ChddAbuse & Neslpcr. Vol. 16, pp. 229-238, Pnnted I” the U.S.A. All nghts reserved.
TEACHERS’ ABOUT
1992
0145.2134192 $5.00 + .OO Copyright 0 I992 Pergamon Press Ltd.
KNOWLEDGE, CHILD ABUSE
ATTITUDES, AND BELIEFS AND ITS PREVENTION
NADINE ABRAHAMS, KATHLEEN
CASEY, AND DEBORAH DARO
The National Center on Child Abuse Prevention Research, a program of The National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse, Chicago, IL
Abstract-h considering the great responsibility placed upon teachers to involve themselves in child abuse prevention, education, and detection, the National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse (NCPCA) conducted a nationwide survey of teachers from 40 school districts in 29 randomly selected counties. The survey explores teachers knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about child abuse and its prevention. Five hundred and sixty-eight teachers responded, revealing that while the majority of teachers confront child abuse among their students, they are provided insufficient education on bow to address it. Other findings are reported with respect to teachers’ reporting behavior, potential barriers to reporting, child assault prevention programs, and corporal punishment in schools.
Key Words-Teachers,
Child abuse prevention, Child abuse reporting, School age children.
INTRODUCTION THE HISTORY OF CHILD ABUSE TREATMENT and prevention has been written by a variety of disciplines both individually and collectively. Initial research on the scope of the problem and effective methods of intervention can be found in medicine, sociology, psychology and social work (Elmer, 1966; Gil, 1970; Kempe, Silverman, Steele, Droegemueller & Silver, 1962). Underlying all of these efforts has been a recognition of the multi-causal nature of maltreatment and the need for multidisciplinary approaches. The most common implementation of this concept has been the establishment of multidisciplinary teams for investigating reports of child abuse and developing comprehensive treatment plans (Blumberg, 1977; Brant & Tisza, 1977; Cohn, 1979; Galleno & Oppenheim, 1982; Grazio, 198 1; Green, 197.5; Green, 1976). A key member of these multidisciplinary teams has been elementary and high school personnel. Within schools, teachers play a special role. By virtue of their ongoing and long term contact with children, teachers are most likely to identify suspected victims of maltreatment and to report these children to child protective services, as required by law. In addition to identifying abuse after it occurs, teachers also play a pivotal role in child abuse prevention. This role is realized in a number of ways. First, strong teacher-student relationships provide an opportunity for teachers to offer guidance and support to children in crisis. In some instances, this support also may be given to a child’s family. Second, teachers may implement child assault prevention curricula to foster safety awareness and self-protection skills in their students. Finally, preventing child abuse involves a teacher’s own behavior in the classroom. Through resolving not to use corporal punishment and modeling nonviolent conflict resolution, educators can create an environment conducive to a child’s well-being (Romano, 1989). Received for publication October 18, 1989; final revision received February 11, 199 1; accepted February 12, 199 1. Reprint requests to Deborah Daro, 332 S. Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600, Chicago, Illinois 60604. 229
230
Nadine Abrahams, Kathleen Casey, and Deborah Daro
The presence of abused children in the classroom is fairly universal. A national survey of 22,000 teachers reported that 89% of respondents recognized child abuse as a problem in their schools (Carnegie Foundation, 1988). Data on child abuse reports confirms the pervasiveness of child abuse among school-age children and reveals steady increases in overall reports of child abuse over the last decade, with a total increase of 153% between 1979 and 1990 (AAPC, 1988; Daro & McCurdy, 1991). Despite the increasing presence of child abuse in the classroom, the education of teachers to confront the problem has not increased proportionately. In one survey of Illinois teachers, 8 1% reported receiving no child abuse information during college and 66% had not received any education on abuse or neglect during in-service training (McIntyre, 1987). Additionally, only 2 1% of the teachers reported that they were very aware of the signs of physical abuse, 19% of emotional abuse, 30% of physical neglect, and 76% indicated they would be unable to recognize indicators of sexual abuse. Another study of Atlanta teachers found that 68% of the respondents had only received three or fewer hours of education about child abuse (Hazzard, 1984). Similarly, a more recent study involving 843 teachers working in the Department of Defense Section 6 Schools indicated that 68% reported inadequate or no training related to child maltreatment (Sponberg, 1989). Perhaps reflecting this lack of training, a sizable percentage of teachers fail to report suspected cases of maltreatment. Although 57% of the over 2.1 million reports filed in 1986 involved school-aged children, only 16.3% of all reports originate from school personnel (AAPC, 1988). Further, the most recent Federal National Child Abuse and Neglect Incidence Study found that only 24% of suspected child abuse and neglect cases known to school personnel were formally reported to and investigated by child protective services (Westat, 1988). In an effort to better understand how best to integrate teachers into child abuse prevention efforts, a National Teacher Survey was conducted by the National Center on Child Abuse Prevention Research, a program of the National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse (NCPCA). The unique aspects of this effort included its nationwide sample, the availability of comparative data on district child abuse prevention policies, and its original examination of teacher perspectives on child assault prevention and corporal punishment within the context of child abuse prevention. The survey assessed teacher knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about child abuse and child abuse prevention. Specific assessments included (a) teachers’ familiarity with the schools formal child abuse reporting procedures, (b) the means by which teachers are informed of these procedures, (c) how often teachers report suspected cases of abuse, (d) teacher attitudes towards the use of corporal punishment in the schools, (e) the quality and quantity of in-service workshops and general education for teachers on child abuse and neglect, and (f) teacher perceptions of the barriers they face in reporting suspected child abuse and in implementing child assault prevention programs. This paper presents the finding of the National Teacher Survey with respect to these issues and discusses the apparent inconsistencies between school policy and practice in this area. The scope of this study was limited to elementary school teachers due to the availability of a convenient sample that included only this population of educators. The authors acknowledge that preschool teachers, day care providers, and other groups also play an important role in child abuse prevention. Subsequent studies are planned to survey these professionals.
