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Journal of Personality Assessment Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hjpa20
The Early Memories Procedure: A Projective Test of Autobiographical Memory, Part 1 Arnold R. Bruhn Published online: 10 Jun 2010.
To cite this article: Arnold R. Bruhn (1992) The Early Memories Procedure: A Projective Test of Autobiographical Memory, Part 1, Journal of Personality Assessment, 58:1, 1-15, DOI: 10.1207/ s15327752jpa5801_1 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5801_1
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
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The Early Memories Procedure: A Projective Test of Autobiographical Memory, Part 1 Arnold R. Bruhn Beilrediz, M D
i his ar:& inrroduces the Eirl: k4ernoiie.c Procedure dinprhe . seF and its needs, taklng respcnsib:iitv, and m a h i ; chaxges coxisten: wirh one r need? 2nd goals. Due ic; :ts. length:, thz art:cle is di\.;cied In half, and each ha5 i s , . ;ubhshe3 separatelv. Part ! introdxes the EMP and prcakk: 2 ra:icr,ale tor :;r use. Fart I: i!ius:rares how Eb4s can be interpreted with the cogriitij-e-?ercepr'~2i modei and presents s full E h P prorocoi and i2terp:etatior,.' 7
T.
3
$
-h c cognitive-perceptuai
i model :E:ubr,, 1984,!W5, :9(SL'!a: I%@; B r u h Sr Ekiiou?, 1964, 1989; B r u h n Si Last, i982) :rears Eh4e as fanttasles ahout t h e past r h a t reveal present concerns \see Bruhn. I"%, for a d:sclission oiwhc:lxr Ehls are fantasies o r actuai memories). At the same rime, it :$. acknowieciged :ha: maniTEMS accurareiv depict h i s r o r d events. The cognitive- percept.^^! model stresses, however, t h a t it is not necessary to know whether an EXI evenr occurred as described ir, order t o make a n ~nterprctarim. Uniorrunarely, few c!inica\ evaluatcrs use Ehfs in their assessment Satter:es. 'Sanpie c:pes ofthe EKF ca:; he o h t a i n d from ilrnnid R. 3rd-i::. C h s Chase, ~ M;;D ZO&li.
Ph3. 17:'.i i i z : .4iwx!t.
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OTHER METHODS OF ASSESSING AUTOBIOGRAP HICAt MEMORY Perhaps the most coxman means ro assess zutobiographicai memory is to ask questions that puIl h r clierni opicions (e.g., "Vi'tiar was your father iike!"). This . . technique is open ro criticism became it assesses only W?:X tile c k z t csnsciousiy kmxvs. But there is another problem-the qyJesaor! usuaily yiekis wor:hiess inforn;ation. If the ciien: does not alreadr haire insight, then probing in this manner is largejy a waste of ciimcai time, A secon8 technique involves asking ques:ions that puii for conciusions: T i ? w was piinishmenr handled in yonr !'arrrily?" N d c e that the question krir,t?ii&iyrequire? clients t o scan 211 the:r . . famiiv memories ;r! autobiographical m e m x y related to punishmen: of' :he self and punishment of sibiings an:. tc give z s a x n a r y respcnse appm;?riate :G this universal set of rneinories. D3 ciient~actuaIiy get :hmxgh &is yocess! With rare 9
'For pre,ien: p.;rpose. axobiographica: memory rsr; be cmcepcualized as nersonal memory. A u t o h i a g r w p i memory car, he regarcied h r : ~ o c a l ! y as :kit aspec: of m e r n a r ~tha: pr:,\kies ar; . . iac,ILL, . *-. :i> the sel!, esnr-iaily the self in rclatior: :c :)thers and tc :he odd .A. more extenswe. d:scussisn of a.~to.ii:,~ra~2:icdmemory a d it,. ,iefir.:tiar: car; he f s s n J In liruhr: (l WOa, 13923).
