads sex education groups, and for adequately functioning couples, LoPiccolo and Miller (274) hold sexual enrichment groups. Some useful guidelines for counseling couples in groups are offered by Kilgo (232) . Hartmann and Hynes (188) counseled a group of five mentally retarded adults who were considering marriage. The Minnesota Couples Communication Program stresses self-awareness,

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listening skills, communication styles, and self-esteem (Nunally et a!. [3 20]). Group counselors use diverse methods in treating overweight. Education and resocialization are Kopelke's (240) primary techniques for a group weight control program in a blue-collar , ethnic community. Hanning (182) reports utilizing hypnosis and a benevolent authoritarian leadership style to treat overweight females . Using a consciousness-raising group to examine societal attitudes toward obesity, Flack and Grayer (130) sought to raise the self-esteem of obese women. Balch and Ross (22) found that behavioral techniques including stimulus control, charting eating behaviors , self-control, and reinforcement help motivated clients to lose weight . In working with mental patients and ex-mental patients , counselors focus on social skills training and adjustment to the outside community. Heine 's (197) daily living group provides hospitalized patients soon to be discharged with essential information about apartment finding , job hunting, and community resources and an opportunity to share their feelings about the transi tion from hospita l to outside community. Field (127) and Longin and R ooney (27 3) use assertiveness training procedures to enhance the social skills of severely disturbed patients. Brown (63) describes a self-control skills training program for patients and ex-patients. In other group counseling efforts with adults , Issroff (2 15) uses an open-ended , unstructured format in counseling prison staff members . Flowers and Guerra (132) demonstrate that assertiveness training for probation officers can be conducted in large groups . Baxt and Chinlund (34) offer case examples of benefits from group counseling with parolees. Dolan (113) and M..tdden and Kenyon (283) describe group counseling with alcoholics . Working with hos pitalized stroke patients, Singler (407) found an open-ended , open m embership group provides valuable emotional support to the participants . Moore (303) conducted a discussion group to counteract apathy and withdrawal for medical patients who were not critically ill but had to remain under hospital supervision . Hiltz (2 04 ) leads groups to help widows work through their grief and establish a new identity. Jenson (218) examines the rol e of profession a ls in self-help groups. To cope with unemployment , Azrin

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(21) developed a job-finding club. Pa rker (330) uses systematic desensitization to assist a group of community leaders in reducing pub lic speaking anxiety . Osborn and Harris (328) describe assertiveness training for women. In sum, the 1975 literature on group counseling for adults contai ns an extrem ely broad r ange of methods and problems. The increase in the number and kind of sp eci alized groups (e.g., groups for hospitalized stroke patients) suggests that counselors are utilizing issue homogeneity to build a common bond among group members. However , the richness and diversity of program descriptions in ad ult group counseling contrasts sharply with the impoverished state of research. Less that 30 percent of the articles in this section are empi rical studies. Those studies typicall y lacked the rigor of research in group counseling with college students.

Training Three kinds of training are included in this section: (1) counselor training using gro up counseling m ethods, (2) the training of group counselors, and (3 ) training paraprofessional counselors. In the area of training counselors using group methods, Carkhuffs social skills training received the most attention . Wells (4 73) outlines a training program in fa cil itative skills which stresses the acquisition and utilization of attending, listening , and empathy skills. In comparing unstructured encounter group and structured skills training , Gormall y (16 7) ascertains that encounter group trainees increase in questioning and self-disclosure behavior , while recipients of structured skills t ra ining increase in empathic responding. Toukmanian and Rennie (453) found both microcounseling and structured human rela tions training to be effective in teaching basic counseling behaviors. Microcounseling is more effective than human relations training in teaching empathy skills. In comparing three models of counselor training, Cormier et a!. (94) found that the structured skills training and the discussion group are somewhat effective a nd that encounter groups are relatively ineffective . In contrast , Stimpson (431) reports that students give less advice and are more accepting following an encounter group experience. In other efforts to train counselors using group procedures, Randolph (349) describes a workshop for training school counselors

