Psychological Reports: Sociocultural Issues in Psychology 2013, 112, 3, 727-731. © Psychological Reports 2013
SUICIDE AMONG POLISH OFFICERS DURING WORLD WAR II IN OFLAG II–C WOLDENBERG1 ADAM CZABAŃSKI
DAVID LESTER
Poznan University of Medical Sciences
The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
Summary.—Although scholars have examined the occurrence of suicide in the concentration camps during World War Two, little has appeared on suicide in prisoner-of-war camps. The present note presents an attempt to document the occurrence of suicide in the Oflag II–C Woldenberg camp in what is now Western Poland, and estimates a suicide rate of between 22.4 to 38.4 per 100,000 per year in the roughly 6,600 prisoners.
There has been some discussion in recent years on suicidal behavior in the concentration camps during the Second World War (Bronisch, 1996; Lester, 2005). At first, it was thought that suicide was rare in the concentration camps, but Lester (2005) estimated suicide rates as high as 25,000 per 100,000 per year based on reports by survivors of the concentration camps.2 Very little has appeared on suicide in the prisoner-of-war camps set up by the Germans in that war. Conditions in these prisons were harsh but, of course, nowhere near as harsh as the concentration camps. However, suicidal behavior was not uncommon in the prisoner of war camps, and the present note examines suicidal behavior in one such camp.3 The Oflag II–C Woldenberg, in what is now Western Poland, was established on May 21, 1940 (Kisielewicz, 1998) and closed on January 28, 1945.4 According to Toczewski (2009, p. 7), “The camp was surrounded by double fencing made of barbed wires about 2.5 meters high with eight guard towers. There were 500 German personnel, of whom two thirds were in the guard units.” It was the largest prisoner-of-war camp for Polish officers. In October 1944, after a group of 100 officers and Wielkopolska insurgents arrived in Woldenberg, the camp held 6,687 prisoners. According to Kisielewicz (1998, p. 50), “Captives of the Woldenberg camp were officers and officer cadets coming from almost all military groupings Address inquires to David Lester, Ph.D., Psychology Program, The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, Galloway, NJ 08205-9441 or e-mail ([email protected]). 2 Arad (1987) noted that an average of about 1,000 prisoners were in Treblinka (with new arrivals replacing those who had died). Suicide was a daily occurrence, and they removed from the huts every morning those who had hanged themselves. Assuming only one suicide per day out of 1,000 prisoners, the estimated number of suicides per year is 365, giving a yearly rate 36,500 per 100,000. 3 Krysinska and Lester (2008) were unable to estimate a suicide rate for the Gulag camps set up by the Soviet Union. Although some reported that suicide was rare (e.g., Solzhenitsyn, 1974), others reported that suicide was common (e.g., Applebaum, 2003). 4 The prisoners were marched out and liberated by the Soviet Union forces two days later. 1
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from the Defense War of 1939. They were also Warsaw insurgents, as well as a few Polish officers who were taken into captivity during the Battle of France in 1940.” There were no women prisoners in the camp. The conditions in the camp were in violation of international standards for the treatment of captured enemy armed forces. The living conditions were harsh. “The barracks had bricked floors, lacked ceilings, poorly illuminated, damp and insufficiently heated during winter. The barracks were overcrowded with three-tiered bunk beds, unchanged straw mattresses, and omnipresent bugs. There was a constant lack of water, clothes were very rarely changed, medicines and medical equipment were scarce, and the prisoners were left to starve” (Olesik, 2008, p. 6). The food situation was ameliorated to some extent with help from abroad. The officers’ health was good at the beginning of the captivity, but grew worse over time. The officers had better living and sanitary conditions than the concentration camps but, nevertheless, many of them became ill as a result of insufficient nourishment and cold and cramped living quarters. Kisielewicz (1998) noted that there was a high incidence of tuberculosis, cardiovascular diseases, rheumatism, pneumonia, and digestive diseases. The most serious illnesses were heart attacks and bleeding peptic ulcers. Several dozen prisoners had psychiatric disorders, and some of them were sent to psychiatric hospitals in Uckermünde and Hohenwerde (Kisielewicz, 1998). One prisoner in the camp wrote afterwards that the conditions created psychiatric breakdowns in some of the men (Olesik, 2008). There was psychological shock as a result of the September defeat, followed by the harsh conditions of the camp, and a fear of being turned over to the Gestapo. The prisoners lived in fear of harm, with no idea as to how long they would remain in the camp. The overcrowding in the barracks was a source of conflict among the officers, and they tried to use blankets and cardboard to create personal spaces. The prisoners set up courts to deal with minor conflicts, and these courts helped maintain peace among those in camps and allowed them to retain some dignity (Kisielewicz, 1998). Although the harsh conditions of the camp were primarily responsible for the despair in the prisoners, occasionally the prisoners themselves added to the stress. In one case, one prisoner was convicted by the prisoners’ court for a minor offense and expelled from the cadre (case 3 below). When the sentence was upheld, the prisoner killed himself (Kisielewicz, 1998). The fear of physical decline induced some prisoners to try to maintain their physical fitness with intensive exercising and sunbathing. Prisoners did receive mail from their wives or fiancées, but these letters often contained news of the end of their relationships if their wives and fiancées found new partners. Those whose families stayed intact could do nothing for their families, and this often resulted in guilt.
