THE ANATOMICAL RECORD 298:935–940 (2015)

The Anatomy of the Mummy: Mortui Viventes Docent—When Ancient Mummies Speak to Modern Doctors 2 € JANET M. MONGE1* AND FRANK RUHLI University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2 Swiss Mummy Project, Centre for Evolutionary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland 1

ABSTRACT There is almost a universal fascination with prehistoric, protohistoric, and historic human remains that preserve the soft tissues (nonskeletal) of the body (general definition of a mummy). While most people within the general public engage with mummies as part of a museum exhibit process, many scientists have taken that fascination much further. Starting as a general fascination with mummification, the scientific process involved in the study of mummies began in earnest in the late 18th Century AD. This issue of the Anatomical Record was conceived and formulated to bring together a series of researchers to highlight their most groundbreaking research on the scientific advances that surround the 21st Century AD study of these preserved biological beings including an illumination of the cultural processes that purposefully or inadvertently are preserved either within their tissues or are present within the context (archaeological) in which they are found (excavated). Twenty-six research articles are presented in this volume on a variety of topics all related to the rich transdisciplinary fields that are now directing their research efforts to the state-of-the art analysis of human mummified C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. remains. Anat Rec, 298:935–940, 2015. V

Key words: mummy; mummies; mummification

The word mummy has been defined in many ways. The Aufderheide (2003) description is probably the most encompassing. He defines mummy in the following way: “In adjectival form the term ‘mummified human’ can be applied conveniently to even the smallest non-skeletal fragment of a human body surviving a post-mortem interval long enough normally to anticipate complete decay” (p. 1). Because this definition can be applied to hair and nail remains, he continues in his description reflecting on the general conception of a mummy in that it resembles a body or a corpse in some way. To launch this project, the Anatomical Record sponsored an all-day symposium at the Penn Museum in Philadelphia (February 26, 2011) the purpose was to introduce the interested public into the real science associated with mummy research. The final phase of the proC 2015 WILEY PERIODICALS, INC. V

ject is the production of this volume dedicated to stateof-the-art mummy research. The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Penn Museum) is widely known in Philadelphia as the “Mummy Museum,” with the exhibit Secrets in Science where 10 mummies are on display. (http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibits/egyptmummies-gallery.html). In 2012 the Penn Museum

*Correspondence to: Janet M. Monge, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 3260 South Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104. E-mail: [email protected] Received 16 January 2015; Accepted 30 January 2015. DOI 10.1002/ar.23129 Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary. com).

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added a mummy conservation lab to the public spaces within the Museum (http://www.penn.museum/currentchanging-exhibits/artifact-lab.html). Indeed, within three Museums located within Philadelphia, the city has hosted six exhibitions within the last 6 years dealing with mummies including: Mummies of the World, traveling exhibit at the Franklin Institute (Wieczorek and Rosendahl, 2010) from the German Mummy Project, and, Secrets of the Silk Road, a traveling exhibit at the € umchi Penn Museum and based on the mummies of Ur€ (Barber, 1999). Indeed the interest in mummies is strong among the general public who came to participate in the all day symposium sponsored by the Anatomical Record. As the project moved towards the construction of a dedicated issue on the scientific study of mummy, FR, Head of the Swiss Mummy Project, joined the group enlisting his extensive team of researchers to join in the production of the issue. The Swiss Mummy Project (http://www.swissmummyproject.uzh.ch/about.html) is dedicated to the investigation of “ancient human mummies of multiple cultural and geographic backgrounds with state-of-the art scientific methods”. Besides projects involving single cases of mummies, also general studies with a focus on the evolution of disease as well as on basic methodological research are undertaken. Mummy research is in its very nature, multi- and cross-disciplinary. The genesis of this volume evolved from an interest in ratcheting the public interest in mummies to the professional level—to move from the “Wow, this is so cool” level to an understanding of the scientific process involved in mummy research. Plastinated cadavers (cadavers that are impregnated with plastics under a vacuum), while very interesting in their own right, are not considered within this issue. To further refine the definition of mummification, there must be a relevant cultural meaning to the remains beyond just the preservation of the biological tissues.