METHOD The National Teacher Survey (NTS) drew its sample from the random stratified 29 counties utilized in the most recent federally funded National Study on the Incidence of Child
Teachers and child abuse prevention
231
Abuse and Neglect (Westat, 1988). For the past 3 years, NCPCA staff have been monitoring the initiation and expansion of prevention policies in all of the school districts in these counties as part of its assessment of the organization’s goal to reduce child abuse 20% by 1990 (Daro, Abrahams, & Robson, 1988; Daro, Casey, & Abrahams, 1990). In each of these 29 counties with the exception of those with only one unified district, both the largest and smallest school districts were contacted. Of the 49 districts contacted, 80% of the superintendents or directors of pupil services agreed to participate in the study. Of the 40 participating districts, representing 27 counties, 13% were in the South, 23% were in the Northeast, 28% were in the Southwest, and 36% were in the Midwest. Each of the cooperating districts were randomly assigned two grades and asked to distribute surveys to all the full-time teachers in those chosen grade levels. The goal of the NTS was to obtain an equal number of responses from first through sixth-grade teachers. In school districts with more than 30 elementary or middle schools, only one grade level was assigned. The surveys and a cover letter explaining the purpose of the survey and ensuring confidentiality to all the participants were generally placed directly into the teachers’ mailboxes with a stamped, return envelope. Of the approximately 1,694 questionnaires mailed to the school districts, 575 surveys were completed; of these 568 were completed by elementary or middle school full-time teachers. Seven surveys were completed by the school nurse or were incomplete and have not been used in this data analysis. The response rate of the NTS was approximately 34%. Several factors may have influenced this figure. First, there was considerable difficulty in verifying how many surveys actually reached the teachers. In some larger school districts, surveys were mailed directly to the district superintendent and were distributed internally to each school. It was then the responsibility of individual principals to disseminate the surveys. The dissemination and distribution process required cooperation at many stages and it is highly probable that not all surveys reached their targeted destination. Further complications in the distribution process may have involved the timing of the study. Surveys were distributed near the close of the school year, late May and early June, and other necessary activities around this time may have hindered both the dissemination and/or teachers’ ability to respond. However, a recent survey of elementary school principals launched in February, utilized the same follow-up procedures as the NTS, and received a similar response rate of 35% (Romano, Casey, & Daro, 1990). Due to the response rate, caution should be exercised in interpreting these data. Although the sample is representative of the profile of elementary school teachers generated by the National Education Association in terms of age, race, and experience, a biased sample may have been captured (NEA, 1987). It is possible that responding teachers were more sensitive or more committed to child abuse prevention than nonrespondents.
THE SAMPLE The National Teacher Survey sample was composed of 568 elementary or middle school teachers in 40 school districts across the country. The respondents included 501 females (88%) 47 males (8%) and 20 (4%) who did not indicate their gender. The mean age of this sample was 40 years of age. The majority of the respondents were between 30 and 49, with 9% of the sample 50 or older and 16% less than 30. The responding teachers were geographically distributed across the nation with 27% in the Northeast, 19% in the Midwest, 40% in the South, and 14% in the Southwest. Of the 568 teachers in the sample, 20% taught first grade, 9% taught second grade, 22% taught third grade, 17% taught fourth grade, 12% taught fifth grade, 16% taught sixth grade, and 1% were special education teachers. In order to gain a sense of the experience level of the respondents, teachers were asked to indicate how many years they had been teaching. Twenty percent of the respondents were
232
Nadine Abrahams, Kathleen Casey, and Deborah Daro Table 1. Frequency of Specific In-Service Workshops on Child Abuse and Neglect
% Citing Topic Identification of Victims Teachers as Mandated Reporters Reporting Procedures Referral Information Effect of Abuse on Children Personal Concerns Dealing With Abuse Child Assault Prevention Education Discussion Skills With Familv Family Intervention Skills . Other Topics
88 80 78 62 59 45 38 16 14 5
Note. N = 27 I.
novices, only having been a teacher for l-5 years, 63% were fairly experienced having taught for 6-20. Of the respondents in this final category, 19% taught for 6- 10 years and 44% taught for 1 l-20 years. Seventeen percent were veterans with 2 1 or more years of experience in the field. The mean for years teaching in the NTS teacher sample was 13, comparable to the mean of 15 years cited in NEA’s teacher profile (NEA, 1987). The experience level of teachers within the NTS sample, however, somewhat differed by region. Overall, teachers from the Southwest were less experienced than those from other geographic areas. It is not know whether the NTS sample is skewed in this respect or if this is a true reflection of the experience level of teachers in the Southwest.
SURVEY
FINDINGS
Teacher Education Results of the NTS reveal that, overall, the majority of teachers are receiving a minimal amount of education on identifying, reporting, and intervening in suspected cases of child abuse and neglect. Forty-nine percent of teachers reported that their schools provided in-service workshops on child abuse and neglect related topics. Of those teachers that had been offered such workshops, 62% reported that the in-services were mandatory for all teachers, but were typically offered only once a year or on an “as needed” basis. The topics covered within these workshops are reported in Table 1. More than 85% of the workshops covered the issue of identifying victims of child abuse and neglect. Further, more than 75% covered the issues of teachers as mandated reporters and reporting procedures. As shown in the table, little emphasis is placed on intervention skills for dealing with families in crisis. This is inconsistent with the NEA’s policy recommendation that teachers be trained in techniques to intervene with children and families affected by child abuse (NEA, 1989). Forty-seven percent of these educational workshops were delivered by the school social worker, counselor or nurse. In terms of written material, only half of all teachers (5 1%) reported that their school circulates any written material on child abuse and neglect. In view of the minimal level of child abuse information NTS educators reported receiving, it is not surprising to find that two thirds of teachers viewed the child abuse education provided to them by their school insufficient. Even among those teachers that reported actually receiving in-service workshops, approximately half believed such brief instruction was not enough. This dissatisfaction with the quality and amount of child abuse education was apparent in all regions but highest in the South.
233
Teachers and child abuse prevention Table 2. Frequency With Which Specific Concepts Are Included in Child Assault Prevention Programs
% of Positive Responses Distinctions Between Touches Body Ownership Assertiveness Training Concept of Secret Keeping Existence of Social Support Systems Other Concepts
87 85 83 81 57 4
Note. N = 283.
Reporting Behavior The pervasiveness of child abuse and neglect was again evidenced by the almost three quarters (74%) of the NTS sample of teachers who indicated that they had suspected a child as being abused or neglected at one time or another. Of the teachers who noted they suspected child maltreatment, 90% indicated that they reported the case. These reports were most commonly made to other school system personnel such as the school principal, social worker, or nurse. Only about 23% of teachers indicated reporting cases directly to Child Protective Services (CPS), a figure consistent with the National Incidence Study finding that 24% of suspected cases known to school personnel are investigated by child protective services (Westat, 1988). Barriers to Child Abuse Reporting In that previous research has suggested that school personnel report only a small percentage of the child abuse and neglect cases they observe (AAPC, 1988; Westat, 1988), the NTS queried teachers on their perceptions of potential barriers to consistent reporting. Two thirds Table 3. Importance of Specific Prevention Services
Below Average Prioritv 1. Providing Support, Encouragement, and Understanding to Children Who Have Been Abused Reporting Child Abuse Whenever Suspected Modeling Positive, Nonviolent Ways of Resolving Conflicts Encouraging Troubled Families to Seek Help Learning About Services Available for Abusive Families in the Community 6. Helping Parents Deal Creatively With Report Card Issues 7. Resolving Not to Use Corporal Punishment in the Classroom” 8. Talking With Other Teachers Regarding Their Use of Corporal Punishme&
Average Prior&v
Above Average Prioritv
1%
2%
97%
3%
3%
94%
2%
8%
90%
5%
8%
87%
4%
15%
81%
10%
22%
68%
19%
14%
57%
25%
24%
41%
Note. N = 568. a Ten percent are not applicable due to the ban of corporal punishment in some areas.