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Kisielewicz noted the regular appearance of hysteria, anxiety disorders, and neurosis, and this became known as the “barbed wire disease.” Prisoners were in continuous view of the other prisoners, and it was impossible to hide any weaknesses or habits. The prisoners became suspicious of one another and treated minor remarks as provocations or attacks. Some became irritable with changeable moods, while others became emotionally dulled. Some prisoners were so badly affected by the camp life that they developed delusions and hallucinations, while others developed phobias, obsessions, or excessive fantasizing. A psychiatrist in the camp estimated that about three hundred men had a mental illness (Kisielewicz, 1998). Only a few of this group were identified to the Germans for fear of them being killed. METHOD Published works were searched, for information on the suicides in the II–C Woldenberg camp, and information was sought from the Central Museum of War Prisoners located in Lambinowice-Opole, Poland and in the archives of the Museum Oflag IIC Woldenberg in Dobiegniew. The works consulted included three by historians (Kisielewicz, 1998; Olesik, 2008; Toczewski, 2009) and books by former prisoners (e.g., Bohatkiewicz, 1971; Kuropieska, 1974). RESULTS Between 1940 and 1945, about 60 officers died in the II C Woldenberg camp, a figure which includes some suicides. A few individuals seemed to experience an acute psychological crisis and threw themselves onto the wire surrounding the camp whereupon they were shot by the German guards; some of these actions may have been deliberate attempts to commit suicide. Five such cases can be documented on the basis of the materials in the museum in Dobigniew: (1) Navy 2nd Lieutenant, died March 28, 1942; (2) Air Force 2nd Lieutenant, died August 6, 1942; (3) Navy 2nd Lieutenant, injured March 20, 1944, died March 23, 1944; (4) 2nd Lieutenant, injured May 7, 1944, died May 9, 1944; (5) Captain, died October 7, 1944. Toczewski (2009) believes that all the people who threw themselves on the wires were suffering from a mental disorder or a severe depression. He noted that Captain Kosobudzki, Lieutenant Gonera, and Second-Lieutenant Gorzelany “in a fit of raving madness or psychical depression they approached the wires and were shot” (p. 52). During severe states of depression, some prisoners developed delusions and strong feelings of guilt and committed suicide. Seven suicides can be documented in the Oflag II C Woldenberg camp: (1) 2nd Lieutenant, died March 15, 1941; (2) 2nd Lieutenant, funeral February 5, 1942; (3) 2nd Lieutenant, funeral January 26, 1943; (4) Commander, funeral January
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28, 1943; (5) 2nd Lieutenant, January 4/5, 1945; (6) 2nd Lieutenant, funeral 2.05.1944; (7) 2nd Lieutenant, died September 19, 1944. Of these seven suicides, it is known that three hanged themselves at night using a belt, while three others slashed their wrists with razor blades. To obtain a minimum estimate of the suicide rate in the camp, we assumed that the average population of the camp was 6,687 throughout the camp’s history, probably an overestimate. Assuming seven to 12 suicides, based on the lists above, the suicide rate can be estimated at 22.4 to 38.4 per 100,000 per year. Data on the age and religion of the prisoners were not available but, as Polish citizens, most were probably Roman Catholic. DISCUSSION The estimate of the suicide rate in the Woldenberg Camp was estimated to be 22.4 to 38.4 per 100,000 per year, but it is likely that this is an underestimate since the estimate used for the population was an overestimate (in the early days of the camp, the population was probably smaller) and since suicidal deaths are often covered up and undocumented, even in modern industrialized societies (Lester, 1992; Rockett, Kapusta, & Bhandari, 2011). There are no data on the suicide rate in Poland during the war, but the senior author has studied official records in the city of Poznan and calculated suicide rates of 14 in 1941 and 13.3 in 1942. After the war, the earliest data collected by the junior author are for 1955, when the suicide