Jm~rnul of E~/~nc~pharr~~ucolo~~,33 ( 199 I ) 107-l

Elsevier Scientific

Publishers

Ireland

107

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Ltd.

Systematic and medicinal reasoning in Mitla folk botany Ellen Messer World Hunger

Progrum.

Brown Uniwrsity.

(Accepted

December

Providence.

RI (U.S.A.)

20, 1990)

This paper reviews cognitive, symbolic, systematic botanical, and biochemical bases of plant classification, and analyzes their interrelationships in the medicinal folk botany of Mitla, Oaxaca, Mexico. It evaluates the “pharmacological wisdom” of the local population, along with their symbolic use of the environment, to show how they construct medicinal plant classifications which follow a folk logic, but often conform as well to modern botanical classifications based on the principles of systematic botany or chemistry. Working from both the chemical data and the folk categories, the analysis suggests the local Zapotec population systematically selected plants which foam for symbolic reasons to treat illnesses of the “soul” and identifies their underlying chemical constituents and medicinal qualities. Other correspondences between chemical, medicinal and reputed folk qualities are also suggested. KC,Vword.s: medicinal

plants;

folk medicine;

ethnobotany;

mesoamerican

and classify plants. People in every culture learn to use these sensory cues to identify, group and use the plants in their environments according to certain culture-specific taxonomic nomenclatural principles and functional classifications (Messer, 1978a,b). Ethnobotanical (“folk”) taxonomies involve classification of plants according to morphological (visual) similarities, and also other perceptible and symbolic features. People need to be able to distinguish unambiguously the safe and useful flora in their environment; such distinctions, critical for locating nutritious foods and effective medicines, also provide people with a set of features or qualities which can be used for representing selected aspects of the non-botanical world. Additional cultural factors, such as the association of particular plants in local folklore with particular illnesses or cures, further contribute to how local people assign plants identities, places and names in the systematic folk taxonomy. Such taxonomies are designed to show the natural relationships of genera, species and varieties to each other, along with rules for classification, identification and naming. Both “sensory” and other cultural properties contribute to the construction of functional class-

Introduction The principles and observations by which native peoples organize their plant world into foods and medicines have intrigued natural historians, ethnobotanists and other cultural and medical scholars. Studies in ethnomedical botany indicate that native herbal cures are often effective (Ortiz de Montellano, 1975) and native pharmacopeias demonstrate non-random selection of and within botanical families for curing purposes (e.g., Moerman, 1979; Reis and Lipp, 1982). Each culture’s ethnomedical botany, therefore, presents an opportunity to learn the kinds of information and symbolic principles by which a culture orders its botanical domain - that is, the signs and rules that form the basis for particular “folk” classifications of plants and their practical applications. It also suggests the correspondence between particular “folk” and “scientific” (taxonomic, pharmacological, and nutritional) orders. Taste and smell, visual and tactile characteristics, and physiological effect are all “sensory” information by which people recognize, evaluate Correspondence IO: Ellen Messer.

1831, Brown

University,

World Hunger Program, Providence, RI 02912. U.S.A.

0378-8741/$03.50 0 1991 Elsevier Scientific Published and Printed in Ireland

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symbolism.

Ltd.

108

ilications as people “package” sensory information into patterns that they recognize as related to curing qualities. As Ortiz de Montellano (1975) among others has shown, to assess adequately how or whether herbs are empirically “effective,” one must also understand “folk” illness etiologies and beliefs, “folk” understandings of illness causation and process, and “folk” ideas of how to remove illness agents and restore health. Such “folk” understandings may use the “sensory” features of plants, such as taste and smell, as keys to their culturally perceived pharmacological or mechanical illness-curing “activity.” Understandings may be phrased, alternatively, in terms of characteristics, such as “hotLcold” “symbolic” quality, which are perceived culturally to have regular effects on the human body, to bring the body back into healthful “balance.” Ascertaining the chemical compositions of particular botanic species is an important step in evaluating the potential pharmacological effectiveness of particular plant species, and also the possible chemical bases of their folk classifications. In the ethnomedical and botanical literature from Latin America, and especially from Mexico, several sources can aid one in deciphering the potential pharmacological benefits of traditional therapies. Martinez’ (1969) collections of cultural and phytochemical data on medicinal plants is an important catalogue of information. Morton (1981) has brought together a wealth of pharmacological and folk medicinal information on medicinal plants, arranged according to modern botanical families, from Middle America. In addition, the work of I.M.E.P.L.A.M. (Mexican Institute for the Study of Medicinal Plants) has contributed to our knowledge of the relationships between common names, scientific identifications and uses in different localities (e.g., Lozoya, 1976; Viesca Trevirio, 1976). Some of these have specifically treated the important questions of the probable pharmacological effectiveness of particular cultural practices (e.g., Ysunza, 1976); others have traced how herbs are pharmacologically “effective” in local terms, given understandings of human physiology and illness (e.g., Ortiz de Montellano, 1975). This paper investigates the chemical consti-