DISCUSSION The raison d’^etre for the scientific study of mummies is to gain an understanding of the evolution of health and disease in previous or extinct populations of humans. The value of historic remains for the study of the evolution of human morphology and disease patterns has become recognized in the last decades (Downie, 2004; Pennisi, 2009). Samples consisting of mummified soft tissue—natural mummies such as the Neolithic Ice€ man “Otzi” (ca. 3300 BC) or artificial mummies such as Ancient Egyptian mummies are crucial to the advances of evolutionary medicine research. Ancient mummies are an especially rich source of information about past human biological conditions as they originated worldwide and from different cultures and time periods (Cockburn and Cockburn, 1980; Aufderheide, 2003). Mummies are likely to yield, for example, more ancient DNA than skeletal remains. The examples of contributions made by mummy studies to our medical knowledge are increasing. This is true particularly to the study of infectious diseases (Aufderheide, 2003; Lynnerup, 2007). Naturally and artificially mummified human remains have also been the source for genomic analyses of the adaptive evolution for example of Mycobacterium strains (Zink et al., 2003) or with more recent mummified samples for

the analyses of the Spanish flu (Taubenberger et al., 1997; Reid et al., 2000). This Anatomical Record volume presents research placed within eight areas of mummy research in 26 research articles. However, within each of the articles many issues are addressed that cross-cut these concentration areas.     

  

Ethics: Lonfat et al. (2015) Archiving: Nelson and Wade (2015) History: Zimmerman and Gleeson (2015) Experimental Modern Mummies: Wade et al. (2015); Papageorgopoulou et al. (2015) Regional Mummy Studies: Piombino-Mascali et al. (2015); Lynnerup (Thule Inuit) (2015); Lynnerup (Bogbodies) (2015); Beckett and Nelson (2015); Ojeda et al. (2015) Paleopathology and Histology: Fritsch et al. (2015); Brier et al. (2015); Link et al. (2015); Marquez et al. (2015) Technique and Limitations: Conlogue (2015); Cox (2015); R€ uhli and Lynnerup (2015); Posh (2015); Beck€ ett (2015); Ohrstr€ om et al. (2015); Sydler et al. (2015). Reconstructions: Lindsay et al. (2015); Arguelles et al. (2015); Shin; Seiler and R€ uhli (2015)

The issue begins with an emerging critical issue, ethics, in mummy studies. This article is co-authored by one of the editors of this volume (FR) and the work was precipitated during a previous submission of mummy research in which an editor asked for a statement of “informed consent” 3,000 years after death of the individual. Although much attention surrounds the scientific study of mummified remains, it is rare for researchers to engage in the discourse of ethics and ethical processes when dealing with these remains. Thus, the editors of the volume consider that the best lead off article to the issue of the Anatomical Record on “The Mummy” which should contain a discussion of the specific ethical processes and that this discussion should inform scientific inquiry into mummy research. It also breaks though the confines that have long had a hold on mummies—to objectify them, usually in a museum setting, rather than to view them as the remnants of the bodies of people in the past. Lonfat et al. (2015) approach this very issue and base their discussions upon the standards for ethical research developed at the Centre of Evolutionary Medicine at the University of Zurich with the intent of generating broader discourse within the mummy research community. As the living subject of research is used to inform “interest,” “harm,” and “rights,” research on human remains should reflect upon these posthumous persons and indeed project these categories of ethical concern into the living world to their possible or probable descendants as well as to the future research community dealing with these remains. The authors deftly use a case study approach to discuss the thorny issue of ethics as it applies to human remains in general and to the specific case of mummy research. Of special interest to those involved in mummy research are the issues outlined in the section called “Practical Applications” that attempts to frame and balance questions of appropriateness of certain research