rate was 5.7 (9.6 for men and 2.2 for women) (Lester, 1994). According to the World Health Organization, the suicide rate has risen since then to 14.9 in 2008 (26.4 for men and 4.1 for women). The Polish soldiers in the camp were not beaten, tortured, or forced into lethal physical labor. They developed cultural, educational, scientific, and sporting activities, which possibly helped them survive their captivity. The prisoners established several scientific groups in the camp (e.g., Methodology of Science Circle, Veterinary Physician’s Circle, Pharmacists’ Circle, Oriental Circle, etc). The prisoners set up a “University of Woldenberg” in which 1,500 students in 27 fields took courses given by 80 academic teachers. There were also elementary school and high school courses, special courses for teachers, and more than 100 different vocational courses. There was a library with several thousand books. Moreover, there was a theater in which 24 plays were put on, as well as a puppet theater. There was a symphony orchestra, various chamber bands, a mandolin orchestra, a pop orchestra, and two choirs. There were seven sports clubs, including football, basketball, volleyball, track and field, and table tennis. There was even an Olympic Games organized in which 370 athletes took part. There were painters, graphic artists, and writers creat-
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ing artworks. There was also an organization prepared to take over the camp from the Germans if it became possible. Arms were gathered, and secret training was conducted. All of these activities, as well as numerous escapes, were an antidote for suicidal behaviors and contributed to low incidence of suicidal behaviors in the camp compared to the concentration camps. The German administrators of the camp knew of the cultural, educational, and sporting activities, but neither helped nor prevented them. There are still many questions concerning the phenomenon of suicidal behavior in this prisoner-of-war camp. For example, there are no data on attempts at suicide that did not result in death. It has not been possible so far to compare the characteristics of those soldiers who did commit suicide with those who did not do so. The archives related to this camp are stored in the Museum Oflag IIC Woldenberg in Dobiegniew, and hopefully further study of these archives will reveal more information about suicide in the camp. REFERENCES
APPLEBAUM, A. (2003) Gulag: a history of the Soviet camps. London, UK: Penguin. ARAD, Y. (1987) Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. BOHATKIEWICZ, J. (1971) Oflag IIC Woldenberg. Warsaw, Poland: Książka I Wiedza. [In Polish] BRONISCH, T. (1996) Suicidality in German concentration camps. Archives of Suicide Research, 2, 129-144. KISIELEWICZ, D. (1998) Oficerowie polscy w niewoli niemieckiej w czasie II wojny światowej [Polish officers in German captivity during World War II]. Opole, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. [In Polish] KRYSINSKA, K., & LESTER, D. (2008) Suicide in the Soviet gulag camps. Archives of Suicide Research, 12, 170-179. KUROPIESKA, J. (1974) Obozowe refleksje Oflag IIC [Camp reflections Oflag IIC]. Warsaw, Poland: Ministry of Defense. [In Polish] LESTER, D. (1992) Miscounting suicides. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 85, 15-16. LESTER, D. (1994) Domestic social integration, suicide and homicide in Poland, France and Yugoslavia. EuroCriminology, 7, 73-75. LESTER, D. (2005) Suicide and the Holocaust. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science. OLESIK, J. (2008) Obóz jeniecki oflag II C Woldenberg [Prisoner camp Oflag IIC Woldenberg]. Dobigniew, Poland: Urząd Miejski w Dobigniewie. [In Polish] ROCKETT, I. R. H., KAPUSTA, N. D., & BHANDARI, R. (2011) Suicide misclassification in an international context. Suicidology Online, 2, 48-61. SOLZHENITSYN, A. (1974) The gulag archipelago. Glasgow, Scotland: Collins/Fontana. TOCZEWSKI, A. (2009) Oflag II C w Dobigniewie. Dzieje obozowej konspiracji [Oflag IIC in Dobiegniew: a history of camp conspiracies]. Dobigniew, Poland: Urząd Miasta w Dobigniewie, Muzeum Ziemi Lubuskiej w Zielonej Górze. [In Polish] Accepted February 4, 2013.
