Journal of Abnormal ChildPsychology, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1978, pp. 97-106
The Children of Mexican-American Migrant Workers: A Population at Risk? 1 Scott W. Henggeler Memphis State University Joseph B. Tavormina University of Virginia
The present study assessed intellectual, academic, and emotional strengths and weaknesses for a group of Mexican-American children of migrant farm workers. In order to test the vulnerability hypothesis, the test profiles of these children were contrasted with those of two groups of black children with similar demographic makeup. The children of one group (Clinical Black) had been referred previously for a psychological consultation while the children of the other (Nonreferred Black) had not. Across dependent measures, between-groups contrasts tended to describe the scores of the Migrant children as similar to those of the Clinical Black children and significantly below those of the Nonreferred Black children. The findings suggested specific intellectual, academic, and emotional vulnerabilities of the Migrant children and demonstrated the need to develop ameliorative programs for these children.
As a group Spanish-speaking, Spanish-surnamed (SSSS) Americans experience considerable socioeconomic and psychosocial difficulties, which include high rates of unemployment and low levels of income and education relative to national norms (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1971 a, 1971 b). In addition, although SSSS groups seem to need greater psychological services than the general population (Torrey, 1969), they receive less (Karno & Edgerton, 1969). Furthermore, the therapeutic interventions received by SSSS Americans are similar to those
Manuscript received in final form June 6, 1'977, 1The authors wish to thank the staff of C & Y, University of Virginia Hospital, especially Ms. Deborah Johnson and Ms. Suzanne Canale, whose cooperation and assistance made this project possible. 97 0091-0627/78/0300-0097
$05.00/0 9 1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation
98
Henggeler and Tavormina
dispensed to other economically deprived sociocultural groups (Hollingshead & Redlick, 1958): Mexican-American clients receive intensive verbally oriented treatment less often and drug-oriented interventions more often than Anglo clients (Bloombanm, Yamamoto, & James, 1968; Yamamoto, James, & Palley, 1968). In light of these factors Padilla and Ruiz (1973) have concluded that relative to mainstream cultural groups, SSSS Americans are more likely to develop socioemotional problems and are less likely to be provided with the resources needed to ameliorate these problems. The intellectual strengths and weaknesses of Mexican-American and Puerto Rican-American SSSS children have been well documented. These children typically have performed significantly higher on intellectual tasks that are nonverbal rather than verbal in nature (Killian, 1971; Silverstein, 1973;Christiansen & Livermore, 1970). SSSS children also have shown decreased scholastic achievement on verbally oriented subject matter (Anderson & Johnson, 1971). These findings have suggested that SSSS children are vulnerable to poor performance on verbally oriented intellectual and academic tasks. Less is known of the emotional strengths and weaknesses of SSSS children. Investigations of their emotional functioning have focused primarily on selfconcept and have provided inconsistent findings. Several studies have found significantly lower self-concepts among SSSS children than among black or Anglo children (Anderson & Johnson, 1971; Hishiki, 1969;Peterson & Ramirez, 1971 ; Fisher, 1974), while others have not found such differences (Carter, 1968; Rice, Ruiz, & Padilla, 1974). The present study evaluated the intellectual and emotional status of a sample of SSSS children of migrant farm laborers. Since the impoverishment and minority group status of these children could in and of itself exert a negative influence upon test scores, the study included two contrast groups of children who were also impoverished minority group members but were neither bilingual nor transient. One group was composed of black children with no known history of socioemotional difficulty and the other was composed of black children who had a history of psychological referral. Since the latter group had demonstrated psychological vulnerability, their comp~ative test performance was relevant to the assessment of the vulnerabilities of the migrant children. A broad-based assessment procedure was used to provide a comprehensive profile on these groups of children.