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exceptions, no. If not, what. do they do? I have asked macy indi\riduals how they process this tvpe of question. and mw: s t a x that :he\. hare z mental p i c t ~ r eor series of pictures flash before rkem. Somerimes these piczxes are based on acraai cne-time events, and sometimes they are associated a h a cox.posire impres?-:on of how the parenr5. handed punishment situations. if we are interested ~n h o n pr,is'r,menr was often kendieci, "How was punishmen; handled in i70urfamijv!" is an a~propriztc?robe. Hcwez,er, if we a?an: rc know whether rhe ~ndriiduai has nnresolved mues related to p ~ n ~ s h m e nthis t , is not the bes: quescioc tc, ask. The proper assessment of a ~ t o b i o ~ r a p h i c amemory i wouid be, "'%'hat :s -\.osr earliest memory of being punished?"; "Wha: are rour ciearest or mos: imporrant memories of being ~unished?";and "'$(:bar is ypur most distressing men;=r;. oi being punished?" Xutobi~grapk~ical memories can be diryided :ntc three trpes. These inciabe memories that: (1) preserve the original perceptions and origmai coras:ruc~icn~ (experience as originally ?recessed:, j2! preserve the orlginai perceptions but ncliide revised constructions (e.g., as a result oisuicess5di psvchotherapy). pr (3') have been highly overworked in terms of horh or:girral perceptions. and ronstrucrions. It :s a simple matter to distinguish t\.pe 3 merrtor:es from wpes 1 and 2 . For instance? if ciients reporr that they see themselves In the memorv, the wirh nernorv must be a Type 3: because :r would be impossible for an ind:~.~duaI an origtnal perception (trpes ! and 2 ) to see hinseli or herse!f 13the scene. Types i and 2 can be difierer;t:ated according to whether :he constxction in :he m e a e r y is consistent wrr'h current beliefs. or xvhether ir reflects ar: archaic unders~andingconsistenr with the age at which the men or^ occsrred. Most memories ir: an EM? (Druhr,. 198%) are either types 2 or i, ~ v i t h:he Laxer predoninating. Tvpe i Ehls, which are exrremeiy rare, probably occxr in i % or less oi'a c1:cical popuixior, on the EMP. The Eh.IP provides a zleens of assessing all three Type? of memories, because each is interpreted ic a rimiiar mariner. Xevertheless, it is useiui to keep in mind c\.hich memix-ies are more iikeiy ;c be creativefv distorted, conrisrenr w t h presest coxerns.
i he hrst mismcierstaniiinp is the belief that ai'i EMS, drectiv s r indirectlv, involve traumas This error is a legacy horn classical psvchoanalvs:~. A central proyosition is rhar emodonaliy devastating events occasionaih osccrreci in ear!? Seienses, cac;sing ci-Adhood char fiooded and werwhelmed the incii\~id~ai's serions and often xreparabk ernoiional damage. Freud (!8?3,1?5?': heiievec! that alt'heugh suck memories ma): rexiam intact in 'long-term memory, mcre c o m m o ~ l vthey , are rerncved f r o n awareness :hrough what he termed a sc-em . memop, which is often rather b h n d and not part~cuiarlvno re worth^. Eie heid 7
that the origizal trauma could oken be uncovered b\: free association re&-. niques. i he error In Freud's thinking was ro take a &se: of E?& that are just as he described a r ~ dto generalize his findings: ti: Ehle as a group. i kzt is, if' some Ehls :nvotve ~raumatirevents (a trse statementi, then ail must iri~~olve either trau;?-ia:ic events or events char function as screens for. traunatic events la fake s:aterient). I have hoked at EMS &om several thousand individuais and seen perhaps a thousand more for. assessmenr ancb'or therapy. AIthough esrimates are hazardcxs, i estixzte :ha: perhaps 95% of all spontaneous EM$ from a wide cross-section of individuals are no: particuiariy rrzumetic. hstead, they reflect major ilfe interests. ice)- percepricns, and :mportzc: expectztio:ls, as v.rlI as salient aspects of the individual"^ currerx be'iief si7ste~; 2nd current world view. -. I 5ere is evidence from ~reud'slater wry.timgs :ha: he zbandoncd the concept of tra:;nas 2nd their pa:hcicsgicai impact. hst marly psi.chodynamicailr rex xed clinicians %lion>h i s eariier beliefs. . , Freud's position regarding screen memories, :n my opnior., is correct far some indi~iduais.Some individuals cic s u f k terrible experiences early in life, and m m y of these indii:iciuais are never abie ro recover, 'Th:b k most k l y 7 s be rrue in the case of severeiy distrrrbed indjviduais, and these were thc g-pes of patients x e d tended to see in his ciinicai work. hilost indi.t,iduais whc art not severeiy , d i s ~ d x d ,however, are net sc rigidly set in their basic charxter tnat they cannot change if they are motivated re d s so. Cognitive-percepd theory c.onceptuaiizee EMS ir: most instances as rcAecting the p r o d x r of a ereac:vc process witkin :he scif, nor t r . ~ ~ n aThe s . goai .