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SUICIDE AMONG POLISH OFFICERS DURING WORLD WAR II IN OFLAG II–C WOLDENBERG1 ADAM CZABAŃSKI
DAVID LESTER
Poznan University of Medical Sciences
The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
Summary.—Although scholars have examined the occurrence of suicide in the concentration camps during World War Two, little has appeared on suicide in prisoner-of-war camps. The present note presents an attempt to document the occurrence of suicide in the Oflag II–C Woldenberg camp in what is now Western Poland, and estimates a suicide rate of between 22.4 to 38.4 per 100,000 per year in the roughly 6,600 prisoners.
There has been some discussion in recent years on suicidal behavior in the concentration camps during the Second World War (Bronisch, 1996; Lester, 2005). At first, it was thought that suicide was rare in the concentration camps, but Lester (2005) estimated suicide rates as high as 25,000 per 100,000 per year based on reports by survivors of the concentration camps.2 Very little has appeared on suicide in the prisoner-of-war camps set up by the Germans in that war. Conditions in these prisons were harsh but, of course, nowhere near as harsh as the concentration camps. However, suicidal behavior was not uncommon in the prisoner of war camps, and the present note examines suicidal behavior in one such camp.3 The Oflag II–C Woldenberg, in what is now Western Poland, was established on May 21, 1940 (Kisielewicz, 1998) and closed on January 28, 1945.4 According to Toczewski (2009, p. 7), “The camp was surrounded by double fencing made of barbed wires about 2.5 meters high with eight guard towers. There were 500 German personnel, of whom two thirds were in the guard units.” It was the largest prisoner-of-war camp for Polish officers. In October 1944, after a group of 100 officers and Wielkopolska insurgents arrived in Woldenberg, the camp held 6,687 prisoners. According to Kisielewicz (1998, p. 50), “Captives of the Woldenberg camp were officers and officer cadets coming from almost all military groupings Address inquires to David Lester, Ph.D., Psychology Program, The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, Galloway, NJ 08205-9441 or e-mail ([email protected]). 2 Arad (1987) noted that an average of about 1,000 prisoners were in Treblinka (with new arrivals replacing those who had died). Suicide was a daily occurrence, and they removed from the huts every morning those who had hanged themselves. Assuming only one suicide per day out of 1,000 prisoners, the estimated number of suicides per year is 365, giving a yearly rate 36,500 per 100,000. 3 Krysinska and Lester (2008) were unable to estimate a suicide rate for the Gulag camps set up by the Soviet Union. Although some reported that suicide was rare (e.g., Solzhenitsyn, 1974), others reported that suicide was common (e.g., Applebaum, 2003). 4 The prisoners were marched out and liberated by the Soviet Union forces two days later. 1
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from the Defense War of 1939. They were also Warsaw insurgents, as well as a few Polish officers who were taken into captivity during the Battle of France in 1940.” There were no women prisoners in the camp. The conditions in the camp were in violation of international standards for the treatment of captured enemy armed forces. The living conditions were harsh. “The barracks had bricked floors, lacked ceilings, poorly illuminated, damp and insufficiently heated during winter. The barracks were overcrowded with three-tiered bunk beds, unchanged straw mattresses, and omnipresent bugs. There was a constant lack of water, clothes were very rarely changed, medicines and medical equipment were scarce, and the prisoners were left to starve” (Olesik, 2008, p. 6). The food situation was ameliorated to some extent with help from abroad. The officers’ health was good at the beginning of the captivity, but grew worse over time. The officers had better living and sanitary conditions than the concentration camps but, nevertheless, many of them became ill as a result of insufficient nourishment and cold and cramped living quarters. Kisielewicz (1998) noted that there was a high incidence of tuberculosis, cardiovascular diseases, rheumatism, pneumonia, and digestive diseases. The most serious illnesses were heart attacks and bleeding peptic ulcers. Several dozen prisoners had psychiatric disorders, and some of them were sent to psychiatric hospitals in Uckermünde and Hohenwerde (Kisielewicz, 1998). One prisoner in the camp