234
Nadine
Abrahams,
Kathleen
Casey, and Deborah
Table 4. Regional Differences in Attitudes Toward Abolishing Southern Below Average Importance Average Importance Above Average Importance OtheP Sample Size
Southwest
Daro
Corporal Punishment
Midwest
Northeast
in the Classroom Overall
Sample
38% 23%
5% 13%
10% 9%
4% 6%
19% 15%
38% 1% 206
61% 21% 76
70% 11% 106
15% 15% 148
56% 10% 534
Note. M = 304.87, df= 9, p < .Ol. a In these cases teachers indicated this question not permitted in their school.
was not applicable
because corporal
punishment
was either banned
or
of teachers (65%) felt that a significant obstacle was the lack of sufficient knowledge on how to detect and report cases of child abuse and neglect. In addition, 63% of teachers indicated that fear of legal ramifications for false allegations influence reporting behavior. More general fears of teachers concerned the consequences of child abuse reports (52%) such as reprisal against the child and damage to parent-teacher and teacher-child relationships. Other potential barriers included parental denial and disapproval of reports (45%), interference in parentchild relationships and family privacy (35%) lack of community or school support (24%) in making such allegations, and school board or principal disapproval ( 14%). Child Assault Prevention Programs Despite the controversy over the efficacy and impact of child assault prevention programs (Daro, 1989; Gilbert, 1988; Reppucci & Hauggard, 1989), 65% of teachers reported having no reservations about teaching these types of programs. The overwhelming majority of respondents (97%) viewed child assault prevention programs as valuable and did not believe they had negative effects on children. In addition, 92% of all teachers felt child sexual assault prevention programs were effective in teaching children how to protect themselves. Of those teachers who expressed reservations (35% of the sample), 64% noted they felt unqualified to implement such programs. The second most common reservation, as indicated by 5 1% of teachers, concerned time restraints. Approximately one third of those with reservations reported feeling uncomfortable with the subject matter. In terms of policy, 28% of teachers indicated that their school had a mandate to implement child assault prevention programs. It is particularly interesting to note that 39% reported having no knowledge concerning their school’s policy on this subject. Over half of the teachers (52%) reported that their students had been exposed to child assault prevention programs in the past year. These programs were most frequently taught by the responding teacher (46%) followed by outside professionals (25%) and school counselors (24%). The concepts taught within these programs are shown in Table 2. Little variation exists across programs, with over 80% including the same four basic concepts: (a) distinctions between touches, (b) body ownership, (c) assertiveness training, and (d) secrets. Use of Corporal Punishment and Prevention Issues Opponents of corporal punishment have long suggested that by allowing or even endorsing physical discipline in the schools, administrators and teachers are condoning child abuse or at least conveying the message to students that physical punishment is a legitimate and appropriate means to resolve conflict (Hyman & Wise, 1979; Moelis, 1989). However, NTS respon-
Teachers and child abuse prevention
235
dents did not rate concern over the use of physical punishment as a high priority. As illustrated in Table 3, over 80% of respondents placed the highest level of importance on such prevention activities as providing support to abused children, reporting child abuse, modeling nonviolent ways of resolving conflict and encouraging families to seek help. In contrast, the banning of corporal punishment was considered a high prevention priority by only 57% of the respondents. Forty-one percent felt that talking with other teachers regarding the use of corporal punishment was of above average importance. While minimal differences were noted in the support voiced for most prevention policies, strong regional bias exists in teachers attitudes toward corporal punishment. Specifically, only 38% of the teachers from the South felt that resolving not to use corporal punishment was of above average importance, a significantly lower percentage of teachers than in the other regions, as illustrated in Table 4. Interestingly this pattern parallels the pattern observed among states which had banned the use of corporal punishment in schools prior to November, 199 1. These 22 states include Alaska, California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Mas~chusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, ~on~na, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Only one state (Virginia) is in the South while 13 or 65% of the states are in the Northeast or Midwest. Advocates for this policy have noted that securing political support for such a ban is greatly facilitated when teachers recognize the inconsistency between the use of corporal punishment in the classroom and efforts to prevent child abuse or to reduce inte~rsonal violence among students (Romano, 1989). Consequently, it is not surprising to find that teachers in the South and Southwest, communities in which the practice is most common, place minimal emphasis on changing their discipline methods.
DISCUSSION The results of the National Teacher Survey highlight several shortcomings in the training and support available for teachers with respect to child abuse reporting and prevention. While the number of child abuse reports continue to increase and the majority of teachers indicate encountering cases of child abuse among their students, school systems are not sufficiently educating teachers on identifying, reporting, and preventing child abuse. According to NTS findings, teachers find the quantity and quality of their current education inadequate. One teacher echoed the views of her colleagues: “I would like to know more about what I can do; who to call; what other actions I can take in these cases. I have been teaching for 10 years and during that time I have had only one meeting about child abuse and neglect.” The lack of sufficient education for teachers was observed in several of the NTS findings. First, 43% of teachers cited fear of legal ramifications for false allegations as a potential barrier to reporting. With respect to this issue one teacher stated, “We are scared to death of being sued,” while another mirrored this in claiming that “teachers are afraid to report questionable suspicions for fear of false information causing further or new problems.” While no statute can stop an individual from filing a lawsuit in such cases, all states have explicit statutory grants of immunity from civil and criminal liability for those filing a child abuse report in good faith. Further, as of 1984, I6 states had laws that established a presumption of good faith, offering additional protection to teachers and any other professional reporting a child they believe to be at risk for maltreatment (Besharov, 1985). Second, teachers are not well informed of school district policies pertaining to child abuse reporting. NCPCA, as a component of its goal to reduce child abuse 20% by 1990, has been monitoring the scope of school-based prevention services in the NTS 29 sample counties (Dar0 et al., 1988, 1990). In 1988, 95% of school districts in the sample, representing over
236
Nadine Abrahams, Kathleen Casey, and Deborah Daro
2,000 elementary/middle schools, had written procedures for identifying and reporting suspected child abuse cases. This contrasts dramatically with the 57% of teachers in the NTS who indicated that their school had such a policy. While school administrators establish policies on how to deal with abuse cases, they are not effectively conveying these policies to individual teachers. Beyond the apparent gap between school policies on reporting and teachers’ awareness of their existence, the exact nature of these policies is uncertain. As previously stated, 90% of the NTS sample of teachers who suspected a case of child abuse and neglect reported the case, but only 23% reported directly to CPS. Responses indicate that teachers most commonly report an abuse case to other personnel within the school such as the principal, social worker, or nurse. It is not known whether this practice of teachers filing reports within the school is a reflection of the school policies and, if so, what the rationale is behind such a procedure. Moreover, whether rooted in actual policy or merely a matter of common practice, serious questions remain as to how many of these suspected cases eventually are reported to CPS and what action the schools are taking to follow up. The discrepancy between policy and practice is aiso indicated by NTS findings pertaining to child assault prevention education. Other research conducted by NCPCA has suggested that 59% of school districts have a policy mandating the delivery of child assault prevention programs (Daro et al., 1990). This is significantly higher than the 27% of teachers in the NTS sample noting the existence of such a policy. Again, a school district’s policies may not be routinely implemented in the classroom. Independent of school policy, however, the majority of teachers view child assault prevention programs as effective and are willing to implement them in their classrooms. Moreover, those few teachers with reservations about teaching the program most typically cite their lack of knowledge as the predominant reason. Hence, it appears that much can be done to resolve this problem with more education and support for teachers. Finally, the use of corporal punishment is not a high priority issue for teachers, relative to other issues concerning child abuse and neglect. As one teacher wrote, “corporal punishment is not synonymous with child abuse or even with violence.” A sizable number of respondents, particularly on the South and Southwest, did not consider the elimination of corporal punishment in the classroom as a very important prevention tactic. In fact, a number of teachers provided comments indicating a perceived need to use corporal punishment as a disciplinary technique. “You want to take away our best effective deterrent to teacher abuse and class abuse.” Still others articulated the struggles of those teachers personally opposed to the use of corporal punishment, but compelled to use it. “I do not believe in corporal punishment but am, from time to time, required to use it. If I don’t, I am insubordinate! I can’t state my own personal policies to my superiors, therefore I must comply.” It is important to note that the NTS did not provide information relative to teachers actual use of corporal punishment in the classroom nor in their own homes. NTS findings do, however, indicate that a ban on corporal punishment is not as high a priority for preventing child abuse as some advocates would hope. Teachers play a critical role in preventing child abuse and in creating safe environments for children. To maximize this potential, current gaps in knowledge, understanding and skills must be addressed. School administrators, either independently or in partnership with other key child abuse prevention agencies, need to establish ongoing training programs, which cover the following topics: l l l
the identification of child abuse and the mandate to report all suspected cases to CPS; the procedure in place within a given school for fulfilling the state’s reporting requirements; methods for effectively supporting maltreatment victims and their families including re-
Teachers and child abuse prevention
ferral to relevant treatment services in the community and establishment groups for victims; and the purpose and content of various child assault prevention curricula.