METHOD
Subjects The study included three groups of 24 children each: Migrant, Nonreferred Black, and Clinical Black. All children were chosen from the files made available
Children of Migrants
99
by the Children and Youth Center, University of Virginia Hospital, Charlottesville, Virginia. The Migrant group was composed of bilingual children of MexicanAmerican migrant farm workers, having no known physical, emotional, or intellectual handicap and enrolled in public school in Albermarle County, Virginia, during October 1974. The Nonreferred Black group was composed of black children who had never been referred for a psychological consultation and who were matched to the age, sex, and socioeconomic status (all families were Social Class V, Hollingshead & Redlich, 1958) of a respective child in the Migrant group. The children of the Clinical Black group were matched on the same demographic variables; however, each of these children had been referred previously for a psychological consultation for problems ranging from poor school performance to delinquency. The mean age and birth order of the children in each group did not differ, nor did they differ on father absence or whether the head of household was employed. However, the families of the Migrant group were significantly larger, t(46) = 3.53, p < .05, t(46) = 3.82, p < .05, had significantly higher monthly incomes, t(46) = 4.54, p < .05, t(46) = 5.24, p < .05, and their maternal level of education was significantly below, t(46) = 6.78, p < .05, t(46) = 5.58, p < .05, that of the Nonreferred Black and Clinical Black groups, respectively. Procedure
After parental permission was obtained, each subject was ~dministered a battery under uniform environmental conditions by one of four Anglo advanced undergraduate research assistants who had received extensive prior experience and supervision. Since many of the children, especially the Migrant children, did not comprehend several of the words used in the personality tests, examiners were instructed to explain the gist of the specific test item. Although this procedure violated the standardized testing format, it was used to ensure that the responses of the children were a function of the test item rather than random response or a biased response set. Before and. during test administration, considerable emphasis was placed upon the establishment of rapport and the malntainance of high levels of motivation. To facilitate rapport and motivation the examiners praised the child's serious efforts and provided concrete rewards (e.g., soft drinks and candy) contingent upon this effort. This procedure was followed in order to diminish possible distortions due to examiner-subject sociocultural differences (Sattler, 1970). Measures
Three standardized intelligence tests and one achievement test were used to obtain a profile of each child's cognitive functioning. The Wechsler Intelligence
12.3 12.3 11.5 16.7 13.2 16.1 17.7 10.1 34.9 28.5
73.2 90.1 65.2 79.9
WRAT percentage of academic achievement Present reading 60.5 Present spelling 68.2
71.4 71.0
78.9 77.7 76.5
73.3
77.7 78.1 76.0 75.8
37.2 33.3
18.7 19.2 15.1
16.3
14.8 16.0 15.8 17.8
SD
.,V,
SD
X 71.3 85.6 76.5 64.8
Intellectual indices WlSC-R verbal score WlSC-R performance score WISC-R full-scale score WISC-R verbal-comprehension factor WISC-R attention-freedom from distractability factor WISC-R perceptual organizational factor PPVT DAI'
Dependent measures
Clinical black
Migrant
64.7 68.1
87.6 86.0 83.0
82.0
85.2 87.0 85.0 84.8
X"
27.3 32.6
16.8 14.6 14.3
15.0
11.9 14.5 13.0 14.1
SD
Nonreferred black
> > > >
Ma C C; N > M M; C > M
M> C N > M;C > M N > M;C > M
N > M; N > C
N N N N
Statistically significant between-groups contrasts (.05)
Table I. Means and Standard Deviations of the Intellectual, Academic, and Emotional Measures for Each Group; Significant Between-Groups Contrasts
ga
~a
19.1 20.5 30.8 21.7 17.8 18.7
-1.06 c
.79
44.5 14.4 6.6 b 3.1 8.2 b 3.9 5.8 b 2.8 4.8 b 2.3 4.5 b 2.3 2.9 b 1.8
67.5 65.4 50.2 53.8 54.9 53.0
-.80
50.2 6.2 7.1 4.3 5.7 5.0 2.4
58.2 66.9 63.1 63.5 51.1 59.3
.99
9.7 3.7 3.7 2.6 2.7 2.4 1.8
20.4 26.0 38.2 37.1 22.3 28.9
aM = Migrant; C = Clinical Black Group; N = Nonreferred Black Group. bHigher scores imply lower self-concepts. c Higher scores imply a more internal locus of control.
Emotional indices Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale For Children Behavior Intellectual and school status Physical appearance and attributes Anxiety Popularity Happiness and satisfaction Nowicki-Strickland locus of control Z scores
Present arithmetic Present mean Projected reading Projected spelling Projected arithmetic Projected mean
-.34
56.1 4.4 5.7 4.8 3.9 2.7 1.8
69.9 67.5 64.7 67.0 68.7 66.8
1.11
11.7 3.4 3.3 2.9 2:6 2.3 1.9
25.8 21.4 32.1 33.3 26.0 23.5
N>M
N>C N>M;N>C
N>M N>M N>M
N>M;N>C N>M
9.
102
Henggeler and Tavormina
Scale for Children-Revised (Wechsler, 1974) provided the usual scores plus measures of verbal comprehension, freedom from distractability, and perceptual organization derived from factor analytic studies (Cohen, 1959; Kaufman, 1975). The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn, 1959)provided a measure of receptive vocabulary skills and the Goodenough-Harris Draw-a-Person Test (Harris, 1963) served as an index of perceptual-motor abilities. The Wide Range Achievement Test (Jastak & Jastak, 1965) provided grade levels for each child. These scores were transformed into two percentages: The present percentage of achievement was calculated by dividing each child's WRAT achievement grade level by the current grade placement; each child's projected percentage of achievement was calculated by dividing the WRAT achievement grade level by expected grade level based on chronological age (with the baseline of 6 years as equivalent to first grade) rather than current grade placement. Psychometric indices of socioemotional functioning were obtained for the 20 children in each group who were over 8 years of age. The Piers-Harris SelfConcept Scale for Children (Piers & Harris, 1967) provided self-attitude scores on a number of dimensions. The Locus of Control Scale for Children (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973) provided a measure of the child's relative internal-external perception of control.