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protocols to the measure of invasiveness/destructiveness of these techniques (imaging tools and invasive sampling methods are discussed). Finally the authors address the issue of communication and community engagement in the presentation of results in professional publications and to the general public. The purpose of the article is not to resolve all of the ethical issues in dealing with human remains or to postulate guidelines with global applicability; the expressed purpose or intent of the authors is merely to begin the broader discussion. The issue of ethics is also addressed in Beckett and Nelson (2015) on attempts at the restoration of mummies and in Nelson and Wade as they discuss issues associated with the development of a sustainable mummy database. In addition to the description of unique cases of preserved bodies such as presented on a mammoth mummy, Italian Inuit or South American mummies, this special Anatomical Record issue also incorporates reviews of technical developments applied to mummy research. Which are the leading diagnostic technologies and particularly what are the technical constraints specific to the examination of such valuable material by using such technology? Computed tomography is one of the leading diagnostic tools also for the in-depth analysis of ancient mummies. But more and more other technologies such as terahertz imaging or MRI are being applied to mummified tissues. These thematic and topical elements not only show the increasing transdisciplinary character of such research on ancient human (and animal) bodies but also the wide range of possible diagnoses and interpretation generated. Finally articles address both traditional/historical issues of Egyptian and experimental mummification as well as ones that cover the evolution of disease or are applied to the growing field of forensics. The second article in the series, co-authored by Nelson and Wade (2015), discusses a mummy database project IMPACT (Internet Mummy Picture Archiving and Communication Technology), a worldwide unique Internetbased mummy radiology database. For the first time in the history of ancient mummy research such a large database has been created and its purpose will be to provide future scientist with more standardized radiographic and contextual data sets to explore human morphology and pathologies of the past. This article covers all major aspects of the database set-up and its benefit for this growing field of science. Zimmerman and Gleeson (2015) give a historic perspective on the study of a very famous Penn Museum mummy PUM I. The entire field of paleopathology started in the early 1970s with the most thorough performed autopsy of an ancient Egyptian mummy at the University of Pennsylvania (PUM 1). This article describes retrospectively after more than 40 years not only the major findings at that time but also how progress of technology may help to guide similar studies in the present day. The mummy PUM I’s historic importance is due to its autopsy-based contribution towards the general development of the field of paleopathology— a landmark mummy of worldwide interest. By revisiting the autopsy as part of a conservation project at the Penn Museum, the authors note the importance of re-visiting previous mummy studies with new techniques of analysis.

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Both the Wade et al. (2015) and Papageorgopoulou et al. (2015) articles are based on experimental design of the Egyptian mummification process. Of historic interest is also the article by Wade et al. (2015) on the first ever experimental mummification of a complete human body in 1994 called MUMAB (Mummy University of Maryland at Baltimore). The aim of this article is to highlight the radiological appearances of this model mummy, using both in CT and MRI analyses. MUMAB gives unique insights into the alterations of the body that are part of the process of Egyptian mummifications including how the body has changed over the past 20 years. From these analyses, paleopathologists can more accurately distinguish between intrinsic body features and those that are the product of both the mummification process and time. Papageorgopoulou et al. (2015) developed an experimental protocol to determine both gross and macroscopic changes to tissues during the mummification process. The two amputated legs of a female body donor were subjected to a natron-based and natural-desiccation mummification protocols and analyses performed using visual inspection, CT scan analysis, and histological preparations of various soft tissues. Thus, difference in tissue type, volume and composition are factored out of this analysis and only the actual mummification process should potentially influence the observed differences between the two legs. Comparisons are made to the changes published on MUMAB by Wade et al. (2015) and to histological studies published by Zimmerman and Gleeson (2015) on Egyptian-style mummified bodies. The next five articles contain discussions of regional mummy studies that span a very broad geographic and time range illustrating the diversity of environments that can potentially preserve soft tissues of the body:, Sicily, Greenland and mainland Denmark, Peru and New Guinea. Piombino et al. (2015) describe the Savoca Sicily Mummy Project. The 18th/19th century AD human mummies from Sicily are well known, both for their tourist value but also as a focus of scientific enquiry. In a large radiological study using state-of-the-art portable conventional X-ray imaging the authors highlight the successful field operation of their anthropological and biomedical analyses of those mummies. The Sicily mummy project is an on going consortium of scientists addressing a broad range of issues outlined in this radiological report. In the first of two single authored articles, a remarkable number (N 5 14) of ice mummies are reported by Lynnerup (2015) that are derived from the Inuit peoples of Greenland. He details both the molecular and dietary analyses that were performed as well as producing a detailed paleopathology report along with a lengthy discussion of cultural contextual materials, especially with a report on the examination of facial tattooing. The second article (Lynnerup, 2015), on bog bodies, from the Iron Age of Denmark, is a detailed examination of these uniquely preserved remains. Some of the most fascinating preserved corpses of the past are bog bodies. The unique mode of preservation is very detailed described in this article as well as the state-of-the-art examination techniques used to analyze the remains. The diagnostic pitfalls of such projects, for example, the difficult interpretation of perimortem trauma, are clearly outlined to

