EMPIRICAL STUDIES

doi: 10.1111/scs.12171

The core of love when caring for patients suffering from addiction Kari M. Thorkildsen RN, MScN (Assistant Professor, Doctoral Student)1,2, Katie Eriksson RN, PhD (Professor Emerita)2 and Maj-Britt R aholm RN, PhD (Professor)3 Faculty of Health, Stord/Haugesund University College, Stord, Norway, 2Department of Caring Science,  Abo Akademi University, Vasa, Finland and 3Sogn og Fjordane University College, Førde, Norway

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Scand J Caring Sci; 2014 The core of love when caring for patients suffering from addiction Drug addiction is a serious health problem. The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of the core of love when caring for patients suffering from addiction. The study had a hermeneutical approach. Four nurses working at a detoxification unit were interviewed. Data were interpreted using a hermeneutical text interpretation based on Gadamer’s hermeneutics. The results revealed the core of love in four dimensions: love as an inner driving force, searching for the human being behind the addiction, faith in the inner power of human

Introduction When caring for patients suffering from addiction, love is profound (1), but the research on what the core of love is when caring for these patients is scarce and needs to be explored more closely. Drug addiction is a serious health problem, WHO reports 15.3 million addicts on a global scale (2). Addiction gives rise to feelings of chaos, loneliness, guilt, shame and stigmatization (3, 4 and 5). Smith (3) characterises addicted patients suffering as a spiralling, vicious circle consuming the whole of the person’s being. Love is the deepest substance of human beings’ (6), love is the core of caring and can be understood as human beings’ inner health potential (7). Caring for addicted patients’ spirituality alleviates suffering and promotes growth (8, 9); recovery from addiction involves struggling for liberation and expanded life-sphere (10, 11). For patients suffering from addiction it is crucial that nurses care in a respectful, dignified and supportive way (12), but nurses struggle to provide care to these patients

Correspondence to: Kari M. Thorkildsen, Department of Caring Science,  Abo Akademi University, Vasa, Finland and Faculty of Health, Stord/Haugesund University College, Klingenbergv 8, 5414 Stord, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] © 2014 Nordic College of Caring Science

beings and love as a movement of giving and receiving. The hermeneutical interpretation revealed the core of love as sacrifice, showing that sacrifice is an ethical dimension and that sacrifice involves searching for the patient’s ontological suffering. Sacrifice is connected to faith, and faith in love is decisive for a life without drugs. Sacrifice involves being mutual gifts to one another, a self-reinforcing motion of sacrifice that energizes the nurses to go on with their work. Keywords: love, sacrifice, caritas, faith, suffering, addiction, caring science. Submitted 19 March 2014, Accepted 1 July 2014

(13). In order to facilitate a healing process, nurses have to open themselves up to the patient, and the patient must share his/her experiences with the nurses (14, 15).

Theoretical framework Eriksson (16) and Watson (17) understand love as caritas, a unity of eros and agape (16). Agape is unconditional love to the neighbour; eros is the desire to unite with the object of one’s affection (16, 18). In alleviating suffering and promoting health, caritas constitutes the ethos, meaning the basic ethical values, love, responsibility and sacrifice that serve as the core of caring and caring science (16). Eriksson (16) also unites faith and hope in her conceptual understanding of caritas. Love is an act of faith (18). Love, faith and hope, caritas, constitute a basic immanent force for practical actions which are best illustrated by the story of the Good Samaritan (18). Love is lived out in human relationships and represents a life potential (19). Love can be seen as the source of unselfishness (20) that involves responsibility for another’s well-being, a capacity to understand the world through the eyes of another, and uncalculated, selfless commitment to the needs of others (21). This involves entering the suffering human beings’ pain, fear and brokenness (22). 1

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Caring science emphasises love as fundamental for human beings and especially when they are suffering. However, the literature pertaining to care for patients suffering from addiction, only one study focuses on love explicitly, although notions of love can be seen between the lines in the other studies. On the basis of the severe suffering of addicted patients, there is a need to lift love in to the forefront of this context. Addressing those who care for patients suffering from addiction, the nurses may provide us with an insight of what the core of love is.

Aim The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of the core of love when caring for patients suffering from addiction.