tuents of medicinal herbs used to treat the several classes of digestive disorders known and labeled in Mitla, Oaxaca, Mexico. The main emphasis will be on elucidating how the chemical compositions of these herbal remedies contribute to their “folk” identifications, systematic and medicinal classilications, and, from both “folk” and “scientific” perspectives, their pharmacological effectiveness. After a brief review of the ethnographic medical setting of Mitla, medicinal herbs will be discussed according to illness categories-i.e., the sets of symptoms with their etiologies recognized within the ethnomedical system. All medicinal herbs will be identified in the folk and scientific taxonomies by scientific names, Spanish and Zapotec (indigenous) names, and according to their manners of medicinal preparation and administration. The chemical components and potential (scientific) pharmacological values of the herbs grouped to treat the individual categories of illness will then be presented, compared and contrasted with local understandings of (a) how such herbs should work; and (b) specific properties, including “phytochemical” parameters, that help people identify specific curative properties. The analysis will suggest how local people process information about plants especially how they use taste, smell, visual characteristics and reputed physiological effect -to arrive at a pharmacopeia which combines a particular version of “folk” cause and effect using “scientific” and symbolic reasoning. Ethnographic setting Mitla is a predominantly Zapotec town in the southern highlands of Oaxaca, Mexico, approximately twenty minutes by bus from the district capital, Tlacolula, and one hour from the state capital, Oaxaca City. It includes vegetational zones of river alluvium (160&-l 700 m), higher alluvium, thorn scrub (Piedmont), and pine-oak forest (1850-2000 m). The economy is characterized by marginal agriculture, cottage industry - predominantly textiles for tourists and commerce. Although approximately half of Mitla households still farm some milpa (maize, beans, squash) lands, almost all, with the exception of major shopkeepers, non-tourist oriented

109

artisans and musicians, are involved either through production, wholesale, or retail sales in the tourist trade. Medical “systems” and services include local home herbal curing, approximately one dozen local specialist curanderffs (“curers”, mainly female), of whom one or two are thought to be outstanding and attract non-locaf. clientele; traveling herbaiists and those who sell non-local and local herbs in shops in Mitla, Tlacolufa, and Oaxaca. Pharmacy services are available in two local stores and numerous shops in Tlacolula and Oaxaca. In addition, there were formerly two, then four licensed physicians, one of whom is supplied by the Ministry of Health to service the town clinic. People also consult numerous non-local curers, including spiritists, in other parts of the Valley of Oaxaca and beyond. Social Security hospitals are available in Tlacolula and Oaxaca, and there are numerous private hospitals in Oaxaca as wel1. It is against this background of decreasing familiarity with the local natural environment as agricultural pursuits decline, and increasing exposure to non-local curing ideas and materia medica as accessible medical options expand, that one must evaluate the current structure and content of folk curing, and its potential for change. M&la illness md curing concepts

MitleJios recognize physical symptoms and disturbances in functioning by labeled natural illness categories like headache, body ache and stomach ache; natural illness agents such as pasmo and aire; and hot-cold imbalance. Hot-cold refers to an intrinsic quality attributed to all foods, medicines and states of health. fmbaiance - i.e., too much of either hot or cold quality-is believed to result in illness, which is *hen remedied by the principle of opposites - introducing foods and medicines of the opposite quality - ta bring health back into “balance”. MitleEos also recognize and Label symptoms that form part of a Larger complex of illness beliefs, termed here illnesses of “evil” origin. These include those due to muina (anger), su.sto/espanto (fright leading to soul loss), ~rujerja, ma& ojo, ma! aire (all otherwise inexplicable or incurable symptoms due to evil origin)

and congrerra (infection from a corpse) which fall outside of the categories of “natural” illnesses (those of Wad”) and demand special precautions and ritual curing procedures. Digestive disorders include symptoms analyzed as “natural” itmesses, such as dolor (stomachache), fria~dod (cold stomach), diarrheas and dysenteries, vomiting, b&s (aroused bile), empaeho (surfeit) and in~arna~~~n (stomach inflammation) which, in individual cases, are believed to derive from eating bad food or combinations of food, or some predisposing condition like intestinal parasites, slight hot-cold imbalance of the body, or aroused emotional state. in other cases, vomiting and diarrhea are explained to h “of evil origm’” and lack of appetite and indigestion as due to fright and soul loss. These demand specialized cures. The following sections briefly describe their symptoms and remedies.