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to serve as behavioral consultants to teachers . Using a group counseling and discussion format , Valentich and Gripton (458) trained social work students to treat clients with sexual problems. Strotzka and Buchinger (436) explore the group dynamics of a casecentered training group for mental health professionals . From the trainee 's point of view, O 'Hare et al. (325) discuss group training in treating families. Hunt et al. (211) examine the integration of group dynamics training and the education of social work students. In the area of training group counselors , Lechowicz and Gazda (252) report the results of a nationwide survey of experts in group counseling concerning behavioral objectives for instruction in group counseling . MacLennan (280) identifies the necessary characteristics of effective group leaders and stresses the need for more research on their selection and training. To train behavioral group counselors , both Horan et al. (207) and Lawrence and Sunde! (25 1) led trainee counseling groups conducted according to behavioral principles . Skynner (409) describes the use of a large unstructured group in training students in psychoanalytic group work. Teachers and adolescents were the two groups most likely to be trained as paraprofessional counselors using group m ethods . Skynner (408 ) conducts group consultation to teach teachers to change behavior and attitudes of individual students . To train elementary teachers to use behavioral skills for classroom manage m ent , Jones and Eimers (221) rely on role-playing procedures . Using a psychodynamic approach , Kernberg and Ware (231 ) led a workshop concerning empathy with children which was based on controlled regression . V arenhorst (461) describ es the large scale Palo Alto Peer Counseling Program in which over 600 junior and senior high school students have been trained as counselors for elementary school students or students from their own peer group. Using primarily unstructured group interaction , Frank et al. (142) train high school students to conduct peer counseling in small groups . In other paraprofessional training efforts , Anderson (1 2) teaches former mental patients to lead short term re-entry groups for mental patients being discharged. Shapiro (398) discusses his group leadership training program which enabled staff and inmates to conduct group counseling sessions for inmates . In sum , 1975 saw many descriptions of group counseling programs , some outcome research , and a modera te amount of

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theory development. The major new area of interest was group counseling for sexual problems . Reports of behavioral group counseling have expanded to include virtually the entire gamut of client populations. Reflective approaches remained more popular than behavioral approaches in treating parents, adults, and adolescents. Microcounseling and structured skill training represent a combination of the behavioral and the reflective and were beginning to be used outside of university counseling centers. Unfortunately, most research is limited to university settings, greatly reducing the opportunity to acquire systematic empirical knowledge about non-university clinical settings which would facilitate further development of the group counseling field .

SMALL-GROUP EXPERIENCE The 1975 small group literature shows considerable strength in the theoretical and research areas. Conversely, many of the anecdotal and occupational training articles are a rehash of what has been published and criticized previously as contributing little to the body of knowledge of the small group experience. Perhaps most encouraging in 197 5 is the attempt to integrate divergent theoretical systems and the opportunity to test the resultant hypotheses. The present summary is divided into eight sections: (1) Literature Reviews; (2) Theory; (3) Research; (4) Anecdotal Reports; (5) Occupational Training; (6) Techniques and Methods; (7) Ethics and Standards; and (8) Texts.

Literature Reviews Four major reviews in the area of the small group experience appear in the literature. Reddy et al. (354) review the small group literature in this Journal. Two fine reviews were completed by P. B. Smith (414; 415). In one study (415), the author reviews control studies of the outcome of sensitivity training. The studies included have control groups and a repeated measures design and focus on training lasting not less than 20 hours . Of 100 studies using followup measures administered immediately after training, 78 detect changes significantly greater than those shown by controls. Of 31

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studies using measures completed one month or more after training, 21 showed significant change. In a second article, (414), Smith reports on those studies claiming adverse effects of sensitivity training. He concludes that adverse effects do occur among a small proportion of participants , that this proportion differs markedly in different populations , and that no study yet published provides a basis for concluding that adverse effects arising from sensitivity training occur any more frequently than adverse effects arising in equivalent populations not participating in groups. Cooper (90) also examines how psychologically dangerous are Tgroups and encounter groups. His findings, consistent with those of Smith , conclude that negative studies have not demonstrated that T-groups or encounter groups are psychologically more d a ngerous and that they may in fact enable participants to cope more effec· tively with stressful life periods.

Theory Three excellent articles appeared which were in the systems orientation . Kernberg (230) presents a systems approach to priority setting of interventions in groups. Singer et al. (406) discuss boundary management in psychological work with groups. Group events are seen as temporary institutions in which and through which a wide range of tasks or goals may be pursued . The group leader has manageri al authority and responsibility , a role that is too often minimized . The authors present a typology of group events based upon the task system and the psychological level at which it is pursued . Six types of groups presently popular are identified and described . The authors argue that only an accurate diagnosis of perspective members or client organizations' needs can lead to a proper design of a group event. A clear contract between the group leader and clients is necessary for optimal outcome. Butkovich et al. (6 9) explore the social system and psychoana lytic approaches to group dynamics. A model of group phenomena is presented which does not have the constraints of either the psychoanalytic or the social systems orientation. Individual and group behavior is viewed in a cybernetic approach to causality. That is, behavior is seen as having more than one possible cause and