-, . . , ot :his process is to remin6 the ?nci!vicicai what WOTK I Z 31s or her own personaj developrent ;s mosr pressing, The crearion of :he EbI begins with what can be .. called the c o x . A n exampie ivouk CE an individaai's a'biding sense sf vuherabiiiry an2 accoxipanying need security. The core of the memorr suggests a3 unresoii7ed issae, or what has been described as rhe iln,&tshed Swness (c!. 3ciihn, 19%; 8ruhri & Beiiow, 1984).Once the uniinisI~edbasiness is cs:abiizhed as a major p r i o r i ~en , ex7er?:is ?died born long-term memory thar bes: ciepcrs :hat issue. An example wonid 5- a boy who recailed tripping on a seek, siir,n:ng h:s knee, and running home crying ro his mother, Such a memory exFresses iri metaphor the individuai'z perception ot h:mseif as. inadequate, of :he worl2 as .- . dangerous, and af his resuk:ng neea ;or secarity 2nd succor. ~ a c hmernzriec tend :o persist as highlighted Eh'is as icag as the ar:fin:shed business remaiss constant for the individual. If hieroglyphics arc picrograr=.hs.EMS become perceptographs, or u7a\-sof s~:mboiicaliyexpressmg abstract percepSons mcier the gu:se of depicting ac:ual historical events. Perceptographs ca:: be conceprsaiized as visual symbols or metaphors that car, b e deciphered and trarisiated in:o verbal iangsage when the approprkte :echciquet are urilized. * . Another error regarcimg autobiographicai memory iunctmr, is the misappreRensmn that EMScomprise arm hisrorical reccrd and, as such, are carrec: :r: most m.ajor respecrs as weii as facr~aiiyascrzrate. This faliaq ieads us intc z a n y
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-
-
e.
7
I
probietns-not just in treating clients bur in understanding o:irseIves. Adier 1 i 9 I 9 pzovided a particulariv :bought-provoking exampic o i 2 com~leteiy ficritious EM from his own past: '\o;t!y ' after !wen; t2 a boar3 schoo!, 1remember thar :he ?s:h ti. the xhcoi i e J mger a cemeterv. I was frightened every r i a - and was exi.ecd:ngl~ pet our a: behoiding ihe other children pass :he cemerer? wlchout paying :he leas: artenricn t i 7 it, while ever.; step !took wa: accompanied by ii ieeiing o i k z r and h o r r x . Aparr from the estrerne discomiox occasioned by this fear I was aisc. anrtcved at thc idea 3fSe:ng les:: than cowageous rhan the orhers. One day I nade up my mind rc put an end to tl:k fear ofrhedeath. i s a v e d at some distance behind the other:, piace2 rz,~ schooi bag on the ground near the wail sf rhe ceme:ery and r a n arms:, ir a &en times until i feit :hat I had rnastered che fear. (pp. 179-iS$
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L,
?..iuch tc. his szrprise, Adler late: discovered in his m i d - 3 s while exchanging reminiscences with a school mare thar the cemeterv c7i his memories h a d nei7er exisred. -4dler remarked that the Eh4 served to refiect his "ionging t c c.17ercome dear'i:" as well as his choice of proiession. if autobiographical memory were organized in p e q l e as it might be in robors, faces would be accurate and distortion wonld he mir.irnal. Identicaity mandfactured robots would ail "see things :he same way," assuming equivalent experiences. People, 'nowe\ver, are not all manufactured the same wav. They come f ~ o different cultures: t h e v are raised by differrr,: families; a n d thev are ssbjecced tr, different liie experiences, 5 o m which they acquire different \-&es7 aa::udes! and, uitirnatelv, different ways oi perceiving :he worid. It IS, rherefcre, not surprising t h a t y i h ~ therapy ciient and conchded that :kt. chent's Iacer constructicl:~o i h e r EL& refiecred tile change. in her perspective thz: occurred as a resdt of pvcbo:her-
~
a ~ ui .n each case, personaiity a d deveiopmermtai variahies-not the Laws o: mem.ory-help us :o understand what is retained 2nd what is dropped from aurobiographical. memory.