Stomach pains, swellings, gastric distress and diarrhea are all possible symptoms of frialdud, or stomach dolor (“pain”). ~r~u~d~d(“cald stomach” results from eating foods that are “not well cooked”, or from ingesting too many cold foods. D&r labels any stomachache. The most common remedy is yerba buena, the leafy branches boiled into tea. it is classified as hot, and said to “heat” the stomach and “cook” the food “which has not fallen right’“, Other remedies, either apart or in combination with yerba ~uen~, include mon.~trun:a, salvia (white or yellow), yerbu duke, sentpoisuchet, manzanilla duke, anis, anis del cumpo and oregano, prepared as teas. Like yerba buena, they are classified as “hot”, “sweet”, and “good for ~~ring~~a~dff~‘. Pharma~eut~~a~s used as alternatives or additions to herbs include Alka Seltzer (classified as “hot” because it “boils’“), Sat de Uvas (classified as “cold” because it comes from grapes, but tried when Alka Seltzer does not work), and Terramycin, which is either classified as hot or ~onside~d to be effective, but outside of the hot-cold classification. Botanical and chemical analyses. All of the ten plants used as common digestive aids are aromatic and in local terms ‘“sweet”. Ail are members of either the Lab~atae~erbena~eae or Compositae,

110

TABLE

I

REMEDIES

DOLOR

FOR

Scientific name

Spanish name

Zapotec

name

Preparation/application

Local origin

Labiatae

Mentha sp.

yrrha huenu

hiic 3il

Green or dry leaves/leafy

Mentha rotundifolia Huds. Origanum vulgare L.

monslranx ortgano

monslrun: orCgano

(As above)

crdron

crdron

(As above)

salvia hlancu

salh no1

(As above)

X

salvia amarilla

sulh go11r.r

(As above)

X

sempol.wchcI unis del campo

gi higu anis giliS

Flowers boiled into tea

X

Green or dry leaves/leafy

X

branches boiled into tea X

(As above)

Verbenaceae

Aloysia triphylla (L’Her.)

Britton

Lippia graveolens

H.B.K.

Turneraceae

Turnera diffisa

Willd.

Compositae

Tagetes erec’ta L. Tagetes sp.

branches boiled into tea

Matricuria

chamomilla

L.

munzanillu duke

munzani.v Slil

(As above), also flowers boiled into tea

Umbelliferae

(Ammiaceae)

Pimpinella anisum L.

cmi.s

uni.v

with the exceptions of Salvia amarilla and anis and each of these two exceptions is associated by scent and name with one of the other principal remedies for dolor found in the two principal families. Phytochemical analyses indicate they can also be grouped together on the basis of their chemical constituents, since they share certain essential oils, which at least in part account for the taste and “effective” digestive properties attributed to them as a group in the Mitla ethnobotany. In Mitla terms, the common principle of grouping is by “sweet” taste/smell, which is associated with reputed “hot” quality of ali these herbs, and their pharmacological value for “heating” or “cooking ” “cold” stomach-ache. Chemically, the “taste components seem to correspond to aromatic or volatile oils within three groups: the first “mints”; the second, sweet “lemony” odors, based on citral and limonene, found in Aloysia, Lippia and salvia amarilla (Windholz et al., 1976, pp. 299, 718); and the third, “anise” flavor/scents. The plants (mints, anises and Matricaria chamomilla) are classified pharmacologically as “carminatives”

Seeds boiled into tea

which means that they should be effective in dispelling the flatulence which characterizes the condition Mitlefios label “cold stomach”. The reputed diuretic properties of certain of the herbs, in the case of anise (Pimpinella anisum) based on anethole, and in salvia (Turnera diffusa) on arbutin, may also contribute to their membership in this curative grouping, as increasing the flow of urine may be related to the sensation of the removal of flatulence. It should also be noted that the medicinal grouping excludes certain other sweet smelling herbs (e.q., Lantana camara, Dalia spp.) which are also available in the environment, and at least Lantana camara is used elsewhere as a digestive aid (Morton, 1981). Thus, Mitlerios have been selective in choosing leaves for pharmacological effect, over and above “smell”. Empacho (see Tables 3 and 4) Empacho is a second form of “cold” stomach.

The symptoms include general lack of appetite (a defining characteristic of all, but particularly

III

TABLE

2

DOLOR Scientific

name

Mentha rotundifolia

Menrha sp. (“Spearmint”) Origanum vulgare

Pharmaceutical

Pharmaceutical

components

Piperitone is used as a carminative. stimulant, and counter irritant (Claus, et al., 1970.

1966. pp. 306307) ‘Spearmint oil,” contains: carvone Thymol, an essential oil produced synthetically from piperitone.

p. 170) Carvone is a carminative. Thymol is anthelmintic and antiseptic, both internal and external (Windholz et al., 1976.

Lippia spp.

Essential oil contains: citrol, limonene. ethyleugenol (Hegnauer, 1966. p. 797) Contains: citrol, limonene (Hegnauer, 1973,

Turnera dtJit.va

p. 668) T. serrata contains

Tagetes erecta

properties

“Peppermint oil,” contains: piperitone oxide, epoxypulegone, piperitone (Hegnauer.