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multiple causes are seen as potentially responsible for single behavioral outcome. The author suggests that the framework is particularly useful to analyze and compare T-groups and study groups. Sandner (379) and Pridham (344) discuss groups in the theoretical fram ework of Bion . McDonough (291) studies the structural requisites of organization by analyzing the Solzhenitsyn novel , One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich . The controversy engendered by the publication of Lieberman et a!. , Encounter Groups-First Facts (266), continued in a series of papers published in the faunal of Humanistic Psychology (Schutz [391] ; Rowan [372]; Lieberman [264] ; and Miles [298]). Sensitivity training and encounter groups are observed through quite different theoretical glasses . Denes (103) discusses the ethos of sensitivity training; Laschinsky and Koch (250) analyze the development of T -groups in order to explain their position in our society. While Diamond and Shapiro (105) present an expedient m odel of encounter group learning, Braaten (59) offers a critical review of developmental phases of encounter groups and presents a new proposal. Lennung (255) distinguishes various modes of exp eriential training and discusses educational learning and psychological growth as two models of personal change. The psychoanalytic view of sensitivity training is offered by Ganzarain (151) and Balogh (23). The latter author considers the encounter movement the great grandchild of the early psychoanalysts. Ammon and Hameister (10) discuss the ego psychological group d ynamic aspects of death and dying, and Labovitz and Hagedorn (248) offer a structural-behavioral theory of intergroup antagonism .

Research The amount and diversity of research on the small group experience continues to be extensive and of considerably better quality than that focusing specifically on group psychotherapy. Four studies focus on the characteristics of participants who join exp erient ial groups. Mitchell (302) examines the relationships between personal characteristics and change in sensitivity training, while Scott and Rohrbaugh (393) present their conceptions of gro ups in three cultures. Seidman and McBrearty (396) surveyed

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367 volunteers and 814 nonvolunteers in an attempt to investigate the personality characteristics of undergraduates interested in marathon groups . The authors found that volunteers had a lower sense of well-being but greater needs for independence . Lieberman (265 ) focuses on participants who sought out four specific kinds of services dealing with psychological problems , namely, sensitivi ty training, human potential groups , psychotherapy, and women 's consciousness-raising groups . One hundred eight participants were about to enter sensitivity training groups and human potential groups , 89 were psychotherapy patients , and 200 participants were in women's consciousness-raising groups . The level of psychological stress combined with help-seeking motivation was measured , along with the degree of life stress , symptomotology , and self-perceived goals for participation . The results indicate that the degree to which the various symptoms attracted participants exhibiting high levels of distress and help-seeking motivation differed ; however , participants in all services were considerably h igher on stress and symptoms than were a normative p opulation . In a different but related study , Sechrest and Bootzin (394) identified 257 psychologists who identified themselves as "encounterists ," and 315 undergraduates who were involved in encounter groups . The survey results show that : 18 percent of the encounterists were female and 82 percent were male; encounterists tended to have obtained an Ed .D . rather than a Ph.D . as a highest degree more frequently than the control group; encounterists were younger ; 40 per cent of participants observed adverse reactions in others , and a considerable minority reported the same adverse reactions in them selves . Four studies focus on feedback (Adelson [6]; London [272 ]; Schaible and Jacobs [385]; and Walter [468]) . In the latter study (468 ), Walter studied the effects of videotape feedback in modeling the behaviors of task group members. The findings indicate that vid eotape presentation of model groups and video feedback yield a significant behavioral change on predictable and productive task group behavior . A number of studies are best described as those which fall into a category of outcome . They include a wide range of instruments to measure change on a variety of d imensions .

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Lennung and Ahlberg (256) conducted an experiment with 17 directors, managers, and supervisors and found that individually different changes can be expected after laboratory training in contrast with changes in central tendency as reported by other researchers. Lewis et al. (259) report on the effects of sensitivity training on locus of control. The effects of marathon encounters were studied by Cooper (91) and Jones and Medvene (222) . The effects of growth groups on several dimensions were studied : anxiety (324), communication skills (345), self-insight (426), systolic blood pressure (102), and selfactualization (4 70). Lewis et al. (260) use follow -up multidimensional scaling to assess change, and Barrett-Lennard (29) uses follow-up structured questionnaire data. A wide range of programs are scrutinized and comparisons made. While Taylor (448) studies the effects of a pre-programmed leaderless personal growth group, Andrews (14) examines the interpersonal challenge workshop, Bander et al. (24) three dating-specific treatment approaches for heterosexual dating anxiety , Clack et al. (83) an interpersonal skills workshop, Harvey et al. (189) verbal and nonverbal groups , Toukmanian and Rennie (453) microcounseling versus human relations training, Worthen and Malony (484) positive and negative oriented marathon group experiences for couples, and Joseph et al. (223) NTL groups vs. Tavistock groups . Methodology in group work is challenged by Haskell (190) and Diamond and Shapiro (106). While stress is explored by MacNeil et al. (282) and Zarle and Willis (487), the impact of participant compatibility is examined by Hill (201), Kanekar (226), and Smith and Linton (416). The small group with focus on the leader or trainer is examined by Nydegger (321), Shapiro and Klein (399), Stein (429), Weinstein and Hanson (472), and Hurley (212) . The group with focus on participants with their perceptions is examined by Blanchard et al. (54), Hofstede (206), Rohrbaugh (361), Rohrbaugh and Bartels (362), and Lundgren (277). Hofstede (206) found that managers who have attended T-group