Methodology A hermeneutical approach in accordance with Gadamer’s (23) philosophy was used. In order to gain new understanding, the researchers’ preunderstanding and prejudice play a significant role (23). This preunderstanding is embodied in the theoretical framework (6, 7, 16–22) and previous research on addiction (1–5, 8–15).

Clinical context and participants The clinical context was a detoxification unit of an emergency care institution where patients stay up to 48 hours, and patients are admitted voluntarily. The reason for this choice of context is that although nurses have many opportunities when it comes to their choice of professional arena, nurses who have chosen to work with patients suffering from addiction deal with many challenges and may consequently have reflected on the fundamentals of care and on important premises in terms of caring for patients who live, in many ways, on the extreme edge of life. One individual interview of approximately one hour duration was conducted with four female nurses. Ages ranged from 30 to 55 years; their professional experience ranged from 5 to 25 years; all of them had work experience in general medicine before they started working at the detoxification unit. The nurses had to be interviewed during working hours, and for practical reasons, it was these four nurses who were able to be interviewed.

Ethical considerations The study followed the guidelines of The Norwegian National Committees for Research Ethics (24). The first contact with the institution was with the institutional leader. When consent was obtained, the head nurse was contacted, and via her, staff nurses were given information sheets concerning the study’s background, purpose

and goals. Information was also given about the approval from the Norwegian Social Science Data Services (Ref. 29558). The staff was also informed of the right to refuse to participate, anonymity and storage of data, and how the interviews would be conducted practically. The nurses who participated in the study also received this information orally before the interviews.

Data collection The interviews took place in a shielded location on the unit. To ensure a smooth start in the interviews, the nurses were first asked to talk about the background for choosing to work with patients suffering from addiction, and why they had chosen to work at this special unit. The interviews were conducted as conversations in which the nurses were allowed to formulate and express their own thoughts, ideas and experiences associated with the topic (25), and the nurses even contributed with comments on love and what it means when caring for patients suffering from addiction. The interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim.

Interpretation of text The analysis of the transcribed text followed Gadamer’s (23) hermeneutics. A prepared preunderstanding enables new understanding if one manages to challenge and transcend it in the encounter with the text and seeks in it not only what is known, but also what is new and different (23). In order to capture the meaning of the text, it was read in its entirety several times. Continued reading and dialogue in the form of questions and answers with the text led to discovery of parts in the text that told us something meaningful about the core of love. This reading and dialogue consisted of a dialectic movement between the whole of the text and its parts trying to probe deeper into the meaning of it. The meaningful parts were then written in to a new continuous text comprising four dimensions of the core of love that constitute the results of the study. Gadamer (23) emphasises the need to return to the researcher’s preunderstanding in order to understand. The results were reflected in the theory of caring science, theory in accordance with caring science and previous research on addiction, a fusion of horizons that transcended the researcher’s preunderstanding and the results (23) and that led to an understanding of the core of love as sacrifice. The text was written to constitute a new wholeness, and this is presented in the interpretation part of this article.

Methodological considerations We saw hermeneutics (23) with conversational interviews (25) as applicable for searching for an understanding of © 2014 Nordic College of Caring Science

The core of love when caring the core of love. Few informants provide opportunities for in-depth knowledge, but the results would have very probably been more varied if more nurses were interviewed. Going back to the nurses and elaborating the theme would possibly have deepened our understanding and enhanced confirmability (26). In order to establish credibility, the steps of the research process are described and the results are presented using quotations from the nurses (26). A major challenge when doing hermeneutic research is that the researcher’s preunderstanding is not well enough prepared and consequently not sufficiently open to what is new and different when interviewing and later analysing the text (26). On the basis of this, there is a risk that we may have been led by subconscious prejudice, which presents the risk of misunderstanding meaning. There is also a risk for directing the interviews on the basis of the expectations of what one will find rather than allowing the nurses meanings to emerge. In order to reduce the risk of these biases, the first author, who carried out the study, kept a diary to reflect on thoughts, ideas and feelings during the time the study lasted (26). In addition, the second and third authors supervised throughout the whole research process; they validated the results by reading the transcribed interviews and followed the interpretation process by reading and commenting on the text (26). The extent to which the results are transferable to other nurses who work with patients suffering from addiction is not known, but as the results present fundamental aspects of ethics and ontology, there may be a possibility that some of the results can be recognisable.