237
of peer support
Training with respect to the identification and reporting of child abuse should be provided annually in order to insure compliance with frequently changing CPS procedures. In addition to in-service training, all teachers should be given written copies of local child abuse reporting requirements and specific school policies regarding this issue as well as an updated listing of local child abuse treatment and prevention services. Over and above these training efforts, community forums should be provided to discuss the concerns of teachers and parents regarding the use of corporal punishment in the classroom. In those communities in which the practice is banned, teachers often need assistance in identifying and successfully implementing alternative methods of disciplines. In those communities in which the practice is still in use, such forums would provide a means of educating both teachers and parents as to the negative consequences of corporal punishment and to alternatives which allow for the discipline of children without the use of physical force.
REFERENCES American Association for Protecting Children ( 1988). Highlights ofoficial child neglect and abuse reporting, 1986. Denver, CO: American Humane Association. Besharov, D. (1985). The vulnerable social worker: Liability for servicing children and families. Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Blumberg, M. (1977). Treatment of the abused child and the child abuser. American Journal ofPsychotherapy, 31, 204-2 I 5. Brant, R. T., & Tisza, V. (1977). The sexually misused child. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 47, 80-90. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (I 988). The condition ofteaching: A state by state analysis. Princeton, NJ: Author. Cohn, A. (1979). Effective treatment of child abuse and neglect. Social Work, 24, 5 13-5 19. Daro, D. (1989). When should prevention education begin? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 257-260. Daro, D., Abrahams, N., & Robson, K. (1988). Reducing child abuse 20% by 1990: 1985-1986 baseline data. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Daro, D., Casey, K., & Abrahams, N. (1990). Reducing child abuse 20% by 1990: Preliminary assessment. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Daro, D., & McCurdy, K. (199 1). Current trends in child abuse reporting andfatalities: The results ofthe 1990 annual /ifly state survey. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Elmer, E. (1966). Hazards in determining child abuse. Child Welfare, 45, 28-33. Galleno, H., & Oppenheim, W. (1982). The battered child syndrome revisited. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 162, 1l-19. Gil, D. (1970). Violence against children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gilbert, N. (1988). Teaching children to prevent child sexual abuse. The Public Interest, 93, 3-15. Grazio, T. (198 1). New perspectives on child abuse/neglect community education. Child Welfare, 60, 679-707. Green, A. H. (1976). A psychodynamic approach to the study and treatment of child-abusing parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychology, 15, 4 14-442. Green, F. (1975). Child abuse and neglect: A priority problem for the private physician. Symposium on childhood trauma. Pediatric Clinic of North America, 22, 329. Hazzard, A. (1984). Training teachers to identify and intervene with abused children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 13,288-293. Hyman, I., & Wise, J. (1979). Corporal punishment in American education: Readings in history, practice, and alternatives. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Kempe, C. H., Silverman, F., Steele, B., Droegemueller, W., & Silver, H. (1962). The battered child syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Association, 181( I7), 17-24. McIntyre, T. C. (1987). Teacher awareness of child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 11, 133-135. Moelis, C. ( 1989). Abolishing corporal punishment in schools: A crucial step toward preventing child abuse. Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 3(3). (Available from National Legal Resource Center for Child Advocacy and Protection, Buffalo, NY) National Education Association (1989). Resolution C-59: Child abuse, neglect, and exploitation. West Haven, CT: Author.
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National Education Association (1987). Status ofthe American public school teacher 1985-86. West Haven, CT: Author. Reppucci, N., & Hauggaard, J. (1989). Prevention of child sexual abuse: myth or reality? American Psychologist, 44, 1266-1275. Romano, N. (1989). A jiiturejilled with healthy minds and bodies: A call to abolish corporalpunishment in schools. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Romano, N., Casey, K., & Daro, D. (1990). Schools and child abuse: A national survey ofprincipals’attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families (1990). The changing face ofhealth care: The movement toward universal access. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. _Sponberg, J. L. (1989). Elementarv school teachers’ oercevtions of severitv. ratings I and the decisions to report child _maltr&tment.‘Fairfax, VA: George Mason University. _ Tower, C. C. (1984). Child abuse and neglect: A teachers’ handbookfor detection, reporting, and classroom management. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Westat Associates. ( 1988). Study of the national incidence andprevalence of child abuse and neglect. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Resume-Conscient de l’tnorme responsabilite que doivent assumer les enseignants par rapport a la prevention et la detection de la maltraitance, et l’education qui s’y rattache, le National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse (Comite national pour la prevention de la maltraitance) a men& une enquhe nationale aupres de 568 enseignants choisis de facon aleatoire parmi 40 departements scolaires situ&s darts 29 comtes. Suite au sondage, on a conclu que m&me si ces educateurs se retrouvent aux prises avec des situations de maltraitance, ils sont gentralement mal prepares a la tache. L’article apporte des observations sur les signalements que font les enseignants, les facteurs qui rendent ce signalement difficile, les programmes de prevention et les punitions corporelles dans les ecoles. Resumen-Conscientes de la gran responsabilidad que asumen 10s profesores al involucrarse en la prevention y deteccidn de1 abuso a 10s nines el Comite National para la Prevenci6n de1 Abuso a 10s Nifios (NCPCA) dirigib una encuesta national a 10s maestros en 40 distritos escolares de 29 condados elegidos al azar. La encuesta explora el conocimiento de 10sprofesores, las attitudes y creencias sobre el abuso a 10s nifios y su prevencmn. Respondieron 586 maestros, revelando que mientras la mayoria de 10s maestros enfrentan cases de abuso en la infancia entre sus estudiantes, no han sido entrenados adecuadamente para manejar estos cases. Otros hallazgos se refieren al reporte de 10s maestros, obstaculos potenciales para reportar, programas para la prevencibn de las violaciones y el castigo corporal en las escuelas.