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programs tend to have a negative influence on perceptions of outsiders and suggest that this effect may be functional as well as dysfunctional in organization development. Lundgren (277), in another of his excellent papers on trainer and participant relationships, focuses on the interpersonal needs and member attitudes toward the trainer and the group. Goal setting, T-group participation, and self-rated cha nge is examined in an experimental study by Adler and Goleman (5) . Benson et al. (4 0) describe the Family Communications System program, Galassi et al. (150) a one year follow -up on assertive training , and Reddy (352) a comparison of four populations on team problem -solving effectiveness. The polarizing effect of group discussion is the focus of two studies (3 13 ; 314). Westfall et al. (476) focus on effeminacy, Wolosin (483) on group laughter , and Sakurai (378) on group cohesiveness. Group confrontation is aided by two statistical approaches (Ross and Allen [371]). and the small group process is aided by a computer-assisted analysis (5 7 ; 433).

Anecdotal R eports As has been a custom in the small group literature, many anecdotal reports appear in 1974. There has been an increase in the number of articles focusing on personal interaction laboratories for married couples and families (Carnes and Laube [78] ; Genovese [159); Mace [2 79) ; Malamud [285 ]; Miller [299] ; Nunally et al. [320]; Perez-Upegui [33 6] ; Sherwood and Scherer [403]; Travis and Travis [455 ]). The Sherwood and Scherer ( 403) paper is particularly interesting as it presents a preventative maintenance model of communication for couples. The authors d escribe a cyclical sequence of steps in a couple's relationship which presents an opportunity for growth of the partners. The ste1ges include negotiating expe ctat ions , clarifying roles, stability, pinch stage (in which something is sensed as wrong), and disruption . Mark and Ellison (2 89) have applied sensitivity training to communes. and Wilson and Hasterok (478) report on a growth group experiment for student wives . O 'Co nnell (323) describes an Adlerian approach to sensitivity training called encouragement labs , and Kopel et al. (239) develop

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a human relations laboratory approo.ch to death and dying. Peretz and Glaser (335) outline the role of encounter groups in drug education, and Ruiz (373) describes seven interaction facilitation techniques used with growth groups of Chicano university students. Cooper (89) questions whether experiential learning groups are accepted as a substitute for psychotherapy. Kegan (228) looks into the popular journalistic view of encounter and presents us with "paperback images." Boris et a!. (58) studies the fantasies in group situations. Results of a national survey of 129 college counseling centers regarding group experience is offered by Conyne et a!. (88). Not surprising, centers in large public institutions offer the greatest number and variety of groups and centers claim they focus on a deve lopmental rather than a problem education. Buhler (65) traces aspects of a development of humanistic psychology in terms of her personal and professional experiences from 1920 to 1973. It is of particular interest in that the emergence of the sensitivity training - encounter group movement is examined in historical perspec tive.

Occupationa l Tra ining A number of occupational fields continue to use the laboratory model for training and development. Social work is represented (74; 211; 473); teachers and students (109; 157; 185); counselors (4; 205; 39 7; 83) ; and m edical students (16 0; 163; 363). Tausch et a!. (445) describe changes in behavior in encounter groups wi th prison inmates , judges , psychotherapy clients, and psychologists. The j ournal of Social Issu es published a volume on police. Four papers in the issue describe small group experiences with police (Lindbergh [268]; Pfister [339] ; Reddy and Lansky [353]; and Teahan [45 0]). From kin et a!. (145) also evaluated human relations training for police.

Tec hniques and Methods Pfeiffer and Jones (33 7; 338) continue to publish yearly handbooks for group facilitators . A diversity of techniques and methods are presented by practi-

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tioners. Richardson and Island (358) offer a model for training workshops and laboratories; Walker (466) gives a didactic interaction model of nonverbal touching behavior in encounter groups , and Blythe (56) discusses the value of silence . Mudgett et al. (308) describe a Tactical Pacification Game, Hazell (192) an action-insight exercise, and Briscoe et al. (60) trained a community board to problem-solve. Morris and Cinnamon (304) compiled an encyclopedia of nonverbal exercises applicable to growth, therapy , and encounter groups .

Ethics and Standards Only one article specifically addresses the question of ethics and standards in the use of the small group experience. The American College Personnel Association issued a statement regarding the use of group experiences in higher education (3).