Results The core of love appeared in the following four dimensions: love as an inner driving force, searching for the human being behind the addiction, faith in the inner power of human beings and love as a movement of giving and receiving.

Love as an inner driving force Addicted patients are exposed to stigma, attitudes of rejection and injustice in the health care system and in society as a whole. This triggers the nurses ethical awareness and awakens a wish and will to work for the betterment for this group of patients. Hindrances and limited possibilities to help, foster feelings of frustration and compunction. A ward especially organised for addicted patients enables, to a much greater degree than otherwise, care to be based on ethical values and to respond to the patients’ needs. The wish and will to help patients suffering from addiction is described as a genuine interest, a motivation, and a burning commitment to human beings who suffer, and the source of these is an inner © 2014 Nordic College of Caring Science

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driving force. This driving force is more closely explained as unconditional and neighbourly love. Well, it is. . .neighborly love and being a fellow human being. . . . . .if you take care of human beings, you have to have it inside of yourself. . . .we are different. . .but at the same time there is a common basis. . .something that drives you. . . . . .unconditional love. . .you need to be able to give and really ladle out love without. . .expecting to get anything in return. . . .neighborly love is. . .Alpha and Omega. . .if you don’t have much of this basic ingredient in you, then you have nothing. . . .possible to learn things, but I think you have to have. . .a wish to be there for others. . . The inner driving force is felt like an urge to give of oneself and is in a dialectic relationship with the patients need to be cared for. . . .but the reason I absolutely think that it is my job. . .that is difficult to say. . .the reason I’m interested. . .that’s a little puzzling to me. . ., . . .I’m interested in giving of myself. . ., then I feel that I can bloom. . .then I feel that I can use what is important for me, inside myself, . . .I need inter-human relationships, I need it for myself, . . .so I can be myself. But I also absolutely think that others benefit from my giving of myself this way. . .it’s a peculiar symbiosis thing, but that’s the way it is, in a way. Many of the patients are marked by their addiction and live at the very limit of what is possible for a human being. Encountering the patients’ grief and despair and at the same time being confronted with own feelings, without being overwhelmed by it, is demanding. These challenges make it necessary to connect to what can be understood as an inner ethical space and to reflect on feelings and thoughts, alone and with colleagues. You must be willing to reflect, and by that I mean you must dig deep down inside yourself. I think it would be much harder to work here if you didn’t do that. Then you would be burned out because you didn’t get the chance to work on it. You get emotionally caught up in the dramatic ups and downs – sometimes these patients die, you know. . . .I’m just a human being, and some of the patients strike you right in the heart. . .I can never be overly professional. . .I work with people. . .. . .ever since I was a little girl, I’ve had a weak spot for those who are weak. . .and actually, I think that might be a kind of virtue.

Searching for the human being behind the addiction The inner driving force of love can be interpreted as strength and an urge to search for the human being behind the addiction. The practical caring acts that

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the patient’s condition demand gives the nurses an opportunity to get closer and provide care in a motherly way. By adjusting to the patient’s wishes and needs as far as possible, the nurses try to communicate that he/ she is now in safe hands and will receive help. Thus, the nurses try to open for a caring communion in which the two of them – carer and patient – together, step by step, can intervene in other aspects of the patient’s current life situation. . . .begin by finding warm clothing, find something hot to drink, . . .get up in a warm bed; . . . you create, . . .that atmosphere, the patient’s surrounding environment, and you create the relationship and thus the possibility to start to talk about the problem little by little, . . .trust, and you signalize ‘I’m here for you and I want the best for you’. And you have to make that very clear because the drugs are like a cloudy veil in front of them. . .many of them are in a strong defensive position because they have experienced so many negative encounters with health care professionals. . . The nurses emphasise the importance of unreservedly trying to find a connection with the patient, seeing and receiving him/her as a unique human being by acting respectful and humble, and demonstrating a heartfelt presence by showing that they want to take part in his/ her suffering. . . .being able to find a bond with a person who might . . .feel inferior in. . .her own understanding of the role he/she has in society or feels miserable. . .and is worn out, dirty and smells bad, and. . .full of anger and ugly words, and. . .being able to break that ice, is a very exciting challenge, . . .you have to show that person that you see him/her so much that they feel that they are seen and feel whole right through. By searching out the human being behind the addiction, the nurses tries to understand the nature of the patient’s suffering; the nurses do not stop at the immediate expressions of patients, who can be dismissive and intimidating because they are unable to express themselves in any other way in their current condition and situation. Those who have problems with communication, they cannot appeal, . . .they choose words that push people further and further away. . . .being able to ‘read’ that this is grief, this is despair, this is fear, and that anger is not necessarily anger. . . . . .I think there is something. . . that makes you ‘read’ human beings when you sit down with them.