wrote afterwards that the conditions created psychiatric breakdowns in some of the men (Olesik, 2008). There was psychological shock as a result of the September defeat, followed by the harsh conditions of the camp, and a fear of being turned over to the Gestapo. The prisoners lived in fear of harm, with no idea as to how long they would remain in the camp. The overcrowding in the barracks was a source of conflict among the officers, and they tried to use blankets and cardboard to create personal spaces. The prisoners set up courts to deal with minor conflicts, and these courts helped maintain peace among those in camps and allowed them to retain some dignity (Kisielewicz, 1998). Although the harsh conditions of the camp were primarily responsible for the despair in the prisoners, occasionally the prisoners themselves added to the stress. In one case, one prisoner was convicted by the prisoners’ court for a minor offense and expelled from the cadre (case 3 below). When the sentence was upheld, the prisoner killed himself (Kisielewicz, 1998). The fear of physical decline induced some prisoners to try to maintain their physical fitness with intensive exercising and sunbathing. Prisoners did receive mail from their wives or fiancées, but these letters often contained news of the end of their relationships if their wives and fiancées found new partners. Those whose families stayed intact could do nothing for their families, and this often resulted in guilt.
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Kisielewicz noted the regular appearance of hysteria, anxiety disorders, and neurosis, and this became known as the “barbed wire disease.” Prisoners were in continuous view of the other prisoners, and it was impossible to hide any weaknesses or habits. The prisoners became suspicious of one another and treated minor remarks as provocations or attacks. Some became irritable with changeable moods, while others became emotionally dulled. Some prisoners were so badly affected by the camp life that they developed delusions and hallucinations, while others developed phobias, obsessions, or excessive fantasizing. A psychiatrist in the camp estimated that about three hundred men had a mental illness (Kisielewicz, 1998). Only a few of this group were identified to the Germans for fear of them being killed. METHOD Published works were searched, for information on the suicides in the II–C Woldenberg camp, and information was sought from the Central Museum of War Prisoners located in Lambinowice-Opole, Poland and in the archives of the Museum Oflag IIC Woldenberg in Dobiegniew. The works consulted included three by historians (Kisielewicz, 1998; Olesik, 2008; Toczewski, 2009) and books by former prisoners (e.g., Bohatkiewicz, 1971; Kuropieska, 1974). RESULTS Between 1940 and 1945, about 60 officers died in the II C Woldenberg camp, a figure which includes some suicides. A few individuals seemed to experience an acute psychological crisis and threw themselves onto the wire surrounding the camp whereupon they were shot by the German guards; some of these actions may have been deliberate attempts to commit suicide. Five such cases can be documented on the basis of the materials in the museum in Dobigniew: (1) Navy 2nd Lieutenant, died March 28, 1942; (2) Air Force 2nd Lieutenant, died August 6, 1942; (3) Navy 2nd Lieutenant, injured March 20, 1944, died March 23, 1944; (4) 2nd Lieutenant, injured May 7, 1944, died May 9, 1944; (5) Captain, died October 7, 1944. Toczewski (2009) believes that all the people who threw themselves on the wires were suffering from a mental disorder or a severe depression. He noted that Captain Kosobudzki, Lieutenant Gonera, and Second-Lieutenant Gorzelany “in a fit of raving madness or psychical depression they approached the wires and were shot” (p. 52). During severe states of depression, some prisoners developed delusions and strong feelings of guilt and committed suicide. Seven suicides can be documented in the Oflag II C Woldenberg camp: (1) 2nd Lieutenant, died March 15, 1941; (2) 2nd Lieutenant, funeral February 5, 1942; (3) 2nd Lieutenant, funeral January 26, 1943; (4) Commander, funeral January