Texts Nine major texts were published in 1975. Benne et al. (39) have produced a fine text on the laboratory method of changing and learning. The book is both theory and application. Cooper (92) edited Theories of Group Processes. Eleven original chapters are presented by different authors who develop their theoretical views of the small group . Kreeger (244) presents a collection of ten papers on the theories and research of large groups. The areas include issues of the large group from a group analytic viewpoint, the large group as a medium for sociotherapy, and threats to identity in large groups. An overview of theories and techniques associated with task, growth, discussion and activity groups are presented by Johnson and Johnson (219). For those interested in a step-by-step approach for initiating an experiential program in a church setting, Hendrix and Hendrix (198) offer such an approach, although it is not particularly sophisticated. Haas (177) describes the purposes and techniques of growth encounter that is directed toward helping people to maximize their

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personal capabilities in order to stimulate self-improvement. Guidelines are offered and precautions discussed. Levine and Bunker (257) present a monograph written in 1876 by John Humphrey Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community . Noyes describes a method of interpersonal feedback and an analysis of group processes which is similar to those of present-day encounter and sensitivity training groups . The monograph is of particular historical interest. Two books appeared which focus on the school and the classroom; Schmuck and Schmuck (389) present an introduction to the transactional nature of classroom learning , and Berkovitz (46) discusses the creative use of groups in secondary schools.

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333. Payne,]. E ., and Williams, M. (1975), Practical Aspects of Group Work with the Mentally Retarded. In : Group Psychotherapy and Group Function (2nd Ed.), eds. M. Rosenbaum and M. M . Berger. New York: Basic Books. 334. Peck, H. B. (1975), Reflections on 25 Years of the International Journal of Group Psychotherapy. Thzsjournal, 25:153·157. 335. Peretz, M ., and Glaser, F. B. (1975), Value Change in Drug Education: The Role of Encounter Groups. Internal.]. Addie. , 9:637 ·652. 336. Perez-Upegui , P . (1975), Personal Interaction Laboratories for Married Couples . Acta Psiquiat. Psicol. Amer. Latina., 21:28-34. 337 . Pfeiffer,]. W ., and Jones,]. E. (Eds.) (1975), A Handbook of Structured Experiences for Human Relations Training. LaJolla, Calif.: University Associates. 338. - - - (1975), The 1975 Annual Handbook for Group Facilitators. San Diego , Calif.: University Associates. 339. Pfister, G. (1975) ,0utcomes of Laboratory Training for Police Officers. J. Soc. Issues, 31 :115-121. 340. Pines, M. (1975), Group Therapy with "Difficult " Patients. In: Group Therapy 1975: An Overview, eds . L. R . Wolberg and M. L. Aronson. New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book Corporation. 341. Pratt, ]. H. (1975), The Use of Dejerine's Methods in the Treatment of the Common Neuroses by Group Psychotherapy. In: Group Psychotherapy and Group Function (2nd Ed.) , eds. M. Rosenbaum and M. M. Berger. New York: Basic Books. 342. Pratt , S. J. et a!. (1975), Behavior Modification: Changing Hyperactive Behavior in a Children's Group. Perspect. Psychiat. Care, 13:37-42 . 343. Preuss, H. G . (1975), Group Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine. Gruppenpsychother. Gruppendyn ., 9:191-211. 344. Pridham, K . F. (1975) , Acts of Turning as Stress-Resolving Mechanisms in Work Groups : With Special Reference to the Work of W. R. Bion. Hum. Relat., 28 :229 -248. 345 . Pyke , S. W., and Neely, C. A . (1975), Training and Evaluation of Communication Skills. Canad. Counsel., 9:20-30. 346 . Rabiner, E. L. eta!. (1975), The Assessment of Individual Coping Capacities in a Group Therapy Setting. A mer.]. Orthopsychiat., 45:399-413 . 34 7. Roback, H . B., and Strassberg, D . S. (1975), Relationship Between Perceived Therapist-Offered Conditions and Therapeutic Movement in Group Psychotherapy. Small Group Behav., 6:354-352. 348. Rachman, A . W. (1975), The Issue of Countertransference in Encounter and Marathon Group Psychotherapy. In: Group Therapy 1975: An Overview, eds . L. R . Wolberg and M. L. Aronson. New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book Corporation. 349 . Randolph, D. L. (1974), Training the Counselor as a Behavioral Consultant: A Workshop Model. Counsel. Ed. Superv. , 14:147-150. 350. Rapp , H . M. eta!. (1975), The Roles of a Parent Discussion Group Leader. Person . Guid. ]. , 54:110-112 . 351. Rathbone-McCuan, E., and Levenson , ]. (1975) , Impact of Socialization Therapy in a Geriatric Day-Care Setting. Gerontal., 15:338-342. 352. Reddy, W. B. (1975) , Diagnosing Team Problem-Solving Effectiveness : A Comparison of Four Populations. Small Group Behav. , 6:174-186 .