TEACHERS’ ABOUT
1992
0145.2134192 $5.00 + .OO Copyright 0 I992 Pergamon Press Ltd.
KNOWLEDGE, CHILD ABUSE
ATTITUDES, AND BELIEFS AND ITS PREVENTION
NADINE ABRAHAMS, KATHLEEN
CASEY, AND DEBORAH DARO
The National Center on Child Abuse Prevention Research, a program of The National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse, Chicago, IL
Abstract-h considering the great responsibility placed upon teachers to involve themselves in child abuse prevention, education, and detection, the National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse (NCPCA) conducted a nationwide survey of teachers from 40 school districts in 29 randomly selected counties. The survey explores teachers knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about child abuse and its prevention. Five hundred and sixty-eight teachers responded, revealing that while the majority of teachers confront child abuse among their students, they are provided insufficient education on bow to address it. Other findings are reported with respect to teachers’ reporting behavior, potential barriers to reporting, child assault prevention programs, and corporal punishment in schools.
Key Words-Teachers,
Child abuse prevention, Child abuse reporting, School age children.
INTRODUCTION THE HISTORY OF CHILD ABUSE TREATMENT and prevention has been written by a variety of disciplines both individually and collectively. Initial research on the scope of the problem and effective methods of intervention can be found in medicine, sociology, psychology and social work (Elmer, 1966; Gil, 1970; Kempe, Silverman, Steele, Droegemueller & Silver, 1962). Underlying all of these efforts has been a recognition of the multi-causal nature of maltreatment and the need for multidisciplinary approaches. The most common implementation of this concept has been the establishment of multidisciplinary teams for investigating reports of child abuse and developing comprehensive treatment plans (Blumberg, 1977; Brant & Tisza, 1977; Cohn, 1979; Galleno & Oppenheim, 1982; Grazio, 198 1; Green, 197.5; Green, 1976). A key member of these multidisciplinary teams has been elementary and high school personnel. Within schools, teachers play a special role. By virtue of their ongoing and long term contact with children, teachers are most likely to identify suspected victims of maltreatment and to report these children to child protective services, as required by law. In addition to identifying abuse after it occurs, teachers also play a pivotal role in child abuse prevention. This role is realized in a number of ways. First, strong teacher-student relationships provide an opportunity for teachers to offer guidance and support to children in crisis. In some instances, this support also may be given to a child’s family. Second, teachers may implement child assault prevention curricula to foster safety awareness and self-protection skills in their students. Finally, preventing child abuse involves a teacher’s own behavior in the classroom. Through resolving not to use corporal punishment and modeling nonviolent conflict resolution, educators can create an environment conducive to a child’s well-being (Romano, 1989). Received for publication October 18, 1989; final revision received February 11, 199 1; accepted February 12, 199 1. Reprint requests to Deborah Daro, 332 S. Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600, Chicago, Illinois 60604. 229
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Nadine Abrahams, Kathleen Casey, and Deborah Daro
The presence of abused children in the classroom is fairly universal. A national survey of 22,000 teachers reported that 89% of respondents recognized child abuse as a problem in their schools (Carnegie Foundation, 1988). Data on child abuse reports confirms the pervasiveness of child abuse among school-age children and reveals steady increases in overall reports of child abuse over the last decade, with a total increase of 153% between 1979 and 1990 (AAPC, 1988; Daro & McCurdy, 1991). Despite the increasing presence of child abuse in the classroom, the education of teachers to confront the problem has not increased proportionately. In one survey of Illinois teachers, 8 1% reported receiving no child abuse information during college and 66% had not received any education on abuse or neglect during in-service training (McIntyre, 1987). Additionally, only 2 1% of the teachers reported that they were very aware of the signs of physical abuse, 19% of emotional abuse, 30% of physical neglect, and 76% indicated they would be unable to recognize indicators of sexual abuse. Another study of Atlanta teachers found that 68% of the respondents had only received three or fewer hours of education about child abuse (Hazzard, 1984). Similarly, a more recent study involving 843 teachers working in the Department of Defense Section 6 Schools indicated that 68% reported inadequate or no training related to child maltreatment (Sponberg, 1989). Perhaps reflecting this lack of training, a sizable percentage of teachers fail to report suspected cases of maltreatment. Although 57% of the over 2.1 million reports filed in 1986 involved school-aged children, only 16.3% of all reports originate from school personnel (AAPC, 1988). Further, the most recent Federal National Child Abuse and Neglect Incidence Study found that only 24% of suspected child abuse and neglect cases known to school personnel were formally reported to and investigated by child protective services (Westat, 1988). In an effort to better understand how best to integrate teachers into child abuse prevention efforts, a National Teacher Survey was conducted by the National Center on Child Abuse Prevention Research, a program of the National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse (NCPCA). The unique aspects of this effort included its nationwide sample, the availability of comparative data on district child abuse prevention policies, and its original examination of teacher perspectives on child assault prevention and corporal punishment within the context of child abuse prevention. The survey assessed teacher knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about child abuse and child abuse prevention. Specific assessments included (a) teachers’ familiarity with the schools formal child abuse reporting procedures, (b) the means by which teachers are informed of these procedures, (c) how often teachers report suspected cases of abuse, (d) teacher attitudes towards the use of corporal punishment in the schools, (e) the quality and quantity of in-service workshops and general education for teachers on child abuse and neglect, and (f) teacher perceptions of the barriers they face in reporting suspected child abuse and in implementing child assault prevention programs. This paper presents the finding of the National Teacher Survey with respect to these issues and discusses the apparent inconsistencies between school policy and practice in this area. The scope of this study was limited to elementary school teachers due to the availability of a convenient sample that included only this population of educators. The authors acknowledge that preschool teachers, day care providers, and other groups also play an important role in child abuse prevention. Subsequent studies are planned to survey these professionals.
METHOD The National Teacher Survey (NTS) drew its sample from the random stratified 29 counties utilized in the most recent federally funded National Study on the Incidence of Child
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231
Abuse and Neglect (Westat, 1988). For the past 3 years, NCPCA staff have been monitoring the initiation and expansion of prevention policies in all of the school districts in these counties as part of its assessment of the organization’s goal to reduce child abuse 20% by 1990 (Daro, Abrahams, & Robson, 1988; Daro, Casey, & Abrahams, 1990). In each of these 29 counties with the exception of those with only one unified district, both the largest and smallest school districts were contacted. Of the 49 districts contacted, 80% of the superintendents or directors of pupil services agreed to participate in the study. Of the 40 participating districts, representing 27 counties, 13% were in the South, 23% were in the Northeast, 28% were in the Southwest, and 36% were in the Midwest. Each of the cooperating districts were randomly assigned two grades and asked to distribute surveys to all the full-time teachers in those chosen grade levels. The goal of the NTS was to obtain an equal number of responses from first through sixth-grade teachers. In school districts with more than 30 elementary or middle schools, only one grade level was assigned. The surveys and a cover letter explaining the purpose of the survey and ensuring confidentiality to all the participants were generally placed directly into the teachers’ mailboxes with a stamped, return envelope. Of the approximately 1,694 questionnaires mailed to the school districts, 575 surveys were completed; of these 568 were completed by elementary or middle school full-time teachers. Seven surveys were completed by the school nurse or were incomplete and have not been used in this data analysis. The response rate of the NTS was approximately 34%. Several factors may have influenced this figure. First, there was considerable difficulty in verifying how many surveys actually reached the teachers. In some larger school districts, surveys were mailed directly to the district superintendent and were distributed internally to each school. It was then the responsibility of individual principals to disseminate the surveys. The dissemination and distribution process required cooperation at many stages and it is highly probable that not all surveys reached their targeted destination. Further complications in the distribution process may have involved the timing of the study. Surveys were distributed near the close of the school year, late May and early June, and other necessary activities around this time may have hindered both the dissemination and/or teachers’ ability to respond. However, a recent survey of elementary school principals launched in February, utilized the same follow-up procedures as the NTS, and received a similar response rate of 35% (Romano, Casey, & Daro, 1990). Due to the response rate, caution should be exercised in interpreting these data. Although the sample is representative of the profile of elementary school teachers generated by the National Education Association in terms of age, race, and experience, a biased sample may have been captured (NEA, 1987). It is possible that responding teachers were more sensitive or more committed to child abuse prevention than nonrespondents.