Carvacrol, an isomer of thymol Tannins Bitter principles (Thompson, 1978. p. 176)

Aioysia rriphylia

and other

The herbal properties are astringent, expectorant, and bile stimulant (Thompson. 1978. p. Citrol has 1976. p. Citrol has

176). a lemon odor (Windholz 299) a lemon odor (Windholz

et al., et al.,

1976, p. 299) Locally. its lemony odor (and name) likened Lippia spp. Arbutin has been used as a diuretic and urinary disinfectant (Stecher,

arbutin

Contains: tagetone, ocimene T. erecfa oil contains: nonanol, linoalool

p. 1214)

limonene.

to

1968, p. 98) The plant may be effective through essential oils; also through sulfur compounds or by its flavonoid glycosides.

Many Tagefes also contain nematicidal compounds. This one contains: kaempferitrin, quercetagitrin, tagetrin (Hegnauer, 1964, pp. 457; Matricaria

chamomilla

Pimpinella anisum

526528) Volatile oil contains: azulene, anthemic acid, anthemidine, sesquiterpenes, methyl coumarin, exbisabolol (Windholz et al., 1976, pp. 746; Spoerke, 1980, pp. I I61 17) Volatile oil, contains: anethole, calcium oxalate (Hegnauer, 1973, p. 562)

The plant acts as a carminative and topical counter-irritant. Infusion is widely used for dyspepsia (Trease and Evans, 1978. p. 459) Anethole has diuretic properties (Claus et al.. 1970. p. 189) The plant acts as an aromatic stimulant and carminative

stomach illnesses), swollen stomach, rumbling intestines, acute attacks of gas, pain and diarrhea, plus a feeling that something is “blocking” the intestines. It is believed to result from eating too many “cold” or “dry” foods, from being forced to eat when one does not want to, or from eating something cold after something hot. The simplest remedy is yerba buena tea, with salt or bicarbonate of soda, to “cook” the offending food or “warm” the stomach. In addition, the intestinal area or the lower back may be kneaded to “unstick” the food which is “blocking” the in-

testines. Another common remedy for empacho is a tea of biushito, either alone or in combination with the young upper leaves of lengua de vaca, and the white inner bark of mesquite. The former two are considered to be mild purges; the latter element an antidiarrheal. A piece of mesquite gum, the inner bark of nanches, green nanches, am’s, or some leaves of yerba de empacho may also be added to this remedy, according to the availability of herbs and individual household custom. The barks and green fruits are known to be antidiarrheals; the leaves mildly purgative or carminative.

112

TABLE

3

REMEDIES Scientific

FOR

EMPACHO

name

Spanish

Labiatae Menrha sp.

L.

Loganiaceae Buddleia sessilifrora H.B.K. Bignoniaeceae Tecoma srans (L.) H.B.K. Malpighiaceae Malpighia

sp.

Leguminosae Prosopis laevigala (Willd.) MC. Johnst. Leucaena (DC) Rosaceae Rosa centifolia L SimaroubaceaeSimarubaceae Simaba

cedron

Zapotec name

Preparation/application

biic 3il

Green

orPgan0

orbgano

branches (As above)

cedron

cedron

(As above)

biushifo

b&hit

(As above), also flowers boiled into tea

X

lengua de vaca

bala giwi

Green tender leaves boiled into tea, with buishit

X

yerba de empacho

gibakan gihS

Green or dry leaves boiled into tea

X

nanches

balwi

Bark, unripe into tea

X

mesquite

gecbeh

Bark, gum mixed into tea

X

guaje

lya

Bark mixed into tea

X

rosa de castillo

gi ros

Flower

hueso cedron

cedron

Seed shavings

yerbabuena

Origanum vulgare L. Verbenaceae Aloysia triphylla (L’HCr.) Britton Aizoaceae Mollugo verlicillata

name

a chemical powder, or linasa seeds (both purges) may also be included; or a mild purge of four or five flowers of rosa de castilla with milk of magnesia. Terramycin and Interovioformo (brand names) are alternative pharmaceuticals. All of these can be purchased at local shops and pharmacies. In empacho remedies, more attention is paid to the purgative or antidiarrheal than to the hot-cold qualities of elements. Emphasis seems to be on combining elements which are classified in local terms as digestive aids, mild purges and antidiarrheals. Botanical and chemical analyses. The central elements of this remedy combine digestive aids (sweet aromatics), antidiarrheals (astringents) Zarcon,

Local origin

or dry leaves/leafy boiled into tea

fruit boiled

boiled into tea boiled in tea

(three classes of leguminous tree barks that contain tannins) and purges (no immediately apparent common characteristic except their purgative qualities), all of which may be “effective” in pharmacologial and local terms. Yerba buena, as well as oregano or cedron, may be used to treat the symptoms of flatulence and diarrhea characteristic of empacho, as well as dolor (see discussion above). Biushito, lengua de vaca and yerba de empacho in local terms are considered to be mild purgatives, which chemically should be their expected pharmacological effects. The barks of nanches (Malpighia), mesquite (Prosopis) and gauje (Leucaena), in local terms classified as antidiarrheal, all contain astringent tannin; Prosopis is also phar-

II3

TABLE

4

EMPACHO

Scientific

name

Pharmaceutical

components

Pharmaceutical

No information.

contain

although most of this genus saponins (Hegnauer. 1964, p. 72)

Genus contains: aucubin (Hegnauer. 1964. p. 308). Linarin, a flavonoid glycoside. alkaloid in the bark and leaves “The frequent use of Buddlriu species in folk medicine makes it probable that other interesting compounds are present in the family” (Hegnauer, 1964. p. 309) Leaves contain: alkaloids: tecomine. tecostanine and tecostidine, plus many more alkaloids and enzymes; resins; mineral salts, tannin (Morton, 1981. pp. 829-830) and saponins (Hegnauer, 1964. p. 270)

Mulpighiu

sp.