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EM§ AS A PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE 1f the recaiiectic.n of events in autobiographic& memory retlects the organizar;an of perscnaiity, then :here is warrant to conceptsa!rze EMS as a pr~t2ective technique. Let us consider the namre o i a projective technque. Rabin {cited ir; akhough prqcctive techniqtie bas been varroclsli; Corsitli, 19%) pointed out defined, ;he common denominators are containrd ir? the foliowing. propositions: "
I . Projective techniques presen: relatively aillbiguoss stimuli
TO
7
the exzm-
inee.
2 . The techniq:3es are 'Yrespsnse-free" ic the sense that there are nc; rrght a r wrong responses and the exarr~irxe1s free :o gi1,"t whztev~rrespcnses appear snitabie.
3. Responses are interpreced as reflectmg i.e::rral persorsiiir~t.en6rncies and affective states.
4. The obtained records
are a i m viewed, in varying degrees, as refiections of the cngni:ive processes and personality s:vk of the subject. ( p . 78)
It is apparent by inspection that the E h P satisfies Rahin's fsur propositi~ns. , , There is only one propositicn-:he first - that warrants discussion. Some who are accilstomcd to crn'nig..~o.clspiciure cards or inkblots (i7isud stlmuiil quesrior! hc.w :he EMP is ambignous. %hat is ambiguous are the instructions to the subject: "Think back ro the earliest memory rhac you have, . . ."This :nsrruction gives the individuai considernhie kxitude in responding and, therefore, se:isfies the anbiguity reqc:rement in RaKinYsdef:citioc. Unlike orher. projective instrumects: there is lirtlc abour the narure of the procednre itself :hat n u s t be taken intc accounr ro understand the subject's response. F3r instance, wirh most prcjecc~ves,onc must uricjerstand the stimuius puLI for each pa" tf the technique. Thus, or! tbe Ro~srhacbcerrair: popuiar responses are thoughr to have Less ~ ~ g ~ ~ f i c Seceuse a n c c so n a r y indiviciuals report :he percept. For example, a winged insect or a bat is so frequcr,rly reporrcd 311 Card 5 &at, if a s ~ b j e c cmnot t see ruch a percept during a cesting of the limits: this fact by :rself woulci suggest ar? idiasyncracy :r,
Journal of Personality Assessment Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hjpa20
The Early Memories Procedure: A Projective Test of Autobiographical Memory, Part 1 Arnold R. Bruhn Published online: 10 Jun 2010.
To cite this article: Arnold R. Bruhn (1992) The Early Memories Procedure: A Projective Test of Autobiographical Memory, Part 1, Journal of Personality Assessment, 58:1, 1-15, DOI: 10.1207/ s15327752jpa5801_1 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5801_1
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 19:55 28 April 2015
The Early Memories Procedure: A Projective Test of Autobiographical Memory, Part 1 Arnold R. Bruhn Beilrediz, M D
i his ar:& inrroduces the Eirl: k4ernoiie.c Procedure dinprhe . seF and its needs, taklng respcnsib:iitv, and m a h i ; chaxges coxisten: wirh one r need? 2nd goals. Due ic; :ts. length:, thz art:cle is di\.;cied In half, and each ha5 i s , . ;ubhshe3 separatelv. Part ! introdxes the EMP and prcakk: 2 ra:icr,ale tor :;r use. Fart I: i!ius:rares how Eb4s can be interpreted with the cogriitij-e-?ercepr'~2i modei and presents s full E h P prorocoi and i2terp:etatior,.' 7
T.
3
$
-h c cognitive-perceptuai
i model :E:ubr,, 1984,!W5, :9(SL'!a: I%@; B r u h Sr Ekiiou?, 1964, 1989; B r u h n Si Last, i982) :rears Eh4e as fanttasles ahout t h e past r h a t reveal present concerns \see Bruhn. I"%, for a d:sclission oiwhc:lxr Ehls are fantasies o r actuai memories). At the same rime, it :$. acknowieciged :ha: maniTEMS accurareiv depict h i s r o r d events. The cognitive- percept.^^! model stresses, however, t h a t it is not necessary to know whether an EXI evenr occurred as described ir, order t o make a n ~nterprctarim. Uniorrunarely, few c!inica\ evaluatcrs use Ehfs in their assessment Satter:es. 'Sanpie c:pes ofthe EKF ca:; he o h t a i n d from ilrnnid R. 3rd-i::. C h s Chase, ~ M;;D ZO&li.