THE SAMPLE The National Teacher Survey sample was composed of 568 elementary or middle school teachers in 40 school districts across the country. The respondents included 501 females (88%) 47 males (8%) and 20 (4%) who did not indicate their gender. The mean age of this sample was 40 years of age. The majority of the respondents were between 30 and 49, with 9% of the sample 50 or older and 16% less than 30. The responding teachers were geographically distributed across the nation with 27% in the Northeast, 19% in the Midwest, 40% in the South, and 14% in the Southwest. Of the 568 teachers in the sample, 20% taught first grade, 9% taught second grade, 22% taught third grade, 17% taught fourth grade, 12% taught fifth grade, 16% taught sixth grade, and 1% were special education teachers. In order to gain a sense of the experience level of the respondents, teachers were asked to indicate how many years they had been teaching. Twenty percent of the respondents were
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Nadine Abrahams, Kathleen Casey, and Deborah Daro Table 1. Frequency of Specific In-Service Workshops on Child Abuse and Neglect
% Citing Topic Identification of Victims Teachers as Mandated Reporters Reporting Procedures Referral Information Effect of Abuse on Children Personal Concerns Dealing With Abuse Child Assault Prevention Education Discussion Skills With Familv Family Intervention Skills . Other Topics
88 80 78 62 59 45 38 16 14 5
Note. N = 27 I.
novices, only having been a teacher for l-5 years, 63% were fairly experienced having taught for 6-20. Of the respondents in this final category, 19% taught for 6- 10 years and 44% taught for 1 l-20 years. Seventeen percent were veterans with 2 1 or more years of experience in the field. The mean for years teaching in the NTS teacher sample was 13, comparable to the mean of 15 years cited in NEA’s teacher profile (NEA, 1987). The experience level of teachers within the NTS sample, however, somewhat differed by region. Overall, teachers from the Southwest were less experienced than those from other geographic areas. It is not know whether the NTS sample is skewed in this respect or if this is a true reflection of the experience level of teachers in the Southwest.
SURVEY
FINDINGS
Teacher Education Results of the NTS reveal that, overall, the majority of teachers are receiving a minimal amount of education on identifying, reporting, and intervening in suspected cases of child abuse and neglect. Forty-nine percent of teachers reported that their schools provided in-service workshops on child abuse and neglect related topics. Of those teachers that had been offered such workshops, 62% reported that the in-services were mandatory for all teachers, but were typically offered only once a year or on an “as needed” basis. The topics covered within these workshops are reported in Table 1. More than 85% of the workshops covered the issue of identifying victims of child abuse and neglect. Further, more than 75% covered the issues of teachers as mandated reporters and reporting procedures. As shown in the table, little emphasis is placed on intervention skills for dealing with families in crisis. This is inconsistent with the NEA’s policy recommendation that teachers be trained in techniques to intervene with children and families affected by child abuse (NEA, 1989). Forty-seven percent of these educational workshops were delivered by the school social worker, counselor or nurse. In terms of written material, only half of all teachers (5 1%) reported that their school circulates any written material on child abuse and neglect. In view of the minimal level of child abuse information NTS educators reported receiving, it is not surprising to find that two thirds of teachers viewed the child abuse education provided to them by their school insufficient. Even among those teachers that reported actually receiving in-service workshops, approximately half believed such brief instruction was not enough. This dissatisfaction with the quality and amount of child abuse education was apparent in all regions but highest in the South.
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Teachers and child abuse prevention Table 2. Frequency With Which Specific Concepts Are Included in Child Assault Prevention Programs
% of Positive Responses Distinctions Between Touches Body Ownership Assertiveness Training Concept of Secret Keeping Existence of Social Support Systems Other Concepts
87 85 83 81 57 4
Note. N = 283.
Reporting Behavior The pervasiveness of child abuse and neglect was again evidenced by the almost three quarters (74%) of the NTS sample of teachers who indicated that they had suspected a child as being abused or neglected at one time or another. Of the teachers who noted they suspected child maltreatment, 90% indicated that they reported the case. These reports were most commonly made to other school system personnel such as the school principal, social worker, or nurse. Only about 23% of teachers indicated reporting cases directly to Child Protective Services (CPS), a figure consistent with the National Incidence Study finding that 24% of suspected cases known to school personnel are investigated by child protective services (Westat, 1988). Barriers to Child Abuse Reporting In that previous research has suggested that school personnel report only a small percentage of the child abuse and neglect cases they observe (AAPC, 1988; Westat, 1988), the NTS queried teachers on their perceptions of potential barriers to consistent reporting. Two thirds Table 3. Importance of Specific Prevention Services
Below Average Prioritv 1. Providing Support, Encouragement, and Understanding to Children Who Have Been Abused Reporting Child Abuse Whenever Suspected Modeling Positive, Nonviolent Ways of Resolving Conflicts Encouraging Troubled Families to Seek Help Learning About Services Available for Abusive Families in the Community 6. Helping Parents Deal Creatively With Report Card Issues 7. Resolving Not to Use Corporal Punishment in the Classroom” 8. Talking With Other Teachers Regarding Their Use of Corporal Punishme&
Average Prior&v
Above Average Prioritv
1%
2%
97%
3%
3%
94%
2%
8%
90%
5%
8%
87%
4%
15%
81%
10%
22%
68%
19%
14%
57%
25%
24%
41%
Note. N = 568. a Ten percent are not applicable due to the ban of corporal punishment in some areas.