RESULTS
In order to determine significant between-groups differences the t test was used to contrast group means on each dependent measure. Table I presents the means and standard deviations of each group on each dependent measure as well as significant between-groups contrasts. Since there were three contrasts for each of the 24 dependent measures, four were expected to be significant by chance. The Nonreferred Black children showed significantly higher test performance than the Clinical Black and Migrant children on several intellectual measures. The Nonreferred Black children had significantly higher WlSC-R performance, t(46) = 2.15, p < .05, attention-freedom from distractability, t(46) = 2.02, p < .05, and full scale scores, t(46) = 2.29, p < .05, than the Clinical Black children. They also scored significantly higher than the Migrant children on the WISC-R verbal score, t(46) = 3.68, p < .01, full scale score, t(46) = 2.16, p < .05, verbal-comprehension factor, t(46) = 4.27, p < .01, attention-freedom from distractability factor, t(46) = 2.06, p < .05, and on the PPVT, t(46) = 4.18, p < . 0 1 . In addition, the Migrant group scored significantly below the Clinical Black group on the WISC-R verbal-comprehension factor, t (46) = 2.33, p < .05, and the PPVT, t (46) = 2.50, p < .05. Although the Migrant group consistently scored below the other groups on verbal indices, they did not score significantly below either group on the
Children of Migrants
103
nonverbal measures of intellectual functioning. Indeed, the perceptual organization skills of the Migrant children were significantly higher than those of the Clinical Black children, t(46) = 2.25, p < .05. Hence the vulnerability of the Migrant children was specific to their verbal facility. In contrast to the many significant between-groups differences on intellectual measures, achievement indices based upon current grade placement showed no statistical differences. The mean present percentage of achievement for all groups of children was approximately two-thirds of their current grade level. However, the projected percentages of achievement, which were based on chronological age and projected grade level rather than current grade placement, showed several significant differences. The projected percentage of arithmetic achievement of the Nonreferred Black children was significantly higher than that of the Migrant children, t(46) = 2.15, p < .05, and of the Clinical Black children, t(46) = 2.73, p < .01. In addition, the mean overall projected percentage of achievement for the Nonreferred Black children was significantly higher than that of the Migrant children, t ( 4 6 ) = 2.24, p < .05. Thus, when age was considered, the Migrant children showed an achievement deficit relative to the Nonreferred Black children but not relative to the Clinical Black children, whose scores fell between those of the other groups. A similar pattern developed on the emotional measures. The Nonreferred Black children rated themselves as more popular, t(46) = 3.11, p < .01, and less anxious, t (46) = 2.25, p < .05, than did the Clinical Black children. The Nonreferred Black children rated themselves more positively than the Migrant children on behavior, t(46) = 2.13, p < .05, intellectual and school status, t (46) = 2.43, p < .05, and overall self-concept, t (46) = 3.03, p < .01. Thus, the self-concept of the Migrant children was well below that of the Nonreferred Black children and differed little from that of the Clinical Black children. On the Locus of Control Scale a similar pattern emerged. Although the Migrant children did not differ from the Clinical Black children, they were significantly more external than the Nonreferred Black children, t(46) = 2.34, p < .05. Thus when both indices of emotional functioning were considered, the Migrant children appeared vulnerable.