Ph3. 17:'.i i i z : .4iwx!t.
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 19:55 28 April 2015
OTHER METHODS OF ASSESSING AUTOBIOGRAP HICAt MEMORY Perhaps the most coxman means ro assess zutobiographicai memory is to ask questions that puIl h r clierni opicions (e.g., "Vi'tiar was your father iike!"). This . . technique is open ro criticism became it assesses only W?:X tile c k z t csnsciousiy kmxvs. But there is another problem-the qyJesaor! usuaily yiekis wor:hiess inforn;ation. If the ciien: does not alreadr haire insight, then probing in this manner is largejy a waste of ciimcai time, A secon8 technique involves asking ques:ions that puii for conciusions: T i ? w was piinishmenr handled in yonr !'arrrily?" N d c e that the question krir,t?ii&iyrequire? clients t o scan 211 the:r . . famiiv memories ;r! autobiographical m e m x y related to punishmen: of' :he self and punishment of sibiings an:. tc give z s a x n a r y respcnse appm;?riate :G this universal set of rneinories. D3 ciient~actuaIiy get :hmxgh &is yocess! With rare 9
'For pre,ien: p.;rpose. axobiographica: memory rsr; be cmcepcualized as nersonal memory. A u t o h i a g r w p i memory car, he regarcied h r : ~ o c a l ! y as :kit aspec: of m e r n a r ~tha: pr:,\kies ar; . . iac,ILL, . *-. :i> the sel!, esnr-iaily the self in rclatior: :c :)thers and tc :he odd .A. more extenswe. d:scussisn of a.~to.ii:,~ra~2:icdmemory a d it,. ,iefir.:tiar: car; he f s s n J In liruhr: (l WOa, 13923).
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 19:55 28 April 2015
exceptions, no. If not, what. do they do? I have asked macy indi\riduals how they process this tvpe of question. and mw: s t a x that :he\. hare z mental p i c t ~ r eor series of pictures flash before rkem. Somerimes these piczxes are based on acraai cne-time events, and sometimes they are associated a h a cox.posire impres?-:on of how the parenr5. handed punishment situations. if we are interested ~n h o n pr,is'r,menr was often kendieci, "How was punishmen; handled in i70urfamijv!" is an a~propriztc?robe. Hcwez,er, if we a?an: rc know whether rhe ~ndriiduai has nnresolved mues related to p ~ n ~ s h m e nthis t , is not the bes: quescioc tc, ask. The proper assessment of a ~ t o b i o ~ r a p h i c amemory i wouid be, "'%'hat :s -\.osr earliest memory of being punished?"; "Wha: are rour ciearest or mos: imporrant memories of being ~unished?";and "'$(:bar is ypur most distressing men;=r;. oi being punished?" Xutobi~grapk~ical memories can be diryided :ntc three trpes. These inciabe memories that: (1) preserve the original perceptions and origmai coras:ruc~icn~ (experience as originally ?recessed:, j2! preserve the orlginai perceptions but ncliide revised constructions (e.g., as a result oisuicess5di psvchotherapy). pr (3') have been highly overworked in terms of horh or:girral perceptions. and ronstrucrions. It :s a simple matter to distinguish t\.pe 3 merrtor:es from wpes 1 and 2 . For instance? if ciients reporr that they see themselves In the memorv, the wirh nernorv must be a Type 3: because :r would be impossible for an ind:~.~duaI an origtnal perception (trpes ! and 2 ) to see hinseli or herse!f 13the scene. Types i and 2 can be difierer;t:ated according to whether :he constxction in :he m e a e r y is consistent wrr'h current beliefs. or xvhether ir reflects ar: archaic unders~andingconsistenr with the age at which the men or^ occsrred. Most memories ir: an EM? (Druhr,. 198%) are either types 2 or i, ~ v i t h:he Laxer predoninating. Tvpe i Ehls, which are exrremeiy rare, probably occxr in i % or less oi'a c1:cical popuixior, on the EMP. The Eh.IP provides a zleens of assessing all three Type? of memories, because each is interpreted ic a rimiiar mariner. Xevertheless, it is useiui to keep in mind c\.hich memix-ies are more iikeiy ;c be creativefv distorted, conrisrenr w t h presest coxerns.