Prosopis lucviguru

Simuhu ceclron

Bark contains: p. 415) Bark contains:

Tannin

Bark contains:

tannin

(Morton.

tannin

Flowers of Rosu species contain: anthocyanins-cyanin. chrysanthemin, peonin, flavonoids. glycosides. kaempferol. quercetin Stone contains: saponins. glucoside cedrine. cedronin. cedronolin (Hegnauer. 1973. pp. 39G-393)

macologically classified as a demulcent*, which may help protect the intestinal tract from further irritation (Swinyard and Pathak, 1980, p. 951). Thus, pharmacological activity in the case of individual herbs appears to match ethnopharmacological expectations. What is not explicit from the scientific point of view is how these herbs *Demulcents weight that

are “a group form aqueous

1981.

of compounds of high molecular solutions having the ability to

alleviate irritation, particularly of mucous membranes or abraded surfaces. When applied locally to irritated or abraded tissues, (they) tend to coat the surface, and by mechanical means, protect the underlying (surfaces)” and are sometimes “applied to the gastrointestinal tract in the form of demulcent drinks or enemas” (Swinyard and Pathak, 1980, p. 951).

and other properties

Saponins could account for this species’ reputed mild, purgative action Diuretic, emetic, and purgative action has been attributed to an alkaloid (Martinez, 1959)

The alkaloids have been shown to have powerful hypoglycemic effects orally and intravenously (Lozoya, 1980). A decoction from the leaves is also employed for diuretic effects (Morton, I98 I. pp. 829-830) Saponins might give mild, purgative effects Astringent properties of tannin are used as an antidiarrheal (Morton, 1981. p. 415) Astringent properties of tannin are used as an antidiarrheal (Morton, 1981. pp. 344-345). Gum. like gum arabic, is a demulcent Astringent properties of tannin are used as an antidiarrheal Glycosides of kaempferol and quemetrin might have diuretic and mild laxative action; also astringent effects (Spoerke, 1980. p. 150) Stone has a bitter taste and is a purgative, drastic in large quantities (Morton, 1981, pp. 389-390)

act in combination: whether, as local remedies suggest, the mild purgative action of certain elements clears the offending food, but then is limited by antidiarrheals. Currently, these typical remedies of the local gardens and countryside are being replaced by purges and antidiarrheals sold by pharmacies, as people become increasingly unfamiliar with the plants of the countryside, and find local pharmaceuticals more convenient and less burdensome to prepare.

Bilk (see Tables 5 and 6) Bilk describes acid indigestion, the mouth

and ill feeling

the bad taste in that one sometimes ex-

114 TABLE

5

REMEDIES Scientific

FOR

BILIS

name

Compositae Ariemisia

Preparation/application

Local origin

yerba maestra

Green

X

manzaniy La

into tea (As above)

cacahuaton

Skwan ghihb

(As above)

hoja de nue: fresno

balak fresn

Green tea

huesco cedron cuaile

cedron cuaile

Seed shavings boiled into tea Root boiled into tea

malba

malba

Green leaves/leafy boiled into tea

Spanish

mexicana (L.)

Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh. Calea hypoleuca Rob. Oleaceae Fraxinus sp.

name

yerba maestra man:anilla

amarga

Zapotec

name

or dry leaves boiled

X

leaves boiled into

Simaroubaceae Simaba cedron

Malvaceae Malva parviflora

L.

periences upon waking in the morning, and abdominal pains and chest pains that are part of indigestion which accompanies extreme anger. Bilk is usually linked to nervios (aroused nerves) and anger, which “heat up” the blood; one gets annoyed with every little thing and is generally “hot headed”. Yerba maestra (“the great herb”) is the most common remedy; the leafy branches are prepared as a tea and left out to cool in the morning dew. Manzanilla amarga, hueso de cedron and cacahuaton are alternatives, also prepared as teas. A few households drink tea of malba which also is classified as cool, but not bitter. Numerous remedies for bilk are also sold by itinerant herbalists and pharmacists. Such herbal remedies, e.g., cuarle, are also extremely bitter and conceived to be effective because they are bitter. All remedies are taken as teas, usually early in the morning, while it is still cool, and before other food has been taken. The dimension they share in common is bitterness, which in local terms is usually a sign of “cool” quality. In local terms the (first) three principal remedies (all Compositae) are classified as “extremely bitter”. The others are