DISCUSSION
On intellectual indices, the Migrant children obtained a pattern of relative nonverbal strength and verbal weakness which was consistent with previously discussed research findings among SSSS groups. Although their mean WISC-R full scale score fell within the borderline range, it was depressed by their low performance on verbal measures. Their nonverbal skills were above those of the Clinical Black children and at a level similar to those of the Nonreferred Black children. Although the Migrant children certainly lacked English verbal
104
Henggeler and Tavonnina
skills, the large difference between their verbal and nonverbal scores indicates that they cannot be considered "borderline" in the traditional sense of the word. Although the Migrant children did not score below the other lower-class children on nonverbal intellectual measures, their academic achievement was significantly below that of the Nonreferred Black children when chronological age was considered. Since academic performance is influenced greatly by verbal facility, it is likely that the lower academic achievement of the Migrant cl~ildren was a function of their relative verbal deficits. Without an understanding of the language of the dominant culture, the SSSS child is clearly at a disadvantage educationally, and hence vocationally and socioeconomically, even though he or she might possess significant intellectual potential, as evidence by nonverbal indices. The Migrant children also showed a clear pattern of vulnerabilities on the emotional measures. If they were not at risk, one might have expected them to score similarly to the Nonreferred Black children and more positively than the Clinical Black children. Instead, the overall self-concept of the Migrant children was below that of the Clinical Black children and significantly below that of the Nonreferred Black children. The responses of the Migrant children were more external than those of the Clinical Black children and significantly more external than those of the Nonreferred Black children. Although the scores of the Migrant children on the emotional measures may be indicative of decreased psychosocial functioning, other explanations must be considered. Perhaps their self-assessment is simply and unfortunately a realistic appraisal of their life situation. For example, their low scores with respect to their perceived intellectual and school status may accurately reflect the fact that they a r e doing poorly in school. Their highly external locus of control may be an accurate reflection of the life they lead (the movements of their families are almost completely determined by external events such as the weather and pay scales). Hence, the low score might reflect normative sociocultural differences (Mercer, 1971) rather than any emotional deficits. However, the fact that the scores may reflect accurate perceptions does not necessarily mean that these children do not n~ed ameliorative interventions. Rather, it would suggest that interventions focus on upgrading the environmental systems that the children of SSSS migrant farm workers experience. The present study had identified se,r intellectual, academic, and emotional vulnerabilities as well as the need to develop ameliorative programs for the children of SSSS migrant farm workers. Intervention programs designed to ameliorate verbal deficiencies are readily identifiable. For example, the preschool and early elementary school curriculums of SSSS children should emphasize the development of English vocabulary and verbal comprehension skills (Herr, 1946). For the migrant children such programs also need to provide
Children of Migrants
105
greater academic consistency and continuity perhaps, as Padilla and Ruiz (1973) have suggested, by having classrooms follow the children from one community to another rather than having the children adjust to a new class in each town. Although it seems plausible that interventions such as these might enhance the intellectual and academic development of SSSS Migrant children, no ready answers to their psychosocial problems seem evident. At this time, more data are needed on the parameters of their emotional-social development. The present study points to their vulnerability; future research must clarify and provide a stronger data base. Furthermore, in light of their at-risk nature, attention and energy must be devoted to developing programs to foster appropriate psychosocial development for these children.
REFERENCES Anderson, J. G., & Johnson,W. H. Stability and change among three generations of MexicanAmericans: Factors affecting achievement. American Educational Journal, 1971, 8, 285-307. Bloombaum, M., Yamamoto, J., & James, Q. Cultural stereotyping among psychotherapists. Journal of Counseling and ClinicalPsychology, 1968, 32, 99. Carter, T. P. The negative self concept of Mexican American Students. School and Society, 1968, 96, 207-209. Christiansen, T., & Livermore, G. A comparison of Anglo American and Spanish American children on the WISC. Journal of Social Psychology, 1970, 81, 9-14. Cohen, J. The factoral structure of the WISC at age 7-6, 10-6, 13-6. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1959, 23, 285-299. Dunn, P. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test manual. Minneapolis: American Guidance Service, 1959. Fisher, R. I. A study of non-intellectualattributes of children in first grade bilingual-bicultural program. Journal of Educational R esearch, 1974, 67, 323-328. Harris, D. B. Children's drawing as measures of intellectual maturity: A revision and extension of the Goodnough Draw-a-Man test. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, 1963. Herr, S. E. The effect of pre-first-grade training upon reading readiness and reading achievement among Spanish-American children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1946, 37, 87-102. Hishiki, P. C. Self concepts of sixth grade girls of Mexican-American descent. California Journal of Educational Research, 1969, 20, 56-62. Hollingshead, A. B., & Redlich, F. C. Social class and mental illness. New York: Wiley, 1958. J astak, J. F., & Jastak, S. R. The Wide Range A chievement Test manual Wilmington, Delaware: Guidance Associates, 1965. Karno, M., & Edgerton, R. B. Perception of mental illness in a Mexican-American community. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1969, 20, 233-238. Kaufman, A. S. Factor analysis of the WISC-R at 11 age levels between 6% and 16% years. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1975,43, 135-147. Killian, L. R. WISC, Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, and Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test performance of Spanish-American kindergarten and first-grade school children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1971,3 7, 38-43. Mercer, J. R. Sociocultural factors in labeling mental retardates. The Peabody Journal o f Education, 1971, 48, 188-203.