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35.3. - - -, and Lapsky, L. M. (1975), Nothing But the Facts - And Some Observations . A History of a Consultation with a Metropolitan Police Division. J. Soc. Issu es, 31:123-138 . 354. - - - et a!. (1975) , The Group Psychotherapy Literature : 1974. This journal, 25:429-4 79. 355. Reiser , M. (19 75) , A Drop·ln Group for Teenagers in a Poverty Area. In: Adolescents Crow zn Croups, ed . I. Berkovi tz. New York: Brunner/ Mazel. 356 . Rey , J. H . (1975), Intrapsychic Object Relations: The Individual and the Group . In : Croup Th erapy 1975: An Oven.n·ew, eds. L. R . Walberg and M. L. Aronson. New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book Corporation. 357 . Richa rds, C . S. (1975 ), Behavior Modification of Studying Through Study Skills Advice and Self-Control Procedures. j. Counsel. Psychol. , 22:43 1-436. 358. Richardson, F. D., and Island, D. (1975), A Model for Training Workshops and Labs . Person . Cuid. j., 53:592 -5 97. 359. Riester, A . (1975) , The Leadership Laboratory: A Group Counseling Intervention Model for Schools. In: Croup Psychotherapy from the Southwest, ed. M. Rosenbaum. New York: Gordon / Breach . 360. Rinn , R . C. et a!. (1975), Training Parents of Behaviorally Disorde red Children in Groups: A Three Year Program Evaluation . Behav. Ther., 6:378-38 7. 361. Rohrbaugh , M. (1975), Patterns and Correlates of Emotional Arousal in Laboratory Training. j. Appl. Behav. Sci. , 11:220-240. 362. _ __ , and Bartels , B. D. (1975), Participants' Perceptions of "Curative Factors" in Therapy and Growth Groups . Small Croup Behav. , 6:430-456 . 363 . Rosen , A . C. , and Golden, J. S. (1975) , The Encounter-Sensitivity Training Group as an Adjunct to Medical Education. Intern. R ev. Appl. Psychol., 24:61-70 . 364. Rosenbaum , M. (1975) , The Challenge of Group Psychoanalysis. In : Croup Psychotherapy and Croup Function (2nd Ed.) , eds. M. Rosenbaum and M . M. Berger. New York: Basic Books. 365 . - --( Ed .) (1975), Croup Psychotherapy from the Southwest . New York : Gordon and Breach. 366 . - --. and Berger, M. M. (Eds.) (1975), Croup Psychotherapy and Croup Function (2 nd Ed.) . New York : Basic Books. 367. - --, and Kraft , I. A . (1975) , Group Psychotherapy for Children. In : Croup Psychotherapy and Croup Function (2nd Ed .) , eds. M. Rosen baum and M. M. Berger. New York: Basic Books . 368. Rosenbaum , A. et a!. (1975), Behavioral Intervention with H yperactive Children : Group Consequences as a Supplement to Individual Contingencies. Behav. Ther ., 6:315 -323. 369 . Rosin , A. J. (1975) , Group Discussions . A Therapeutic Tool in a Chronic Diseases Hospital. Ceriat., 30:45-48. 370. Ross , M. (197 5), Community Geriatric Group Therapies : A Comprehensive Review . In: Croup Psychotherapy and Croup Fun ction (2 nd Ed .) , eds. M . Rosenbaum and M. M. Berger. New York : Basic Books .

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371. Ross . L. H ., and Allen. R. M. (1975), Two Statistical Approaches to Two Types of Group Confrontation. Small Group Behav., 6:220-228. 372. Rowan , ]. (1975), Encounter Group Research: No Joy? I Hum. Psycho!., 15:19-28. 373 . Rui z, A. S. (1975) , Chicano Group Catalysts. Person . Guid. I , 53:462-466. 374. Ruiz , E.]. (1975), Influence of Bilingualism on Communication in Groups . Thisjournal , 25:391 -395. 375 . Ruiz, P. (1975), Symposium: Group Therapy with Minority Group Patients . Introduction. This journal, 25:389-390. 376 . Russell, J. (1975) , Personal Growth Through Structured Group Exercises. In: The Innovative Psychological Therapies: Critical and Creative Contributions, eds. R. M. Suinn and R. G. Weigel. New York: Harper and Row. 377. Russell , R. K. et a!. (1975), A Comparison Between Group Systematic Desensitization and Cue Controlled Relaxation in the Treatment of Test Anxiety. Behav. Ther. , 6:172-177 . 378. Sakurai, M . M. (1975), Small Group Cohesiveness and Detrimental Conformity. Sodom ., 38:340-357. 379 . Sandner, D. (1975), Bion's Analytic Theory of Groups and Its Relation to Group Psychotherapy and Group Dynamics . Gruppenpsychother. Gruppendyn., 9: l -17. 380. Sandison, R . A. (1975 ), Group Therapy and Drug Therapy. In: Group Psychotherapy and Group Function (2nd Ed.), eds. M. Rosenbaum and M . M. Berger. New York: Basic Books . 381. Saravay, S. M. (1975), Group Psychology and the Structural Theory: A Revised Psychoanalytic Model of Group Psychology. I Amer. Psychoana l. Assn., 23:69-89 . 382. Saur . W. G . (1975). An Activity for Exploring Marital Expectations. Fam . Coord ., 24:366-367 . 383. Shafar , S. (1975), Group and Individual Analytic Psychotherapy: Reflections on Four Patients. Group Anal., 9:76-80. 384. Schaefe r, J. W. (1974) , Group Counseling for Parents of Hyperactive Children . Child Psychiat. Hum. Devel. , 5:89-94. 385. Schaible , T. D. , andJacobs. A. (1975), Feedback III: Sequence Effects - Enhancement of Feedback Acceptance and Group Attractiveness by Manipulation of the Sequence and Valence of Feedback. Small Group Behav., 6:151 -173. 386. Schilder. P. (1975), Results and Problems of Group Psychotherapy in Severe Ne uroses. In: Group Psychotherapy and Group Function (2nd Ed.), eds . M. Rosenbaum and M. M. Berger. New York: Basic Books. 387. Schiller , P. (1974), A Sex Attitude Modification Process for Adolescents. I Clzn. Child. Psychol .. 3:50-51. 388. Schlegel , L. (1975), Components of Analytic Group-Therapy. Gruppenpsychother. Gruppendyn., 9:18-25. 389 . Schmuck, R. A. , and Schmuck , P. A. (1975) , Group Processes in the Classroom (2nd Ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown . 390. Schneider, P. (1975), Contribution to Combined Technique in Psychotherapy- Terminal Phase of Therapy in a Small Group. Dyn. Psychz'at. , 8:7-40.