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help to interpret similar finds in future studies of bog peoples. In addition, a modern case of an incidental bog body is briefly described. The Beckett and Nelson (2015) as well as the Ojeda et al. (2015) articles concentrate on mummies from two sides of the world: New Guinea and highland Peru respectively. The modern artificial mummies from Papua New Guinea are publicly known world-wide. This article describes for the first time a restoration project applied to these mummified human corpses that were produced through a smoking process. The Tres Ventanas Mummies from Peru are one of the older mummies in the Americas. This article (Ojeda, et al., 2015) introduces the MUNADA facility in Peru and their new focus on mummies studies. These mummies come from a high altitude context and are important for comparisons with the bulk of Peruvian mummies that come from a low-land coast context. The authors emphasize the importance of the collection especially towards an understanding of high altitude adaptations; thus, a large emphasis in the article of symposium abstracts concentration of the cardiovascular system. These mummies have not been extensively studied to date; the construction of a new Museum, by a University resolution, will open the collection to scholars in anthropology, archaeology, medicine, culture and biodiversity. It is critical to present these Peruvian scholars and these much underrepresented mummies (discovered in 1966) to the community of scholars interested in expanding the limits of mummy research to a new well documented collection. Although all of the articles within the volume touch on issues associated with pathology, the next four articles within the volume have the analysis of paleopathology as a central theme. Fritsch et al. (2015) describe a study of 52 Egyptian mummies that were CT scanned and evaluated for joint disease. This is a unqiue systematic review of mummies for orthopedic problems. The team travels around the world to evaluation the health status of mummies and this presentation is their first assessment of joint/orthopedic problems. Using whole body CT scans of a series of Egyptian mummies, the team evaluated large joint orthopedic problems that characterized the peoples of ancient Egypt. A very high frequency of osteoarthritis of the spine as well as 6 cases of scoliosis, merits further evaluation of the general overall health of the peoples. In addition, other patterns of degenerative change characterizing other joints in these mummies will ultimately give insight into activity patterns (through the analysis of Markers of Occupational Stress—MOS) of these ancient peoples. Brier et al. (2015) report on research on ancient Egyptian prosthetics. The findings of an artificial toe—along with some other interesting alterations, for example, of internal organs, and thus move towards the assessment of the individual’s health. Particularly the use of CT allowed for an improved medico-historical assessment and highlights the scientific importance of using latest radiological technology to diagnose pre and postmortem alterations in such enigmatic human bodies. Papageogopoulou et al. (2015) report on the frozen remains of a woolly mammoth, the only ancient animal body discussed in this issue of the Anatomical Record. First histological analysis of the best preserved 1-year-

old woolly mammoth calf—Siberia, Late Pleistocene. The analysis of wooly mammoth remains is considered essential in teasing out both the relationship of these extinct forms to living African and Asian elephants as well as to an increased understanding of the events that lead to their extinction at the end of the Pleistocene. Papageorgopoulou et al. (2015) present the results of their histological analysis of several tissues from the Siberian mammoth including: hair, muscle, several organs, bone, connective tissue coverings of the thorax and abdomen, stomach contents and vivianite (iron phosphate). These materials were then compared to samples from living African elephants and to previous histological studies performed on other mammoth specimens where only hair, skin and muscle tissue biopsies were obtained and reported. Based on their findings, especially the unique quantity of vivianite in the trachea and bronchi of the baby mammoth, along with the lack of waterborne organisms within the lung tissue, it appears that the animal died of accidental asphyxiation due to the inhalation of mud. The final article in this series by Marquez et al. (2015) evaluates the hypothesis that paranasal sinus size is related to environment in a sample of living populations of humans including of contemporary Egyptians. For comparison, the authors used three CT scans of Egyptian mummies to introduce a historic element into the analysis. Indeed the mummy component to the variation analysis in the size of the paranasal sinuses strengthen the conclusions based on living peoples—that sinus size is related to climatic and temperature conditions present in different regions of the world. Because of the importance to maintain consistency and to evaluate the accuracy of imaging these ancient tissues, a total of eight articles are devoted to the technical issues (traditional X-ray, CT, MRI, and endoscopic) associated with the evaluation of mummified bodies. Virtually all mummy research relies about one or more of these imaging tools. Lynnerup and R€ uhli (2015) as a team tackle both issues associated with conventional radiography as well as, in a separate article, MRI € imaging. Additionally both Posh (2015) and Ohrstr€ om et al. (2015) critically evaluate novel imaging methods applied to mummified materials with Posh addressing technical issues and addressing ways to coax the best possible images from traditional medical MRI instru€ om et al. (2015) move into new areas of ments. Ohrstr€ imaging research—Terahertz imaging modalities. Two types of Terahertz imaging devices experimentally were used to image mummified tissues: Egyptian mummified hands and a foot, an Egyptian mummified fish, and a natural mummified rat. Comparisons were made the other technologies applied to these types of remains and include conventional X-ray, CT, and MR images. The authors experiment with scanners using different band widths on large objects and with mummified structures of differing textures and density. Although the results are mixed, and absorption remains a fundamental limitation, this experimental process holds promise especially as industrial applications of terahertz imaging devices drive the industry to produce more versatile and adaptable devices. It is also theoretically possible that mobile scanning devices can be used in field situations as mummies are excavated.