branches

bitter also. With the exception of cacahuaton (Culea hypoleucu), all of these herbs are classified as “cooling” to counteract the “heat” of anger, aroused blood and bilis. In addition, since symptoms of bilis also include bitter taste in the mouth, the principle may also be “bitter cures bitter.* Herbs for bilis are also supposed to be good for stimulating appetites, one sign of disturbance in which is bitter taste in the mouth, particularly first thing in the morning. Botanical and chemical analyses. Most of these herbs, drawn from various botanical families, do contain an active component to stimulate digestive secretions. All appear to be bitter, several are anthelmintic and furthermore have stimulant properties. However, as Martinez (1969:92-3) noted in his pharmacological analyses of the several bitter roots in Mexico named cuasia, “real” cuasia

*This seems to be the case, although the bitterness in this instance acts as a digestive aid and appetite stimulant, and there may not be any more abstract principle operating. In the case of diabetes, to which bilis (anger), is also linked in etiology, the notion is that “bitter opposes (or counteracts) sweet”, which is also part of the etiology.

TABLE

6

3ILI.s Scientific

name

Artemesia mexicana

Chrysanthemum parrhenium

Pharmaceutical

components

Plant contains: tannin

santonin.

Plant contains:

pyrethrum

Pharmaceutical camphor,

(esters

of chrysanthemic acid), sesquiteronene lactones (probably bitter) (Trease and Evans, 1978, p. 459)

Caiea ~ypo~euea

Fraxinus

SQ.

No information. C. ~ueuie~hi~hi~ however, contains a glycosidelike bitter principle Genus characterized by substituted coumarins like esculentin and fraxetin (Hegnauer, 1969, Q. 238)

Simaba cedron (see Table 4) Cuassia (one of a number of bitter barks or roots). Quassia amara Malvff parvl~ara

“Real”

cuassia

bark contains

(Quassiu umara) a bitter

principle

No chemical analysis. Flowers contain: glycosides, kaempferone and quercetin (Hegnauer, 1969, p. 39)

and other

properties

Santonin tastes bitter and is an anthelmintic (Windholz et al., 1976, p. 1083) Camphor is a mild irritant, stimulant and colic reliever (Ortiz de Montellano. 1975) Tannin, probably tied to a bitter principle. increases flow of saliva and gastric secretions (Ysunza, 1976). it would thus be an effective vermicide and appetite stimulant. for which purposes it is widely used throughout Mexico The plant tastes bitter, in this respect is similar to Artcmc’siu mexicana for which it is sometimes substituted. The deco&on is widely used as a digestive and emenagogue. an enema to remove intestinal worms. and for diarrhea; also as an antispasmodic and tonic to overcome biliousness (Morton, 1981. pp. 781, 9181, but pharmacological bases for its reputed therapeutic effects are still in doubt (Spoerke, 1980, p. 27) Natives note its extremely bitter and stimulating properties. Elsewhere. C&u leaves are said to be purgative and emetic (Morton, 1981, p. 915) Fraxetin has a bitter taste (Stecher, 1968, p. 471). F. ~xce/,sior has been used elsewhere as a mild laxative (Hegnauer, 1969. p. 244). Saponins are bitter and purgative Some bitter principles (e.g. that of “real” cuassia) anthelmintic

(Windholz

et al., 1976. p. 1042)

Alcoholic solutions of quercetin taste very bitter (Windholz et al., 1976, p. 1043) which may indicate that glycosides of quercetin are bitter (most natives classitied this as “fresh”). Glycosides of quercetin are diuretic and those of kacmpferol are usually laxative (Steinegger and Haensel. 1963, p. 169)

(Quussiu amara) contained a bitter principle and was anthelmintic; other roots which looked and tasted like “cuasia”, and were also so named, did not share the original’s pha~acological effectiveness. Selection for bitter taste and common physical properties, therefore, does not assure pharmacological equivalence. Pharmacologically, the herbs for bilk share laxative or purgative properties, which are consistent

with the intention to stimulate appetite, although not mentioned specifically by Mitlerios. In~arna~~an(see Tables 7 and 8) Too much heat in the intestinal area, characterized by pain, swelling, and sometimes fever and urinary discomfort, are symptoms of inflammation. The symptoms can include swelling and pain at the “mouth of the stomach”, bladder and

II6

TABLE

7 FOR INFLAMACION

REMEDIES Scientific

name

Spanish

name

Zapotec

name

Preparation/application

Local origin

X

X

Compositae Baccharis

salicifolia

(R.&P.)

chumix

yrh .ieh

mun-_anillu umargu

mun:uniylu

Green leaves/leafy brances applied externally (As above)

yuk Isun lus

(As above)

huluk suzi

(As above)

Pew

Chrysanthemum parrhenium

sp.