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Nadine
Abrahams,
Kathleen
Casey, and Deborah
Table 4. Regional Differences in Attitudes Toward Abolishing Southern Below Average Importance Average Importance Above Average Importance OtheP Sample Size
Southwest
Daro
Corporal Punishment
Midwest
Northeast
in the Classroom Overall
Sample
38% 23%
5% 13%
10% 9%
4% 6%
19% 15%
38% 1% 206
61% 21% 76
70% 11% 106
15% 15% 148
56% 10% 534
Note. M = 304.87, df= 9, p < .Ol. a In these cases teachers indicated this question not permitted in their school.
was not applicable
because corporal
punishment
was either banned
or
of teachers (65%) felt that a significant obstacle was the lack of sufficient knowledge on how to detect and report cases of child abuse and neglect. In addition, 63% of teachers indicated that fear of legal ramifications for false allegations influence reporting behavior. More general fears of teachers concerned the consequences of child abuse reports (52%) such as reprisal against the child and damage to parent-teacher and teacher-child relationships. Other potential barriers included parental denial and disapproval of reports (45%), interference in parentchild relationships and family privacy (35%) lack of community or school support (24%) in making such allegations, and school board or principal disapproval ( 14%). Child Assault Prevention Programs Despite the controversy over the efficacy and impact of child assault prevention programs (Daro, 1989; Gilbert, 1988; Reppucci & Hauggard, 1989), 65% of teachers reported having no reservations about teaching these types of programs. The overwhelming majority of respondents (97%) viewed child assault prevention programs as valuable and did not believe they had negative effects on children. In addition, 92% of all teachers felt child sexual assault prevention programs were effective in teaching children how to protect themselves. Of those teachers who expressed reservations (35% of the sample), 64% noted they felt unqualified to implement such programs. The second most common reservation, as indicated by 5 1% of teachers, concerned time restraints. Approximately one third of those with reservations reported feeling uncomfortable with the subject matter. In terms of policy, 28% of teachers indicated that their school had a mandate to implement child assault prevention programs. It is particularly interesting to note that 39% reported having no knowledge concerning their school’s policy on this subject. Over half of the teachers (52%) reported that their students had been exposed to child assault prevention programs in the past year. These programs were most frequently taught by the responding teacher (46%) followed by outside professionals (25%) and school counselors (24%). The concepts taught within these programs are shown in Table 2. Little variation exists across programs, with over 80% including the same four basic concepts: (a) distinctions between touches, (b) body ownership, (c) assertiveness training, and (d) secrets. Use of Corporal Punishment and Prevention Issues Opponents of corporal punishment have long suggested that by allowing or even endorsing physical discipline in the schools, administrators and teachers are condoning child abuse or at least conveying the message to students that physical punishment is a legitimate and appropriate means to resolve conflict (Hyman & Wise, 1979; Moelis, 1989). However, NTS respon-
Teachers and child abuse prevention
235
dents did not rate concern over the use of physical punishment as a high priority. As illustrated in Table 3, over 80% of respondents placed the highest level of importance on such prevention activities as providing support to abused children, reporting child abuse, modeling nonviolent ways of resolving conflict and encouraging families to seek help. In contrast, the banning of corporal punishment was considered a high prevention priority by only 57% of the respondents. Forty-one percent felt that talking with other teachers regarding the use of corporal punishment was of above average importance. While minimal differences were noted in the support voiced for most prevention policies, strong regional bias exists in teachers attitudes toward corporal punishment. Specifically, only 38% of the teachers from the South felt that resolving not to use corporal punishment was of above average importance, a significantly lower percentage of teachers than in the other regions, as illustrated in Table 4. Interestingly this pattern parallels the pattern observed among states which had banned the use of corporal punishment in schools prior to November, 199 1. These 22 states include Alaska, California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Mas~chusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, ~on~na, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Only one state (Virginia) is in the South while 13 or 65% of the states are in the Northeast or Midwest. Advocates for this policy have noted that securing political support for such a ban is greatly facilitated when teachers recognize the inconsistency between the use of corporal punishment in the classroom and efforts to prevent child abuse or to reduce inte~rsonal violence among students (Romano, 1989). Consequently, it is not surprising to find that teachers in the South and Southwest, communities in which the practice is most common, place minimal emphasis on changing their discipline methods.
DISCUSSION The results of the National Teacher Survey highlight several shortcomings in the training and support available for teachers with respect to child abuse reporting and prevention. While the number of child abuse reports continue to increase and the majority of teachers indicate encountering cases of child abuse among their students, school systems are not sufficiently educating teachers on identifying, reporting, and preventing child abuse. According to NTS findings, teachers find the quantity and quality of their current education inadequate. One teacher echoed the views of her colleagues: “I would like to know more about what I can do; who to call; what other actions I can take in these cases. I have been teaching for 10 years and during that time I have had only one meeting about child abuse and neglect.” The lack of sufficient education for teachers was observed in several of the NTS findings. First, 43% of teachers cited fear of legal ramifications for false allegations as a potential barrier to reporting. With respect to this issue one teacher stated, “We are scared to death of being sued,” while another mirrored this in claiming that “teachers are afraid to report questionable suspicions for fear of false information causing further or new problems.” While no statute can stop an individual from filing a lawsuit in such cases, all states have explicit statutory grants of immunity from civil and criminal liability for those filing a child abuse report in good faith. Further, as of 1984, I6 states had laws that established a presumption of good faith, offering additional protection to teachers and any other professional reporting a child they believe to be at risk for maltreatment (Besharov, 1985). Second, teachers are not well informed of school district policies pertaining to child abuse reporting. NCPCA, as a component of its goal to reduce child abuse 20% by 1990, has been monitoring the scope of school-based prevention services in the NTS 29 sample counties (Dar0 et al., 1988, 1990). In 1988, 95% of school districts in the sample, representing over
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Nadine Abrahams, Kathleen Casey, and Deborah Daro
2,000 elementary/middle schools, had written procedures for identifying and reporting suspected child abuse cases. This contrasts dramatically with the 57% of teachers in the NTS who indicated that their school had such a policy. While school administrators establish policies on how to deal with abuse cases, they are not effectively conveying these policies to individual teachers. Beyond the apparent gap between school policies on reporting and teachers’ awareness of their existence, the exact nature of these policies is uncertain. As previously stated, 90% of the NTS sample of teachers who suspected a case of child abuse and neglect reported the case, but only 23% reported directly to CPS. Responses indicate that teachers most commonly report an abuse case to other personnel within the school such as the principal, social worker, or nurse. It is not known whether this practice of teachers filing reports within the school is a reflection of the school policies and, if so, what the rationale is behind such a procedure. Moreover, whether rooted in actual policy or merely a matter of common practice, serious questions remain as to how many of these suspected cases eventually are reported to CPS and what action the schools are taking to follow up. The discrepancy between policy and practice is aiso indicated by NTS findings pertaining to child assault prevention education. Other research conducted by NCPCA has suggested that 59% of school districts have a policy mandating the delivery of child assault prevention programs (Daro et al., 1990). This is significantly higher than the 27% of teachers in the NTS sample noting the existence of such a policy. Again, a school district’s policies may not be routinely implemented in the classroom. Independent of school policy, however, the majority of teachers view child assault prevention programs as effective and are willing to implement them in their classrooms. Moreover, those few teachers with reservations about teaching the program most typically cite their lack of knowledge as the predominant reason. Hence, it appears that much can be done to resolve this problem with more education and support for teachers. Finally, the use of corporal punishment is not a high priority issue for teachers, relative to other issues concerning child abuse and neglect. As one teacher wrote, “corporal punishment is not synonymous with child abuse or even with violence.” A sizable number of respondents, particularly on the South and Southwest, did not consider the elimination of corporal punishment in the classroom as a very important prevention tactic. In fact, a number of teachers provided comments indicating a perceived need to use corporal punishment as a disciplinary technique. “You want to take away our best effective deterrent to teacher abuse and class abuse.” Still others articulated the struggles of those teachers personally opposed to the use of corporal punishment, but compelled to use it. “I do not believe in corporal punishment but am, from time to time, required to use it. If I don’t, I am insubordinate! I can’t state my own personal policies to my superiors, therefore I must comply.” It is important to note that the NTS did not provide information relative to teachers actual use of corporal punishment in the classroom nor in their own homes. NTS findings do, however, indicate that a ban on corporal punishment is not as high a priority for preventing child abuse as some advocates would hope. Teachers play a critical role in preventing child abuse and in creating safe environments for children. To maximize this potential, current gaps in knowledge, understanding and skills must be addressed. School administrators, either independently or in partnership with other key child abuse prevention agencies, need to establish ongoing training programs, which cover the following topics: l l l
the identification of child abuse and the mandate to report all suspected cases to CPS; the procedure in place within a given school for fulfilling the state’s reporting requirements; methods for effectively supporting maltreatment victims and their families including re-
Teachers and child abuse prevention
ferral to relevant treatment services in the community and establishment groups for victims; and the purpose and content of various child assault prevention curricula.