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CT scan analysis forms the core of three of the technical articles: Conlogue (2015), Cox (2015), and Sydler et al. (2015). CT scans form an essential core to virtually all mummy studies and these articles aptly critically addresses the problems associated with the interpretation of the derived images. Sydler et al. (2015) evaluate the relative amount of soft tissue change in several types of mummies: Egyptian mummies, natural South American mummies, bog, ice, and desiccated mummies. The extent of soft tissue shrinkage depends on the type of mummification process, soft tissue type, and includes variation within the bodies of individual mummies mummified under the same condition (purposeful or natural mummification). Evaluation was based on the relative amount of soft tissue change assessed in CT slice images and measured in voxels and based on comparison with bone, considered the stable internal element within the mummified remains. Ice mummies show the least amount of alteration followed by bog bodies. Perhaps the most interesting and intriguing conclusion is that although mummification type dictates the amount of soft tissue alteration but that the extent of alteration is not time dependent. Application of these results holds promise both within the forensic investigation of preserved copses and in the analysis of taphonomic processes associated with mummified remains. Cox (2015) summarizes and critically assesses the use of CT scans for the evaluation of mummies. Although CT scans are considered the state of the art in mummy research, Cox points out their limitations in the evaluation of paleopathology. In addition to the detailed analysis of two Penn Museum mummies, including the famous autopsied mummy PUM II both at the Penn Museum in Philadelphia, PA (Zimmerman and Gleason 2015), Cox (2015) summarizes the history of the integration of CT analysis into mummy studies. She then continues with a detailed analysis of the CT scans of HapiMan and PUM II. Working with radiologist Morrie Kricun, she shows cogently the difficulties in the interpretation of pathology within the mummies and calls for a multi-dimensional assessment of the interpretation of mummified remains including an evaluation of changes to the remains that are part of taphonomic processes, including those associated with curation of mummies within the context of museums. The final set of articles tackle issues of reconstruction and interpretation of the data derived from mummified materials. Lindsay et al. (2015) set out to make “more scientific” the processes involved in facial reconstruction in mummy studies. They propose a new method—broken into stages—using artists, anthropologists and forensic sources of information. Still, face reconstruction accuracy remains to be confirmed (Taylor 2001). The authors also substitute the word “approximation” for “reconstruction” that is a more accurate way of describing the overall process. This addition to the AR volume starts with a historic analysis of facial reconstruction primarily derived from the forensic sciences. Lindsay et al. outline a case study of the three-dimensional reconstruction of a mummified face of an ancient Egyptian head. They present a detailed analysis of each stage used in the reconstruction of this face. It is this staged process that is at the core of this work and their meth-