i he hrst mismcierstaniiinp is the belief that ai'i EMS, drectiv s r indirectlv, involve traumas This error is a legacy horn classical psvchoanalvs:~. A central proyosition is rhar emodonaliy devastating events occasionaih osccrreci in ear!? Seienses, cac;sing ci-Adhood char fiooded and werwhelmed the incii\~id~ai's serions and often xreparabk ernoiional damage. Freud (!8?3,1?5?': heiievec! that alt'heugh suck memories ma): rexiam intact in 'long-term memory, mcre c o m m o ~ l vthey , are rerncved f r o n awareness :hrough what he termed a sc-em . memop, which is often rather b h n d and not part~cuiarlvno re worth^. Eie heid 7
that the origizal trauma could oken be uncovered b\: free association re&-. niques. i he error In Freud's thinking was ro take a &se: of E?& that are just as he described a r ~ dto generalize his findings: ti: Ehle as a group. i kzt is, if' some Ehls :nvotve ~raumatirevents (a trse statementi, then ail must iri~~olve either trau;?-ia:ic events or events char function as screens for. traunatic events la fake s:aterient). I have hoked at EMS &om several thousand individuais and seen perhaps a thousand more for. assessmenr ancb'or therapy. AIthough esrimates are hazardcxs, i estixzte :ha: perhaps 95% of all spontaneous EM$ from a wide cross-section of individuals are no: particuiariy rrzumetic. hstead, they reflect major ilfe interests. ice)- percepricns, and :mportzc: expectztio:ls, as v.rlI as salient aspects of the individual"^ currerx be'iief si7ste~; 2nd current world view. -. I 5ere is evidence from ~reud'slater wry.timgs :ha: he zbandoncd the concept of tra:;nas 2nd their pa:hcicsgicai impact. hst marly psi.chodynamicailr rex xed clinicians %lion>h i s eariier beliefs. . , Freud's position regarding screen memories, :n my opnior., is correct far some indi~iduais.Some individuals cic s u f k terrible experiences early in life, and m m y of these indii:iciuais are never abie ro recover, 'Th:b k most k l y 7 s be rrue in the case of severeiy distrrrbed indjviduais, and these were thc g-pes of patients x e d tended to see in his ciinicai work. hilost indi.t,iduais whc art not severeiy , d i s ~ d x d ,however, are net sc rigidly set in their basic charxter tnat they cannot change if they are motivated re d s so. Cognitive-percepd theory c.onceptuaiizee EMS ir: most instances as rcAecting the p r o d x r of a ereac:vc process witkin :he scif, nor t r . ~ ~ n aThe s . goai .-, . . , ot :his process is to remin6 the ?nci!vicicai what WOTK I Z 31s or her own personaj developrent ;s mosr pressing, The crearion of :he EbI begins with what can be .. called the c o x . A n exampie ivouk CE an individaai's a'biding sense sf vuherabiiiry an2 accoxipanying need security. The core of the memorr suggests a3 unresoii7ed issae, or what has been described as rhe iln,&tshed Swness (c!. 3ciihn, 19%; 8ruhri & Beiiow, 1984).Once the uniinisI~edbasiness is cs:abiizhed as a major p r i o r i ~en , ex7er?:is ?died born long-term memory thar bes: ciepcrs :hat issue. An example wonid 5- a boy who recailed tripping on a seek, siir,n:ng h:s knee, and running home crying ro his mother, Such a memory exFresses iri metaphor the individuai'z perception ot h:mseif as. inadequate, of :he worl2 as .- . dangerous, and af his resuk:ng neea ;or secarity 2nd succor. ~ a c hmernzriec tend :o persist as highlighted Eh'is as icag as the ar:fin:shed business remaiss constant for the individual. If hieroglyphics arc picrograr=.hs.EMS become perceptographs, or u7a\-sof s~:mboiicaliyexpressmg abstract percepSons mcier the gu:se of depicting ac:ual historical events. Perceptographs ca:: be conceprsaiized as visual symbols or metaphors that car, b e deciphered and trarisiated in:o verbal iangsage when the approprkte :echciquet are urilized. * . Another error regarcimg autobiographicai memory iunctmr, is the misappreRensmn that EMScomprise arm hisrorical reccrd and, as such, are carrec: :r: most m.ajor respecrs as weii as facr~aiiyascrzrate. This faliaq ieads us intc z a n y