Faith in the inner power of human beings The belief that the power of alleviation and the possibility of life can be found inside of the patient helps the nurses so that, over time, they can manage to be close to

patients in challenging and complex situations. Faith involves helping the patient to believe that a life without drugs is possible through the use of their own inner power. Faith in humanity, I think you should believe in human beings; you have to have a conviction that human beings have something inside them that makes them literally get up and out of the gutter. Thus, it is possible to create a good life out of everyone’s life. . . You have to believe that human beings have a lot of strength in themselves, that they basically know the answers by themselves. They must have. . .faith, . . . believe that someone can help them, . . . they need to actually believe that they can do something with their life. That you have reached into that faith, is meaningful. That’s where you have to start if you want to go forward. When it is difficult for a patient to be completely nondependent on drugs, drug-free periods are of value because then he/she can live an improved life for a while. In the belief that something of value is created together with the patient, the nurses believe that one day there might be a long-lasting change in the patient’s life. You have to sort of accept that they leave, go out and take drugs and come back completely run down. . . but one day they might return and then we might get it right.

Love as a movement of giving and receiving The unconditional love that means to give and provide boundless care without demanding anything in return is essential, according to the nurses, to helping patients through their suffering. The nurses feel dedicated to patients, and this can be understood as giving of themselves to another human being. They believe this unconditional dedication is essential for getting patients to open up and accept help, because many of them are not used to receiving love and care. Others are skeptical when they encounter the nurses because their confidence has previously been abused. To reach out to a patient is very meaningful; it gives a feeling of having credibility as a human being and is perceived as a gift. The fact that patients’ lives can be improved through their help and that patients can get off drugs gives the nurses inner joy and gratitude. So you have to give of yourself in order to achieve something, but then you get something in return. . . a kind of interaction. . . . . . a gift to see human beings as they really are. . . they expose themselves very much. . . the response you get when they feel they are seen, . . . it’s absolutely wonderful; why this is such a good feeling is hard to say. . . the fact that you make a difference to someone, that it in itself matters. . .

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Interpretation

Sacrifice as the search for the patient’s ontological suffering

The interpretation revealed that the core of love when caring for patients suffering from addiction encompasses sacrifice as an ethical dimension, sacrifice as the search for the patient’s ontological suffering, faith in love as decisive for a life without drugs and being each other’s gift as a self-reinforcing movement of sacrifice.

In Levinas’ (35) perspective, the underlying motive of nurses effort to establish a servant and giving communion, is a fulfilment of their ethical responsibility as sacrifice (28). The nurses seek the patient’s ontological suffering, the suffering that comprises the whole of being and is hidden behind the veil of addiction, in trying to convey to the patient that ‘. . . I’m here for you and I want the best for you’, showing that sacrifice extends behind what you specifically do for the other; it bears witness to the infinite, agape love (35). Being acknowledged in such a dignified way and being cared for as a weak and vulnerable, has a healing potential (14). This might create a trustful communion in which the patient can tell her/his story while the nurse listens for clues of spirituality and how the addiction is hurting them (3, 8, 9, 15). Patients’ negative encounters with healthcare personnel may be due to health care professionals’ barriers, a ‘Veil of Maya’ (36) that can be seen in this context as a reductionist understanding of addiction whereby caregivers only act according to empirical reality. This hinders them from seeing the patient’s ontological suffering and from responding to the ethical demand to alleviate it. Ice, as a metaphor, aptly expresses a confined and stiffened force of life that is hidden beyond a more or less impenetrable surface, a reminder that humans are not always what they seem to be at first glance (37). The ability to understand the expressions of the suffering hidden beneath the ice, in the ontological reality, is vital if suffering is to be alleviated (37). The bond that the nurse is trying to establish with the patient by searching for the human being beneath the ice so that he/she may feel seen and whole can be interpreted, in Levinas (35) perspective, as a relationship of sacrifice, because one is guilty of sacrificing oneself for the sake of the patient. The relationship of sacrifice can be further characterised as a desire to be in a motion of wonder before the patient, enabling one to transcend beyond the here and now, towards infinity (35). What nurses see and do not see beneath the ice or behind the veil of addiction is influenced by the ethos of the individual and the caring culture (36, 38). The quest for the patient’s ontological suffering involves searching for what is not directly apparent, something that means to give evidence to patients suffering through thoughts, words, attitudes and caring acts (38), in other words, through a dedication of their caritative ethos through sacrifice (16). Giving evidence to the patient’s ontological suffering also involves reading grief, despair and fear behind their rejecting exterior. In its deepest sense, this means trying to read her/him as a holy script (7, 36). A human being as a holy script is revealing for the competent reader (32). When the nurse says: ‘. . . there is something that makes you read human beings. . .’, this