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Nowicki, S. Jr., & Strickland, B. R. A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology, 1973, 40, 148-155. Padilla, A. M., & Ruiz, R. A. Latino mental health: A review of the literature (DHEW Publication No. (HSM) 73-9143). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. Petersen, B., & Ramirez, M. III. Real ideal self-disparity in Negro and Mexican-American children. Psychology, 1971, 8, 22-28. Piers, E. V., & Harris, D. B. Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. Nashville, Tennessee: Counselor Recordings and Tests, 1967. Rice, A., Ruiz, R. A., & Padilla, A. M. Person perception, self-identity, and ethnic group preference in Anglo, Black, and Chicano preschool and third grade children. Journal ofCross-CulturalPsychology, 1974, 5, 100-108. Sattler, J. M. Racial "experimenter effects" in experimentation, testing, interviewing, and psychotherapy. Psychological Bulletin, 1970, 73, 137-160. Silverstein, A. B. Factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children for three ethnic groups. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1973, 65, 408-410. Torrey, E. F. The case for the indigenous therapist. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1969, 20, 365-373. U. S. Bureau of the Census. Current population reports, Series P-20, No. 224, Selected characteristics of persons and families of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and other Spanish origin: March 1941. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1971. (a) U.S. Bureau of the Census. Current population reports, Series P-20, No. 213, Persons of Spanish origin in the United States: November 1969. washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1971. (b) Wechsler, D. Manual: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation, 1974. Yamamoto, J., James, Q. C., & Palley, N. Cultural problems in psychiatric therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1968, 19, 45-49.
The Children of Mexican-American Migrant Workers: A Population at Risk? 1 Scott W. Henggeler Memphis State University Joseph B. Tavormina University of Virginia
The present study assessed intellectual, academic, and emotional strengths and weaknesses for a group of Mexican-American children of migrant farm workers. In order to test the vulnerability hypothesis, the test profiles of these children were contrasted with those of two groups of black children with similar demographic makeup. The children of one group (Clinical Black) had been referred previously for a psychological consultation while the children of the other (Nonreferred Black) had not. Across dependent measures, between-groups contrasts tended to describe the scores of the Migrant children as similar to those of the Clinical Black children and significantly below those of the Nonreferred Black children. The findings suggested specific intellectual, academic, and emotional vulnerabilities of the Migrant children and demonstrated the need to develop ameliorative programs for these children.
As a group Spanish-speaking, Spanish-surnamed (SSSS) Americans experience considerable socioeconomic and psychosocial difficulties, which include high rates of unemployment and low levels of income and education relative to national norms (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1971 a, 1971 b). In addition, although SSSS groups seem to need greater psychological services than the general population (Torrey, 1969), they receive less (Karno & Edgerton, 1969). Furthermore, the therapeutic interventions received by SSSS Americans are similar to those
Manuscript received in final form June 6, 1'977, 1The authors wish to thank the staff of C & Y, University of Virginia Hospital, especially Ms. Deborah Johnson and Ms. Suzanne Canale, whose cooperation and assistance made this project possible. 97 0091-0627/78/0300-0097
$05.00/0 9 1978 Plenum Publishing Corporation
98
Henggeler and Tavormina
dispensed to other economically deprived sociocultural groups (Hollingshead & Redlick, 1958): Mexican-American clients receive intensive verbally oriented treatment less often and drug-oriented interventions more often than Anglo clients (Bloombanm, Yamamoto, & James, 1968; Yamamoto, James, & Palley, 1968). In light of these factors Padilla and Ruiz (1973) have concluded that relative to mainstream cultural groups, SSSS Americans are more likely to develop socioemotional problems and are less likely to be provided with the resources needed to ameliorate these problems. The intellectual strengths and weaknesses of Mexican-American and Puerto Rican-American SSSS children have been well documented. These children typically have performed significantly higher on intellectual tasks that are nonverbal rather than verbal in nature (Killian, 1971; Silverstein, 1973;Christiansen & Livermore, 1970). SSSS children also have shown decreased scholastic achievement on verbally oriented subject matter (Anderson & Johnson, 1971). These findings have suggested that SSSS children are vulnerable to poor performance on verbally oriented intellectual and academic tasks. Less is known of the emotional strengths and weaknesses of SSSS children. Investigations of their emotional functioning have focused primarily on selfconcept and have provided inconsistent findings. Several studies have found significantly lower self-concepts among SSSS children than among black or Anglo children (Anderson & Johnson, 1971; Hishiki, 1969;Peterson & Ramirez, 1971 ; Fisher, 1974), while others have not found such differences (Carter, 1968; Rice, Ruiz, & Padilla, 1974). The present study evaluated the intellectual and emotional status of a sample of SSSS children of migrant farm laborers. Since the impoverishment and minority group status of these children could in and of itself exert a negative influence upon test scores, the study included two contrast groups of children who were also impoverished minority group members but were neither bilingual nor transient. One group was composed of black children with no known history of socioemotional difficulty and the other was composed of black children who had a history of psychological referral. Since the latter group had demonstrated psychological vulnerability, their comp~ative test performance was relevant to the assessment of the vulnerabilities of the migrant children. A broad-based assessment procedure was used to provide a comprehensive profile on these groups of children.