237
of peer support
Training with respect to the identification and reporting of child abuse should be provided annually in order to insure compliance with frequently changing CPS procedures. In addition to in-service training, all teachers should be given written copies of local child abuse reporting requirements and specific school policies regarding this issue as well as an updated listing of local child abuse treatment and prevention services. Over and above these training efforts, community forums should be provided to discuss the concerns of teachers and parents regarding the use of corporal punishment in the classroom. In those communities in which the practice is banned, teachers often need assistance in identifying and successfully implementing alternative methods of disciplines. In those communities in which the practice is still in use, such forums would provide a means of educating both teachers and parents as to the negative consequences of corporal punishment and to alternatives which allow for the discipline of children without the use of physical force.
REFERENCES American Association for Protecting Children ( 1988). Highlights ofoficial child neglect and abuse reporting, 1986. Denver, CO: American Humane Association. Besharov, D. (1985). The vulnerable social worker: Liability for servicing children and families. Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Blumberg, M. (1977). Treatment of the abused child and the child abuser. American Journal ofPsychotherapy, 31, 204-2 I 5. Brant, R. T., & Tisza, V. (1977). The sexually misused child. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 47, 80-90. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (I 988). The condition ofteaching: A state by state analysis. Princeton, NJ: Author. Cohn, A. (1979). Effective treatment of child abuse and neglect. Social Work, 24, 5 13-5 19. Daro, D. (1989). When should prevention education begin? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 257-260. Daro, D., Abrahams, N., & Robson, K. (1988). Reducing child abuse 20% by 1990: 1985-1986 baseline data. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Daro, D., Casey, K., & Abrahams, N. (1990). Reducing child abuse 20% by 1990: Preliminary assessment. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Daro, D., & McCurdy, K. (199 1). Current trends in child abuse reporting andfatalities: The results ofthe 1990 annual /ifly state survey. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Elmer, E. (1966). Hazards in determining child abuse. Child Welfare, 45, 28-33. Galleno, H., & Oppenheim, W. (1982). The battered child syndrome revisited. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 162, 1l-19. Gil, D. (1970). Violence against children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gilbert, N. (1988). Teaching children to prevent child sexual abuse. The Public Interest, 93, 3-15. Grazio, T. (198 1). New perspectives on child abuse/neglect community education. Child Welfare, 60, 679-707. Green, A. H. (1976). A psychodynamic approach to the study and treatment of child-abusing parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychology, 15, 4 14-442. Green, F. (1975). Child abuse and neglect: A priority problem for the private physician. Symposium on childhood trauma. Pediatric Clinic of North America, 22, 329. Hazzard, A. (1984). Training teachers to identify and intervene with abused children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 13,288-293. Hyman, I., & Wise, J. (1979). Corporal punishment in American education: Readings in history, practice, and alternatives. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Kempe, C. H., Silverman, F., Steele, B., Droegemueller, W., & Silver, H. (1962). The battered child syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Association, 181( I7), 17-24. McIntyre, T. C. (1987). Teacher awareness of child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 11, 133-135. Moelis, C. ( 1989). Abolishing corporal punishment in schools: A crucial step toward preventing child abuse. Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 3(3). (Available from National Legal Resource Center for Child Advocacy and Protection, Buffalo, NY) National Education Association (1989). Resolution C-59: Child abuse, neglect, and exploitation. West Haven, CT: Author.
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National Education Association (1987). Status ofthe American public school teacher 1985-86. West Haven, CT: Author. Reppucci, N., & Hauggaard, J. (1989). Prevention of child sexual abuse: myth or reality? American Psychologist, 44, 1266-1275. Romano, N. (1989). A jiiturejilled with healthy minds and bodies: A call to abolish corporalpunishment in schools. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Romano, N., Casey, K., & Daro, D. (1990). Schools and child abuse: A national survey ofprincipals’attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families (1990). The changing face ofhealth care: The movement toward universal access. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. _Sponberg, J. L. (1989). Elementarv school teachers’ oercevtions of severitv. ratings I and the decisions to report child _maltr&tment.‘Fairfax, VA: George Mason University. _ Tower, C. C. (1984). Child abuse and neglect: A teachers’ handbookfor detection, reporting, and classroom management. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Westat Associates. ( 1988). Study of the national incidence andprevalence of child abuse and neglect. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Resume-Conscient de l’tnorme responsabilite que doivent assumer les enseignants par rapport a la prevention et la detection de la maltraitance, et l’education qui s’y rattache, le National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse (Comite national pour la prevention de la maltraitance) a men& une enquhe nationale aupres de 568 enseignants choisis de facon aleatoire parmi 40 departements scolaires situ&s darts 29 comtes. Suite au sondage, on a conclu que m&me si ces educateurs se retrouvent aux prises avec des situations de maltraitance, ils sont gentralement mal prepares a la tache. L’article apporte des observations sur les signalements que font les enseignants, les facteurs qui rendent ce signalement difficile, les programmes de prevention et les punitions corporelles dans les ecoles. Resumen-Conscientes de la gran responsabilidad que asumen 10s profesores al involucrarse en la prevention y deteccidn de1 abuso a 10s nines el Comite National para la Prevenci6n de1 Abuso a 10s Nifios (NCPCA) dirigib una encuesta national a 10s maestros en 40 distritos escolares de 29 condados elegidos al azar. La encuesta explora el conocimiento de 10sprofesores, las attitudes y creencias sobre el abuso a 10s nifios y su prevencmn. Respondieron 586 maestros, revelando que mientras la mayoria de 10s maestros enfrentan cases de abuso en la infancia entre sus estudiantes, no han sido entrenados adecuadamente para manejar estos cases. Otros hallazgos se refieren al reporte de 10s maestros, obstaculos potenciales para reportar, programas para la prevencibn de las violaciones y el castigo corporal en las escuelas.