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391. Schutz , W . (1975) , Not Encounter and Certainly Not Facts. J. Hum . Psy chol. , 15 :7 -18 . 392 . Schwartz , A. J. eta!. (1974), Comparative Effectiveness of Three Group Ori ented Interventions with College Undergraduates. j. A mer. Coli. Heal. Assn. , 23 :114-123. 393. Scott , W . A., and Rohrbaugh, J. (1975), Conceptions of Harmful Groups : Some Correlates of Group Descriptions in Three Cultures . J. Per. Soc . Psycho[., 31:992-1003. 394. Sechrest , L. , and Bootzin , R. (1975) , Preliminary Evaluation of Psychologists in Encounter Groups. Prof Psycho!., 6:69-79. 395 . Segev , A . et al. (1975 ), Treatment of Stress and Anxiety States after Myocardial Infarction by Group Rehabilitation . Harefuah , 88:205 -208 . 396 . Seidman , M. L. , and McBrearty, J. F. (1975) , Characteristics of Marathon Volunteers. Psycho/. Rep. , 36:555-560. 397. Selfridge , F. F . et al. (1975 ), Sensitivity-Oriented Versus Didactically Oriented In-Service Counselor Training. J. Counsel. Psycho!., 22 :156-1 59. 398. Shapiro , S. (1975) , The Group Leadership Training Program at F.C.I. Lompoc. In : The Crumbling Walls: Treatment and Counselz'ng of Prisoners , eds. R. H. Hosford and C. S. Moss . Urbana, Ill. : Universi ty of Illinois Press . 399 . Shapiro , R . J. and Klein , R. H. (1975) , Perceptions of the Leaders in an Encounter Group. Small Group Behav. , 6:238-248 . 400. Shapiro , D . A. et al. (1975) , Personal Questionnaire Changes and Their Correlates in a Psychotherapeutic Group . Brit . J. Med . Psycho!., 48:207-215. 401. Sharma , K. L. (1975) , Rational Group Counseling with Anxious Underachievers . Canad. Counsel., 9:132-138. 402. Sharpe , R. (1975) , Counseling Services for School -Age Pregnant Girls . j. Sch . H eal. , 45:284-285. 403. Sherwood , J. J. and Scherer , J. J. (1975) , A Model for Couples : H ow Two Can Group Together. Small Group Behav. , 6:11 -29. 404. Shinedling, M. M. et al. (1975), Short-Range Hedonism : Therapy for Patients Who Cannot Delay Gratification . H osp. Comm . Psychiat ., 26 :133-136. 405 . Silbergeld , S. et a!. (1975 ), Assessment of Environment -Therapy Systems: The Group Atmosphere Scale . J. Consult . Clin . Psycho!. , 43:460 -469. 406. Singer , D. L. et al. (1975), Boundary Management in Psychologi cal Work with Groups. j. Appl. B ehav. Scz'., 11 :137 -176. 407 . Singler , J. R. ( 1975 ), Group Work with Hospitalized Stroke Patients. Soc . Casework, 56:348-354. 408. Skynner , A . (1975) , An Experiment in Group Consultation with the Staff of a Comprehensive School. In: Group Psychotherapy f rom the Southwest, ed. M . Rosenbaum . New York: Gordon/ Breach . 409. Skynner , R. (1975) , The Large Group in Training . In : The Large Group: Dynamics and Therapy, ed . L. Kreeger. London: Constable . 410. Slavinska- Holy, N. (1975 ), Spatia- Temporal Considerations in Psychoanalyt ic Group Psycho therapy of Severely Disturbed Patients . In: Group Therapy 1975: An Overview , eds. L. R. Wolberg and M. L. Aronson. New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book Corporation.