METHOD
Subjects The study included three groups of 24 children each: Migrant, Nonreferred Black, and Clinical Black. All children were chosen from the files made available
Children of Migrants
99
by the Children and Youth Center, University of Virginia Hospital, Charlottesville, Virginia. The Migrant group was composed of bilingual children of MexicanAmerican migrant farm workers, having no known physical, emotional, or intellectual handicap and enrolled in public school in Albermarle County, Virginia, during October 1974. The Nonreferred Black group was composed of black children who had never been referred for a psychological consultation and who were matched to the age, sex, and socioeconomic status (all families were Social Class V, Hollingshead & Redlich, 1958) of a respective child in the Migrant group. The children of the Clinical Black group were matched on the same demographic variables; however, each of these children had been referred previously for a psychological consultation for problems ranging from poor school performance to delinquency. The mean age and birth order of the children in each group did not differ, nor did they differ on father absence or whether the head of household was employed. However, the families of the Migrant group were significantly larger, t(46) = 3.53, p < .05, t(46) = 3.82, p < .05, had significantly higher monthly incomes, t(46) = 4.54, p < .05, t(46) = 5.24, p < .05, and their maternal level of education was significantly below, t(46) = 6.78, p < .05, t(46) = 5.58, p < .05, that of the Nonreferred Black and Clinical Black groups, respectively. Procedure
After parental permission was obtained, each subject was ~dministered a battery under uniform environmental conditions by one of four Anglo advanced undergraduate research assistants who had received extensive prior experience and supervision. Since many of the children, especially the Migrant children, did not comprehend several of the words used in the personality tests, examiners were instructed to explain the gist of the specific test item. Although this procedure violated the standardized testing format, it was used to ensure that the responses of the children were a function of the test item rather than random response or a biased response set. Before and. during test administration, considerable emphasis was placed upon the establishment of rapport and the malntainance of high levels of motivation. To facilitate rapport and motivation the examiners praised the child's serious efforts and provided concrete rewards (e.g., soft drinks and candy) contingent upon this effort. This procedure was followed in order to diminish possible distortions due to examiner-subject sociocultural differences (Sattler, 1970). Measures
Three standardized intelligence tests and one achievement test were used to obtain a profile of each child's cognitive functioning. The Wechsler Intelligence
12.3 12.3 11.5 16.7 13.2 16.1 17.7 10.1 34.9 28.5
73.2 90.1 65.2 79.9
WRAT percentage of academic achievement Present reading 60.5 Present spelling 68.2
71.4 71.0
78.9 77.7 76.5
73.3
77.7 78.1 76.0 75.8
37.2 33.3
18.7 19.2 15.1
16.3
14.8 16.0 15.8 17.8
SD
.,V,
SD
X 71.3 85.6 76.5 64.8
Intellectual indices WlSC-R verbal score WlSC-R performance score WISC-R full-scale score WISC-R verbal-comprehension factor WISC-R attention-freedom from distractability factor WISC-R perceptual organizational factor PPVT DAI'
Dependent measures
Clinical black
Migrant
64.7 68.1
87.6 86.0 83.0
82.0
85.2 87.0 85.0 84.8
X"
27.3 32.6
16.8 14.6 14.3
15.0
11.9 14.5 13.0 14.1
SD
Nonreferred black
> > > >
Ma C C; N > M M; C > M
M> C N > M;C > M N > M;C > M
N > M; N > C
N N N N
Statistically significant between-groups contrasts (.05)
Table I. Means and Standard Deviations of the Intellectual, Academic, and Emotional Measures for Each Group; Significant Between-Groups Contrasts
ga
~a
19.1 20.5 30.8 21.7 17.8 18.7
-1.06 c
.79
44.5 14.4 6.6 b 3.1 8.2 b 3.9 5.8 b 2.8 4.8 b 2.3 4.5 b 2.3 2.9 b 1.8
67.5 65.4 50.2 53.8 54.9 53.0
-.80
50.2 6.2 7.1 4.3 5.7 5.0 2.4
58.2 66.9 63.1 63.5 51.1 59.3
.99
9.7 3.7 3.7 2.6 2.7 2.4 1.8
20.4 26.0 38.2 37.1 22.3 28.9
aM = Migrant; C = Clinical Black Group; N = Nonreferred Black Group. bHigher scores imply lower self-concepts. c Higher scores imply a more internal locus of control.