Sacrifice as the core of ethics The nurses’ reactions to the humiliation that addicted patients are exposed to, and the desire and willingness to care for them, can be understood as an expression of sacrifice (27–29). According to Augustine (30, 31), sacrifice means to disregard oneself and, in neighbourly love and compassion, direct towards the neighbour in order to serve (28). Unconditional and neighbourly love, which is described by the nurses as a common basis and as Alpha and Omega, can be interpreted as an expression of the universal and all-embracing love, agape, a common ethical source of all good in which caritas has its origin and that demands sacrifice (28, 30). As expressions of agape love, the nurses’ stories can be interpreted as a confession of a desire to sacrificing themselves, an urge to realise what others may benefit from (30, 31). The need to give love without expecting anything in return, and at the same time to using what is important for oneself and thinking that others may benefit from it, in the light of Augustine’s thought (31), can be understood as caritas, eros and agape, which do not distinguish between sacrificial love and the love that revitalizes the human being. Revitalizing love can be seen as eros, which involves a desire, wish and will that insistently presses on in order to be realised (29). Human beings are supposed to sacrifice themselves, an act that is carried out through the caritas synthesis, where human beings unite in love by loving and being loved (31). In this study, caritas appears as a symbiosis of eros and agape, a synergism that reflects the depths of human interdependence. The inner ethical space that the nurses need to reflect on can be understood as a caritative ethos (32, 33). Ethos may allow for deeper development of one’s own ethical sensitivity and in the caring culture, as ethos involves listening to the heart (32, 33), and letting love in the form of sacrifice be the driving force when facing the patient’s suffering (28, 29). Ethos can renew one’s strength to sacrifice, by making us capable of bearing the patient’s suffering and of dealing with our own emotions at the same time (27, 28, and 33). Understanding weakness for weak human beings as a virtue or ar^ete can be interpreted to mean that one cannot be without, or is drawn towards, human beings who need help (34). Through ar^ete, nurses can dedicate their caritative ethos in a way that benefits the suffering human being (33). © 2014 Nordic College of Caring Science

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‘something’ can be understood as the caritative ethos that makes one understand the meaning of the ontological suffering, and that makes it possible to catch glimpses of the patients’ innermost becoming and desire for the holiest (7, 36). Becoming through suffering involves sacrifice and reconciliation, something that may alleviate suffering and promote health (7). But there is also something inscrutable, something the reader cannot fathom or see, something which one will never entirely grasp and understand completely (35). Thus, one has a duty remain in a continual sacrificing motion towards the other, so that the patient may experience being taken care of, regardless of whether he/she wants to receive care or not, because reading and seeing the patient’s ontological suffering is a way of realising the endless debt that demands sacrifice (35).