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Delinquency Institutions. Results of a Resea rch Project. Prax. Kin derpsycho! Klnderpsychiat. , 24 : 64-7 0. 431. Stimpson, D . V. (1975) , T -Group Training to Improve Counseling Skills. ]. Psycho!. , 89:89-94. 432. Stone, W . N. (1975), Dynamics of the Recorder-Observer in Group Psyc ho therap y. Comp. Psychz'at ., 16 :49-54. 433. Stone, L. A. , and Kristjanson, R. W. (1975 ), Computer-Assisted Group Encounter. Small Croup B ehav. , 6 :457 -468. 4 34. Stoudenmire , ]. (1975) , A Comparison of Muscle Relaxation Training and Music in the Red uction of State and Trait Anxiety .]. Clin. Psycho!., 3 1:490-492. 435. Strassberg, D . S. et a l. ( 1975). Self-Disclosure in Grou p Therapy with Schizophre ni cs. Arch . Gen. Psychz'at . , 32: 1259- 1261 . 436 . Strotzka , H ., a nd Buchinger, K. (197 5), Group Dyn amic Aspects of a Casework-Supervisor· Training Group. Cruppenpsychother. Crupp endyn . , 9:55-76. 437 . Strupp, H . H . , and Bloxom , A. L. ( 1975 ), Preparing Lower -Class Pat ients fo r Group Psyc hotherapy : Development and Evaluation of a Role- In d uction Film. In : Croup Psychotherapy and Croup Function (2 nd Ed.) , eds. M. Rosenb a um and M. M . Berger. New York : Bas ic Books. 438. Subotnik , L. S. ( 1975 ), Client -Centered Group Therapy Compared with Behavior Modi fi ca tion in Changing Inappropri ate Behavior of Ele mentary School Children. Psychother. Psychoso m ., 25: 138-141. 439. Sugar , M. (Ed .) (1975), Th e Adolescent in Croup and Family Therapy . New York: Brunner/ Mazel. 440. - - - ( 1975), Defusing a High School Critical Mass. In : Adolescent in Croup and Family Th erapy. ed . M . Sugar . New York : Brunner / Mazel. 441. - -- ( 1975). Croup Therap y for Pubescent Boys with Absent Fathers. In : Th e Adolescent in Croup and Family Th erapy , ed. M. Suga r . New York: Brunner I Maze!. 442 . - -- ( 1975), Office Network Therapy with Adol escents. In: The Adolescent ln Croup and Family Therapy, ed. M . Sugar. New York: Brunner/ Ma ze l. 443. - - - ( 1975), The Structure and Setting of Adolescent Therapy Croups . In : Th e Adolescent £n Croup and Family Th era py . ed. M. Sugar. New Yo rk : Brunner/ Maze l. 444. Suinn , R . M. , and W eigel, R. G. (Eds .) (1975) , Th e Innovative Psychologica l Therapies. Critical and C.. alive Contributions. New York : H a rper & Row. 445. T a usc h , A . M. et a l. (1975), Psyc hic Changes and Conversatio n al Behavio r in Person -Ce ntered Enco unter Croups with Prison Inmates . Judges. Psyc hotherapy Clients and Psychologists. Psycho!. Erziehung Unterric ht , 22: 161 - 171 . 446. Tavormina , J . B. ( 1975 ). Rela tive Effectiveness of Behavioral a nd Refl ec tive Group Co unseling with Pa rents of Mentall y Ret arded Children.]. Consult . Clln . Psycho/. , 43:22 -3 1. 44 7. Ta ylor , ]. L. ( 1975) , A Group Counseling Program for Adopting Parents. A mer. ]. Orthopsychiat ., 45: 26 6-267. 448 . Ta ylor , M. H . ( 1975) . Effects of a Pre-Programm ed . Leaderless Personal Growth G roup.]. Coli. Stud. Person., 16:201 ·204.

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489. Zemore, R . (1975), Systematic Desensitization as a Method of Teaching a General Anxiety-Reducing Skill.]. Consult. Clin. Psycho!., 43:157-161. 490. Zilbergeld, B. (1975) , Group Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction in Men without Partners.]. Sex Marital Ther., 1:204-214 . 491. Zuehlke, T . E., and W atkins , J. T . (1975), The Use of Psychotherapy with Dying Patients: An Exploratory Study.]. Clin. Psycho!. , 31:729-732.

Dr. R eddy's address: Community Psychology Institute 472 French Hall University of Cincinnati Cincinnatz; Ohio 45219

The group psychotherapy literature: 1975.

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