Montanoa

su:i

Unidentitied Loganiaceae

lenguu de vacu

Buddleia salicifoliu

(As above)

X

(As above)

X

(As above) (As above)

X

(As above) Green fruits (tomatoes) applied externally (As above)

X X

Convolvulaceae Impomoea

pirjrrro hoho

pauciforu

yuhunu

Mart. & Gal. Euphorbiaceae Euphorhiu

maculutu

Ricinus communis

L. L.

9

grillu hluncu

Solanaceae Nicotiuna Solanum

gluucu (nigrum

Grah.

mosluzu

group)

yerha

mora

millomule

Physulis sp.

Malvaceae Malvu parviforu

L.

mulhu

Green leaves/leafy branches applies externally; boiled into enema

Boraginaceae Cordiu curassuvicu

(Jacq.) Rutaceae

shohuroho

guhenig”

(As above)

X

rudu

rud lin10n

(As above) Tender fruit applied externally

X

limcin

R.&S.

Rutu gravedens Citru.r sp.

L.

spleen, and be of either the left (cold, “spleen”) or the right (hot) side of the body. Though inflammation connotes “heat”, cases are classified as hot or cold depending on the site (side) of the pain. The cures (most of which are ignored in current practice, as people more commonly seek physicians’ medications) are poultices of several herbs, greases and liquors (listed below), which are supposed to be balanced (temperate), but which should also conform to the hot-cold principle of treatment by opposites (often mutually contradictory). In each case, poultices of green leaves are said to appear “cooked” after being applied for three to four

hours, thus showing they have removed the “heat” of inflammation. Purges (usually rosa de custillu) and enemas (usually malba) may also be administered. Otherwise remedies are applied externally. In the cases of inflammation, empacho and frialdadldolor, massage sometimes accompanies other herbal ministrations. Botanical and chemical analyses. Inflammation remedies, applied externally to the “mouth of the stomach” or spleen to remove heat, incorporate green leaves or “‘green” fruits from a variety of botanical families. They are predominantly “cool-

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TABLE

8

INFLAMACION Scientific

Pharmaceutical

name

Baccharis salicifolia

components

No information. B. genisfelloides contains: essential oil with fl-pinene, carquejol carquiejyl acetate and Q and 0 cadinene (Hagnauer, 1964, p. 454)

xusi

No information

Ipomoea pauciflora

No information. Laxative, cathartic resins characterize the Convolvulaceae (Hegnauer 1964, p. 548; Windholz et al., 1976, p. 668) Contains castor oil and ricin.

Ricinus communis

Pharmaceutical

and other properties

The whole dried plant has a strong, resinous odor (Morton, 1981, p. 911). Pinene, like camphor. irritates skin and mucous membranes (Windholz et al., 1976, p. 7248). (In local terms, this plant is probably employed for its “fresh” odor, and its “cooling” association, since it grows near the river) This leaf also grows along the river, and has leaf form and cooling associations similar to Baccharis salicifoliu In local terms. the curing associations of this leaf are “cooling.” It is always applied externally. (If introduced internally, would be cathartic)

Castor oil is a cathartic (Windholz et al., 1976, p. 1888). Ricin is a potent allergen and might be irritant (Morton. 1981, pp. 46-66). In local terms, the large, durable leaves are used to bind the poultice. Contrasting colored leaves from “red” and “white” (green) bushes can be used to manipulate the respective “hot” or “cold” quality of any particular

Solanum (nigrum

group)

Nicotiana glauca

Tomatoes (ripe fruits) contain: solanine solasidine

application Solanine and solasidine are base materials for the manufacture of steroidal drugs (Windholz et al., 1976.

Contains alkaloid: anabasine (Hegnauer. 1978, p. 410)

p. 1124: “tomatoes” are crushed and contribute “freshness” (coolness) to the poultice Nicotine is an ectoparasiticide and anthelmintic (Windholz et al., 1976, p. 847). In local terms,

Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) contains: nicotine See above

the leaf is employed for its moist. “cool” qualities to counteract the “heat” of inflammation Contact with plant may cause skin irritation (Morton, 1981)

Ruta graveolens

Plant contains: kaempferol (Hegnauer, 1964, p. 299) Leaves contain: rutin and a bitter acrid oil

Cirrus auranlifolia Euphorbia maculata

Contains: bioflavonoids No information

Contact with plant may cause skin irritation (Morton. 1981) The plant, when handled, produces redness and swelling (Morton, 1981. pp. 378-379) Fruit (?) may produce skin irritation and itching Other species of Euphorbia have latex, which is acrid, irritant, rubefacient. and purgative (see Farm. Mex, 1966. p. 399; Morton, 1981. pp. 4434)

Chrysanthemum parrhenium Cordia curdissavica

ing” herbs (as used in this and other contexts) although the hot-cold qualities of particular remedies are determined by the qualities of the waxes, fibers and liquors used with them as well. Elements are prepared and allowed to “freshen” in

the morning dew before application. The particular combinations of herbs, waxes, fibers and liquors is arrived at by hot-cold balancing. Pain and inflammation of the right side of the body are classified as “hot” and treated by predominantly

I18

“cool” combinations, those of the left side are classified as “cold” and balanced by “hot” combinations. One common principle in leaf and fruit selections seems to be that of skin irritation.* The topical application of irritants may be pharmacologically effective in relieving deeper, organic pain; surface irritation may also be one object of the native curing procedure, since such irritation gives the sensation and visual sign that heat is being “brought out” to the surface. The various liquors, waxes, fibers and fats may also contribute to this irritant effect, particularly those which contain camphor or camphor-related compounds. Contrariwise, the alcoholic content of these liquors may produce a “cooling” sensation upon application, which would conform to the native expectation that such poultices be/feel “cooling” while they draw out heat (and pain).