ods are replicable to other reconstructions/approximations performed on mummified remains. They detail every aspect of the decision making process and back up each phase with scientific data. Finally, they critically evaluate the end result. Arguelles et al. (2015) explore the topic of the content of the intestines of an ancient mummified person. The study of intestinal content in ancient human remains is crucial for the understanding e.g. of evolution of health and disease. The enormous forensic impact of such an attempt is shown hereby successfully on a several hundred-year-old Korean mummy. Crucial information on types of environmental and economic pollen reveal very detailed insights into the time of death as well as type of diet in general. Dong Hoon Shin’s (2015) article relies heavily on a DNA analysis to validate historic accounts of burial practices in Korean dynastic tombs. Korean mummies originating from Joseon Dynasty tombs (ca. 14th till 19th century AD) are a unique sample of human bodies. Besides other analyses, ancient DNA studies have been undertaken successfully to try to match teeth buried along side in a pouch with the potential individual owner and thus to assess the validity of related historical literature accounts. The realistic presentation of molecular studies on such worldwide known ancient human samples is of importance to assess the impact and pitfall of similar future studies that attempt to reconcile historic documents with ancient remains. As the final Anatomical Record volume entry, Seiler and R€ uhli (2015), use biological mummy tissues (teeth) to understand a cultural practice in Egyptian mummification. This is an interesting work because it combines the analysis of ancient text materials with the observations made by the authors (and through reference to the observations of other researchers) of damage to the oral cavity as part of the Egyptian mummification process. When the ritual is performed is a key component of this research. Seiler and R€ uhli (2015) examined the oral cavity of 51 Egyptian mummies that are part of the collections in the country of Switzerland. Criteria for inclusion in the study include evidence of post-mortem damage to the dentition in association with the assessment of intact soft tissue coverage of the mouth and intact mummy bandaging. Descriptive historic texts are employed to understand the ritual aspects of the “opening of mouth” and then to map this onto what the authors describe as “the opening of the mouth procedure” in its physical manifestation on the mummified remains. Although the opening of the mouth process can occur in any time frame after the death of the individual, the process as outlined here with damage produced to the teeth postmortem, is defined as taking place after preparation of the body but before the mummy is wrapped.

SUMMARY Both the volume editors (J.M. and F.R.) as well as the editors of the Anatomical Record, Jeffrey Laitman and Kurt Albertine, hope that this issue becomes a major contribution to the fields related to mummy and mummification studies on a par with other critical and historical volumes that are so essential within the field (e.g. Aufderheide, 2003; Cockburn and Cockburn, 1980). In

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addition, the volume will potentially be interesting to a broader audience who would like to move beyond the superficial view of mummies available in the popular literature and begin to explore and critically asses the evidentiary scientific base of mummy studies. Just as mummies continue to capture and enrapture a broad audience, the wealth of information contained within these bodies, and in the context of the excavation or exposure of these bodies, surrounds them in layer upon layer of rich informative research material. Thus, the 26 research articles contained within this volume present a 2015 view of the state-of-the-science of mummy research analysis and harken to a rich future of transdisciplinary mummy studies.

LITERATURE CITED Arguelles, P, Reinhard K, Shin DH. 2015. Forensic palynological analysis of intestinal contents of a Korean mummy. Anat Rec 298: 1182–1190. Aufderheide AC. 2003. The scientific study of mummies. UK: Cambridge University Press. € umchi. NY: Norton. Barber EW 1999. The mummies of Ur€ Beckett RG. 2015. The application and limitations of endoscopy in anthropological and archaeological research. Anat Rec 298:1125– 1134. Beckett RG, Conlogue GJ. 2010. Paleoimaging: field applications for cultural remains and artifacts. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Beckett RG, Nelson AJ. 2015. Mummy restoration project among the anga of papua new guinea. Anat Rec 298:1013–1025. Brier B, Vinh P, Schuster M, Mayforth H, Johnson E. 2015. A radiologic study of an ancient egyptian mummy with a prosthetic toe. Anat Rec 298:1047–1058. Cockburn A, Cockburn E. 1980. Mummies, disease and ancient cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Conlogue G. 2015. Considered limitations and possible applications of computed tomography in mummy research. Anat Rec 298: 1088–1098. Cox SL. 2015. A critical look at mummy CT scanning. Anat Rec 298:1099–1110. Downie JR. 2004. Evolutionary biology. Lancet 363:1168. Fritsch KO, Hamoud H, Allam AH, Grossmann A, Nur el-Din A-H, Abdel-Maksoud G, Al-Tohamy Soliman M, Badr I, Sutherland JD, Sutherland ML, Akl M, Finch CE, Thomas GS, Wann LS Thompson RC. 2015. The orthopedic diseases of ancient Egypt: findings on CT scans of 52 mummies. Anat Rec 298:1036–1046. Jespersen TC, Rodrigues A, Starr J, editors. 2008. The anatomy of body worlds: Critical essays on the plastinated cadavers of Gunther von Hagen. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Lindsay K, R€ uhli F, Burke DeLeon V. 2015. Revealing the face of an ancient egyptian: synthesis of current and traditional approaches to evidence-based facial approximation. Anat Rec 298:1144–1161. Link K, Papageorgopoulou C, R€ uhli F. 2015. Histology of the wooly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) preserved in permafrost Yamal peninsula, northwest Siberia. Anat Rec 298:1059–1071. Lonfat BK, Kaufmann I, R€ uhli F. 2015. A code of ethics for evidence-based research with ancient human remains. Anat Rec 298:1175–1181.