Emotional indices Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale For Children Behavior Intellectual and school status Physical appearance and attributes Anxiety Popularity Happiness and satisfaction Nowicki-Strickland locus of control Z scores
Present arithmetic Present mean Projected reading Projected spelling Projected arithmetic Projected mean
-.34
56.1 4.4 5.7 4.8 3.9 2.7 1.8
69.9 67.5 64.7 67.0 68.7 66.8
1.11
11.7 3.4 3.3 2.9 2:6 2.3 1.9
25.8 21.4 32.1 33.3 26.0 23.5
N>M
N>C N>M;N>C
N>M N>M N>M
N>M;N>C N>M
9.
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Scale for Children-Revised (Wechsler, 1974) provided the usual scores plus measures of verbal comprehension, freedom from distractability, and perceptual organization derived from factor analytic studies (Cohen, 1959; Kaufman, 1975). The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn, 1959)provided a measure of receptive vocabulary skills and the Goodenough-Harris Draw-a-Person Test (Harris, 1963) served as an index of perceptual-motor abilities. The Wide Range Achievement Test (Jastak & Jastak, 1965) provided grade levels for each child. These scores were transformed into two percentages: The present percentage of achievement was calculated by dividing each child's WRAT achievement grade level by the current grade placement; each child's projected percentage of achievement was calculated by dividing the WRAT achievement grade level by expected grade level based on chronological age (with the baseline of 6 years as equivalent to first grade) rather than current grade placement. Psychometric indices of socioemotional functioning were obtained for the 20 children in each group who were over 8 years of age. The Piers-Harris SelfConcept Scale for Children (Piers & Harris, 1967) provided self-attitude scores on a number of dimensions. The Locus of Control Scale for Children (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973) provided a measure of the child's relative internal-external perception of control.
RESULTS
In order to determine significant between-groups differences the t test was used to contrast group means on each dependent measure. Table I presents the means and standard deviations of each group on each dependent measure as well as significant between-groups contrasts. Since there were three contrasts for each of the 24 dependent measures, four were expected to be significant by chance. The Nonreferred Black children showed significantly higher test performance than the Clinical Black and Migrant children on several intellectual measures. The Nonreferred Black children had significantly higher WlSC-R performance, t(46) = 2.15, p < .05, attention-freedom from distractability, t(46) = 2.02, p < .05, and full scale scores, t(46) = 2.29, p < .05, than the Clinical Black children. They also scored significantly higher than the Migrant children on the WISC-R verbal score, t(46) = 3.68, p < .01, full scale score, t(46) = 2.16, p < .05, verbal-comprehension factor, t(46) = 4.27, p < .01, attention-freedom from distractability factor, t(46) = 2.06, p < .05, and on the PPVT, t(46) = 4.18, p < . 0 1 . In addition, the Migrant group scored significantly below the Clinical Black group on the WISC-R verbal-comprehension factor, t (46) = 2.33, p < .05, and the PPVT, t (46) = 2.50, p < .05. Although the Migrant group consistently scored below the other groups on verbal indices, they did not score significantly below either group on the
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nonverbal measures of intellectual functioning. Indeed, the perceptual organization skills of the Migrant children were significantly higher than those of the Clinical Black children, t(46) = 2.25, p < .05. Hence the vulnerability of the Migrant children was specific to their verbal facility. In contrast to the many significant between-groups differences on intellectual measures, achievement indices based upon current grade placement showed no statistical differences. The mean present percentage of achievement for all groups of children was approximately two-thirds of their current grade level. However, the projected percentages of achievement, which were based on chronological age and projected grade level rather than current grade placement, showed several significant differences. The projected percentage of arithmetic achievement of the Nonreferred Black children was significantly higher than that of the Migrant children, t(46) = 2.15, p < .05, and of the Clinical Black children, t(46) = 2.73, p < .01. In addition, the mean overall projected percentage of achievement for the Nonreferred Black children was significantly higher than that of the Migrant children, t ( 4 6 ) = 2.24, p < .05. Thus, when age was considered, the Migrant children showed an achievement deficit relative to the Nonreferred Black children but not relative to the Clinical Black children, whose scores fell between those of the other groups. A similar pattern developed on the emotional measures. The Nonreferred Black children rated themselves as more popular, t(46) = 3.11, p < .01, and less anxious, t (46) = 2.25, p < .05, than did the Clinical Black children. The Nonreferred Black children rated themselves more positively than the Migrant children on behavior, t(46) = 2.13, p < .05, intellectual and school status, t (46) = 2.43, p < .05, and overall self-concept, t (46) = 3.03, p < .01. Thus, the self-concept of the Migrant children was well below that of the Nonreferred Black children and differed little from that of the Clinical Black children. On the Locus of Control Scale a similar pattern emerged. Although the Migrant children did not differ from the Clinical Black children, they were significantly more external than the Nonreferred Black children, t(46) = 2.34, p < .05. Thus when both indices of emotional functioning were considered, the Migrant children appeared vulnerable.