*“Irritants circulation

are drugs that act locally on cutaneous or mucosal to produce ‘inflammation’. The first response to

local irritation is an increased circulation to the injured part. The localized vasodilation, mediated via an axon reflex, is attended by a feeling of comfort, warmth and sometimes itching. Localized hyperesthesia also occurs. Drugs that evoke only hyperemia are known as rubefacients. If the irritant action progresses, the capillaries dilate widely and become more permeable. Plasma escapes into the extracellular spaces. fluid collects under the epidermis, and blisters are formed. .” (Swinyard and Pathak, 1980, pp. 955). “When an irritant is used for other than its local effects, it is commonly referred to as a counter-irritant. The mechanisn of action is a dual one. The afferent nerve inpulses from the skin are relayed in the cerebrospinal axis to efferent vasomotor fibers supplying internal organs. Thus, the increased circulation to the skin has its counterpart in deeper integumental structures and in viscera innervated from the same segmental level of the CNS. Furthermore, when pain arises from an internal organ, sensory impulses simultaneously coming from the skin. as a result of the action of an irritant, either alter the character of the visceral sensations or, more probably, occupy the common pathway to the partial or complete exclusion of the impulses arising from the viscera. For example, the use of a rubefacient might relieve pain arising from intestinal spasm either by the salutory effect of an increased circulation to the spastic bowel or by the blocking of visceral afferent impulses. Local irritation can also reflexly stimulate medullary centers and cause an increase in respiratory rate and blood pressure. .” (Swinyard. 1965, pp. 981-82).

Latido Rumbling and “movement” around the area of the navel are labeled fatido. Cases presented to physicians usually are diagnosed as “amoebas”. The traditional treatments are herbal poultices, cool remedies to counteract latido which is classified as hot. Different classes of pills and injections are also used. The herbal elements duplicate those used for injlamacion. Disenteria (diarrheas) (see Tohles 9 und IO) including intense diarrhea and Dysentery, cramps, is classified as of heat or of cold, depending on whether it is bloody or green, and more intense during the day or night, respectively. Cases are treated by herbs - including selected barks, gums and green fruits, thought to have binding effects - but these are also interspersed with herbal teas sometimes used as purges; and the hot-cold principle of opposites is applied in the form of teas, external applications, sitting baths or enemas. These days, most people rely on phamaceuticals, like Terramycin, to relieve temporary symptoms, and injections and pills recommended by pharmacists or medical doctors to remove more severe symptoms. They are perceived to be superior to local herbal remedies in most instances, although people turn to the herbal preparations “of earlier times” when the pharmaceuticals fail to provide quick, effective relief. Botanical and chemical analyses. “Hot ” diarrheas: Remedies that are drunk to combat “hot” (bleeding) dysentery appear to be selected for their astringent (antidiarrheal) properties. Pomegranate, guajaba bark, nanche and mesquite bark, are all relatively high in tannic acid, which would make them pharmacologically astringent. In local terms, such remedies are also classified as “cool”, which provides a further rationale for selecting the more astringent unripe fruits. It would also be useful to know the relative pectin contents of such fruits, which might contribute to their binding qualities. Contrariwise, pomegranate fruits and Buddleia leaves, judged by their other constituents, may also be respectively anthelmintic and purgative. Whatever the chemical constituents and pharmacological value of such remedies, they are

119

TABLE

9

REMEDIES

FOR

DIARRHEA

AND

DYSENTRY Local origin

Spanish name

Zapotec name

Preparation/application

grilla blanca

balap nol

Green leaves/leafy externally

mesquile

ge?beh

White inner bark mixed with water. infusion

romero

romer

Leaves boiled into a sitting bath

lengua de vaca

bala giwi

Tender green leaves boiled into tea or applied to stomach

X

nanche

babvi

Tender fruit, bark mixed with water, infusion

X

guayaba

bawi

(As above)

X

yerba de arretes

Y

Upper part of plant prepared sitting bath

yerba lame

lame

Leaves boiled as tea

granada (Verde)

zti? stil (ya)

Tender fruit ground. water, infusion

limon riernilo

limon has

pajaro bobo piru

ya banu ya luj

Fruit sprayed into water with sugar and drunk Green leaves prepared as a sitting bath Sit on leaves placed on hot stones

yerba de emparho

gibakan g&S

Green

chami:o blanco

yak ,