Lynnerup N. 2007. Mummies. Yearbk Phys Anthrop 45:162–190. Lynnerup N. 2015. The thule inuit mummies from Greenland. Anat Rec 298:1001–1006. Lynnerup N. 2015. Bogbodies. Anat Rec 298:1007–1012. Lynnerup N R€ uhli F. 2015. Short review: the use of conventional xrays in mummy studies. Anat Rec 298:1085–1087. Marquez S, Lawson W, Mowbray K, Delman B, Laitman J. 2015. Comparative anatomical examination of the paranasal sinuses of egyptian mummies and three distinct human population groups with CT imaging. Anat Rec 298:1072–1084. Nelson AJ, Wade AD. 2015. IMPACT: development of a radiological mummy database. Anat Rec 298:941–948. Ojeda B, Benfer RA, Rivera R, Thompson RC, Lombardi G. 2015. The Tres Ventanas mummies of Peru. Anat Rec 298:1026–1035. € Ohrstr€ om L, Fischer B, Bitzler A, Wallauer J, Walther M, R€ uhli F. 2015. Terahertz imaging modalities of ancient egyptian mummified objects and a naturally mummified rag. Anat Rec 298:1135– 1143. Papageorgopoulou C, Shved N, Wanek J, R€ uhli F. 2015. Modeling ancient egyptian mummification on fresh human tissue: macroscopic and histological aspects. Anat Rec 298:974–987. Pennisi E. 2009. Evolutionary medicine. Darwin applies to medical school. Science 324:162–163. Piombino-Mascali D, Jankauskas R, Zink A, Todesco M, Aufderheide A. 2015. Paleoradiology of the savoca mummies. Anat Rec 298:988–1000. Posh J. 2015. Technical limitations on the use of traditional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the evaluation of mummified remains: a view from a hands-on radiologic technologist’s perspective. Anat Rec 298:1116–1124. Reid AH, Fanning TG, Janczewski TA Taubenberger JK. 2000. Characterization of the 1918 "Spanish" influenza virus neuraminidase gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:6785–6790. R€ uhli F, Lynnerup N. 2015. Magnetic resonance imaging of ancient mummies. Anat Rec 298:1085–1087. Seiler R R€ uhli F. 2015. “The opening of the mouth”—a new perspective for an ancient Egyptian mummification procedure. Anat Rec 298:1208–1216. Shin DH. 2015. Academic dispute on the funeral rites of Joseon society is settled by ancient DNA analysis of Korean mummy. Anat Rec 298:1182–1190. Sydler C, Ohrstr€ om L, Woitek U, R€ uhli F. 2015. CT-based assessment of relative soft tissue alteration in different types of mummies. Anat Rec 298:1162–1174. Taylor KT. 2001. Forensic art and illustration. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Taubenberger JK, Reid AH, Krafft AE, Bijwaard KE Fanning TG. 1997. Initial genetic characterization of the 1918 "spanish" influenza virus. Science 275:1793–1796. Wade AD, Conlogue GJ, Beckett RG, Gonzalez R, Wade RS, Brier B. 2015. MUMAB: a conversation with the past. Anat Rec 298: 954–973. Wieczorek A, Rosendahl W, editors. 2010. Mummies of the world. Munich: Prestel. Zimmerman M. Gleeson M. 2015. PUM I revisited: the march of technology. Anat Rec 298:949–953. Zink AR, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H Nerlich AG. 2003. Characterization of mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from egyptian mummies by spoligotyping. J Clin Microbiol 41:359–367.

The anatomy of the mummy: mortui viventes docent--when ancient mummies speak to modern doctors.

There is almost a universal fascination with prehistoric, protohistoric, and historic human remains that preserve the soft tissues (nonskeletal) of th...
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