DISCUSSION
On intellectual indices, the Migrant children obtained a pattern of relative nonverbal strength and verbal weakness which was consistent with previously discussed research findings among SSSS groups. Although their mean WISC-R full scale score fell within the borderline range, it was depressed by their low performance on verbal measures. Their nonverbal skills were above those of the Clinical Black children and at a level similar to those of the Nonreferred Black children. Although the Migrant children certainly lacked English verbal
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skills, the large difference between their verbal and nonverbal scores indicates that they cannot be considered "borderline" in the traditional sense of the word. Although the Migrant children did not score below the other lower-class children on nonverbal intellectual measures, their academic achievement was significantly below that of the Nonreferred Black children when chronological age was considered. Since academic performance is influenced greatly by verbal facility, it is likely that the lower academic achievement of the Migrant cl~ildren was a function of their relative verbal deficits. Without an understanding of the language of the dominant culture, the SSSS child is clearly at a disadvantage educationally, and hence vocationally and socioeconomically, even though he or she might possess significant intellectual potential, as evidence by nonverbal indices. The Migrant children also showed a clear pattern of vulnerabilities on the emotional measures. If they were not at risk, one might have expected them to score similarly to the Nonreferred Black children and more positively than the Clinical Black children. Instead, the overall self-concept of the Migrant children was below that of the Clinical Black children and significantly below that of the Nonreferred Black children. The responses of the Migrant children were more external than those of the Clinical Black children and significantly more external than those of the Nonreferred Black children. Although the scores of the Migrant children on the emotional measures may be indicative of decreased psychosocial functioning, other explanations must be considered. Perhaps their self-assessment is simply and unfortunately a realistic appraisal of their life situation. For example, their low scores with respect to their perceived intellectual and school status may accurately reflect the fact that they a r e doing poorly in school. Their highly external locus of control may be an accurate reflection of the life they lead (the movements of their families are almost completely determined by external events such as the weather and pay scales). Hence, the low score might reflect normative sociocultural differences (Mercer, 1971) rather than any emotional deficits. However, the fact that the scores may reflect accurate perceptions does not necessarily mean that these children do not n~ed ameliorative interventions. Rather, it would suggest that interventions focus on upgrading the environmental systems that the children of SSSS migrant farm workers experience. The present study had identified se,r intellectual, academic, and emotional vulnerabilities as well as the need to develop ameliorative programs for the children of SSSS migrant farm workers. Intervention programs designed to ameliorate verbal deficiencies are readily identifiable. For example, the preschool and early elementary school curriculums of SSSS children should emphasize the development of English vocabulary and verbal comprehension skills (Herr, 1946). For the migrant children such programs also need to provide
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greater academic consistency and continuity perhaps, as Padilla and Ruiz (1973) have suggested, by having classrooms follow the children from one community to another rather than having the children adjust to a new class in each town. Although it seems plausible that interventions such as these might enhance the intellectual and academic development of SSSS Migrant children, no ready answers to their psychosocial problems seem evident. At this time, more data are needed on the parameters of their emotional-social development. The present study points to their vulnerability; future research must clarify and provide a stronger data base. Furthermore, in light of their at-risk nature, attention and energy must be devoted to developing programs to foster appropriate psychosocial development for these children.
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Nowicki, S. Jr., & Strickland, B. R. A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology, 1973, 40, 148-155. Padilla, A. M., & Ruiz, R. A. Latino mental health: A review of the literature (DHEW Publication No. (HSM) 73-9143). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. Petersen, B., & Ramirez, M. III. Real ideal self-disparity in Negro and Mexican-American children. Psychology, 1971, 8, 22-28. Piers, E. V., & Harris, D. B. Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. Nashville, Tennessee: Counselor Recordings and Tests, 1967. Rice, A., Ruiz, R. A., & Padilla, A. M. Person perception, self-identity, and ethnic group preference in Anglo, Black, and Chicano preschool and third grade children. Journal ofCross-CulturalPsychology, 1974, 5, 100-108. Sattler, J. M. Racial "experimenter effects" in experimentation, testing, interviewing, and psychotherapy. Psychological Bulletin, 1970, 73, 137-160. Silverstein, A. B. Factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children for three ethnic groups. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1973, 65, 408-410. Torrey, E. F. The case for the indigenous therapist. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1969, 20, 365-373. U. S. Bureau of the Census. Current population reports, Series P-20, No. 224, Selected characteristics of persons and families of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and other Spanish origin: March 1941. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1971. (a) U.S. Bureau of the Census. Current population reports, Series P-20, No. 213, Persons of Spanish origin in the United States: November 1969. washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1971. (b) Wechsler, D. Manual: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation, 1974. Yamamoto, J., James, Q. C., & Palley, N. Cultural problems in psychiatric therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1968, 19, 45-49.