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probietns-not just in treating clients bur in understanding o:irseIves. Adier 1 i 9 I 9 pzovided a particulariv :bought-provoking exampic o i 2 com~leteiy ficritious EM from his own past: '\o;t!y ' after !wen; t2 a boar3 schoo!, 1remember thar :he ?s:h ti. the xhcoi i e J mger a cemeterv. I was frightened every r i a - and was exi.ecd:ngl~ pet our a: behoiding ihe other children pass :he cemerer? wlchout paying :he leas: artenricn t i 7 it, while ever.; step !took wa: accompanied by ii ieeiing o i k z r and h o r r x . Aparr from the estrerne discomiox occasioned by this fear I was aisc. anrtcved at thc idea 3fSe:ng les:: than cowageous rhan the orhers. One day I nade up my mind rc put an end to tl:k fear ofrhedeath. i s a v e d at some distance behind the other:, piace2 rz,~ schooi bag on the ground near the wail sf rhe ceme:ery and r a n arms:, ir a &en times until i feit :hat I had rnastered che fear. (pp. 179-iS$
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?..iuch tc. his szrprise, Adler late: discovered in his m i d - 3 s while exchanging reminiscences with a school mare thar the cemeterv c7i his memories h a d nei7er exisred. -4dler remarked that the Eh4 served to refiect his "ionging t c c.17ercome dear'i:" as well as his choice of proiession. if autobiographical memory were organized in p e q l e as it might be in robors, faces would be accurate and distortion wonld he mir.irnal. Identicaity mandfactured robots would ail "see things :he same way," assuming equivalent experiences. People, 'nowe\ver, are not all manufactured the same wav. They come f ~ o different cultures: t h e v are raised by differrr,: families; a n d thev are ssbjecced tr, different liie experiences, 5 o m which they acquire different \-&es7 aa::udes! and, uitirnatelv, different ways oi perceiving :he worid. It IS, rherefcre, not surprising t h a t y i h ~ therapy ciient and conchded that :kt. chent's Iacer constructicl:~o i h e r EL& refiecred tile change. in her perspective thz: occurred as a resdt of pvcbo:her-
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a ~ ui .n each case, personaiity a d deveiopmermtai variahies-not the Laws o: mem.ory-help us :o understand what is retained 2nd what is dropped from aurobiographical. memory.
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EM§ AS A PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE 1f the recaiiectic.n of events in autobiographic& memory retlects the organizar;an of perscnaiity, then :here is warrant to conceptsa!rze EMS as a pr~t2ective technique. Let us consider the namre o i a projective technque. Rabin {cited ir; akhough prqcctive techniqtie bas been varroclsli; Corsitli, 19%) pointed out defined, ;he common denominators are containrd ir? the foliowing. propositions: "
I . Projective techniques presen: relatively aillbiguoss stimuli
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2 . The techniq:3es are 'Yrespsnse-free" ic the sense that there are nc; rrght a r wrong responses and the exarr~irxe1s free :o gi1,"t whztev~rrespcnses appear snitabie.
3. Responses are interpreced as reflectmg i.e::rral persorsiiir~t.en6rncies and affective states.
4. The obtained records
are a i m viewed, in varying degrees, as refiections of the cngni:ive processes and personality s:vk of the subject. ( p . 78)
It is apparent by inspection that the E h P satisfies Rahin's fsur propositi~ns. , , There is only one propositicn-:he first - that warrants discussion. Some who are accilstomcd to crn'nig..~o.clspiciure cards or inkblots (i7isud stlmuiil quesrior! hc.w :he EMP is ambignous. %hat is ambiguous are the instructions to the subject: "Think back ro the earliest memory rhac you have, . . ."This :nsrruction gives the individuai considernhie kxitude in responding and, therefore, se:isfies the anbiguity reqc:rement in RaKinYsdef:citioc. Unlike orher. projective instrumects: there is lirtlc abour the narure of the procednre itself :hat n u s t be taken intc accounr ro understand the subject's response. F3r instance, wirh most prcjecc~ves,onc must uricjerstand the stimuius puLI for each pa" tf the technique. Thus, or! tbe Ro~srhacbcerrair: popuiar responses are thoughr to have Less ~ ~ g ~ ~ f i c Seceuse a n c c so n a r y indiviciuals report :he percept. For example, a winged insect or a bat is so frequcr,rly reporrcd 311 Card 5 &at, if a s ~ b j e c cmnot t see ruch a percept during a cesting of the limits: this fact by :rself woulci suggest ar? idiasyncracy :r,