Faith in love as decisive for a life without drugs The nurses’ emphasis on faith in humanity, in love, is displayed by Kierkegaard (6) who says that love believes all things, and is therefore not deceived, it abides and never fails. Kierkegaard (39) describes faith such as a motion towards the core of the human being, a motion towards the nurses’ ethos, and an element that is decisive for finding the strength to sacrifice oneself. The nurses believe that the patients have ‘something inside’, a strength that can be understood as the healing power, love, meaning that the possibility of alleviation and a life free from addiction is to be found in the patient’s heart. According to Wiklund (4, 8) and Wismer Bowden (11), recovery from addiction is an ongoing search for a spiritual communion with oneself, others and God or a higher power. In light of Kierkegaard’s thought (6, 39), this mirrors an understanding of human beings tied to a reality that goes further than the concrete reality in which the person is living. Skatvedt (1) argues that giving up a life in addiction is painful, and in order to believe that a life without drugs is possible, the patient needs a nurse who, in love and faith, contributes to make the transcendence conceivable. Transcendence through faith is linked to sacrifice for both parts (27–29). The nurses’ belief that the power of love is situated in the patient’s heart can serve as a basis for patients to seek his/her own faith and find new meaning in life. Through sacrifice human beings come closer to their self (29) and this involves touching their holiness (40). This may serve as a common transcendence, enabling the patient to recreate her/his life by sacrificing the old one (27). In Kierkegaard’s (39) perspective, faith can be understood as a search for holiness that makes one-first relate to infinity before finality, showing that human beings are part of a divine reality. This involves an extension of faith beyond what our finite experiences allow as possible (39). In this context, it means buoying up the patient’s faith when

his/her own faith fails. In the belief that one day the person will be drug-free despite continually interrupted treatment.

Being each other’s gift as a self-reinforcing motion of sacrifice The unconditional giving without demanding anything in return can be seen as an act of sacrifice that opens for the possibility of receiving the other as a gift. This requires openness to what the patient can give, that is, something absolutely different: himself or herself (35). The experience of being of value and having credibility as a human being when dedicating oneself can be interpreted as a human being’s ability to realise him-/herself by looking away from oneself and focusing on the other. In Levinas’ (35) perspective, this is a mutual life-giving motion where one sees the other’s possibilities as one’s own. To dedicate oneself to another human being may, in light of Augustine’s thought (31), be understood as a merciful gift of sacrifice, a fulfilling of the meaning of sacrifice. Giving and sharing is important for patients as it contributes to a reciprocal communion (8). Helin and Lindstr€ om (28) argue that this requires an asymmetrical relationship whereby the nurses’ sacrifice makes it possible for the patient to present his/her gift. The nurses describe their sacrifice as a way of receiving, which can be seen as the recurrent motion of sacrifice towards the nurses’ caritative ethos. This motion of giving and receiving, of being each other gifts, can be seen as a circular self-reinforcing motion of sacrifice; the more love you give, the more you receive in return, and the sincerer and more heartfelt the care and love for the patient becomes. This motion can be seen as an expression of ar^ete (33). The experience of receiving a gift when seeing a person as the human being he/she fundamentally is, means, in Augustine’s (31) perspective, to receive the other and let him/her come forward and appear in all his/her beauty, that is, to reveal the real and true within the other (36). The nurses’ joy and gratitude for this gift shows that love is meant to be shared with another human being (41). According to Lanara (27), sacrifice as a gift means to see the fruits of one’s sacrifice in the life of others; in this context, it means contributing to make a difference in the patient’s life by helping them to live a life free of drugs.

Conclusion and implications The core of love when caring for patients suffering from addiction can be understood as sacrifice. This implies that sacrifice is fundamental to alleviate suffering and promote health for this group of patients. Sacrifice binds agape and eros in a symbiosis of caritas and stands out as a central aspect of the nurse’s ethos. In order to dedicate © 2014 Nordic College of Caring Science

The core of love when caring the caritative ethos of sacrifice to patients, there is a need for an ongoing ethical reflection and growth both in the individual and in the caring culture. Searching for the human being behind the addiction, through sacrifice, means to search for the patients’ ontological suffering. In order to alleviate suffering, there has to be a focus on the spiritual dimension, as faith in love stands out as the point of departure for living a life without drugs. Sacrifice can be understood as a motion of giving and receiving each other as gifts. According to this, sacrifice serves as a reinforcing motion that gives the nurses energy to go on with their work.

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Author contributions Kari Marie Thorkildsen was responsible for the data collection, analysis of data and writing of the manuscript. Maj-Britt R aholm and Katie Eriksson supervised the study.

Ethical approval According to the Norwegian Social Science Data Services, this study did not need the approval of the Research Ethics Committee (Ref. 29558).

Acknowledgements

Funding

We wish to thank the nurses that participated in the study.

This study was funded by Stord/Haugesund University College, Faculty of Health, Stord, Norway.

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The core of love when caring for patients suffering from addiction.

Drug addiction is a serious health problem. The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of the core of love when caring for patients suffering ...
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