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28, 1943; (5) 2nd Lieutenant, January 4/5, 1945; (6) 2nd Lieutenant, funeral 2.05.1944; (7) 2nd Lieutenant, died September 19, 1944. Of these seven suicides, it is known that three hanged themselves at night using a belt, while three others slashed their wrists with razor blades. To obtain a minimum estimate of the suicide rate in the camp, we assumed that the average population of the camp was 6,687 throughout the camp’s history, probably an overestimate. Assuming seven to 12 suicides, based on the lists above, the suicide rate can be estimated at 22.4 to 38.4 per 100,000 per year. Data on the age and religion of the prisoners were not available but, as Polish citizens, most were probably Roman Catholic. DISCUSSION The estimate of the suicide rate in the Woldenberg Camp was estimated to be 22.4 to 38.4 per 100,000 per year, but it is likely that this is an underestimate since the estimate used for the population was an overestimate (in the early days of the camp, the population was probably smaller) and since suicidal deaths are often covered up and undocumented, even in modern industrialized societies (Lester, 1992; Rockett, Kapusta, & Bhandari, 2011). There are no data on the suicide rate in Poland during the war, but the senior author has studied official records in the city of Poznan and calculated suicide rates of 14 in 1941 and 13.3 in 1942. After the war, the earliest data collected by the junior author are for 1955, when the suicide rate was 5.7 (9.6 for men and 2.2 for women) (Lester, 1994). According to the World Health Organization, the suicide rate has risen since then to 14.9 in 2008 (26.4 for men and 4.1 for women). The Polish soldiers in the camp were not beaten, tortured, or forced into lethal physical labor. They developed cultural, educational, scientific, and sporting activities, which possibly helped them survive their captivity. The prisoners established several scientific groups in the camp (e.g., Methodology of Science Circle, Veterinary Physician’s Circle, Pharmacists’ Circle, Oriental Circle, etc). The prisoners set up a “University of Woldenberg” in which 1,500 students in 27 fields took courses given by 80 academic teachers. There were also elementary school and high school courses, special courses for teachers, and more than 100 different vocational courses. There was a library with several thousand books. Moreover, there was a theater in which 24 plays were put on, as well as a puppet theater. There was a symphony orchestra, various chamber bands, a mandolin orchestra, a pop orchestra, and two choirs. There were seven sports clubs, including football, basketball, volleyball, track and field, and table tennis. There was even an Olympic Games organized in which 370 athletes took part. There were painters, graphic artists, and writers creat-
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ing artworks. There was also an organization prepared to take over the camp from the Germans if it became possible. Arms were gathered, and secret training was conducted. All of these activities, as well as numerous escapes, were an antidote for suicidal behaviors and contributed to low incidence of suicidal behaviors in the camp compared to the concentration camps. The German administrators of the camp knew of the cultural, educational, and sporting activities, but neither helped nor prevented them. There are still many questions concerning the phenomenon of suicidal behavior in this prisoner-of-war camp. For example, there are no data on attempts at suicide that did not result in death. It has not been possible so far to compare the characteristics of those soldiers who did commit suicide with those who did not do so. The archives related to this camp are stored in the Museum Oflag IIC Woldenberg in Dobiegniew, and hopefully further study of these archives will reveal more information about suicide in the camp. REFERENCES
APPLEBAUM, A. (2003) Gulag: a history of the Soviet camps. London, UK: Penguin. ARAD, Y. (1987) Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. BOHATKIEWICZ, J. (1971) Oflag IIC Woldenberg. Warsaw, Poland: Książka I Wiedza. [In Polish] BRONISCH, T. (1996) Suicidality in German concentration camps. Archives of Suicide Research, 2, 129-144. KISIELEWICZ, D. (1998) Oficerowie polscy w niewoli niemieckiej w czasie II wojny światowej [Polish officers in German captivity during World War II]. Opole, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. [In Polish] KRYSINSKA, K., & LESTER, D. (2008) Suicide in the Soviet gulag camps. Archives of Suicide Research, 12, 170-179. KUROPIESKA, J. (1974) Obozowe refleksje Oflag IIC [Camp reflections Oflag IIC]. Warsaw, Poland: Ministry of Defense. [In Polish] LESTER, D. (1992) Miscounting suicides. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 85, 15-16. LESTER, D. (1994) Domestic social integration, suicide and homicide in Poland, France and Yugoslavia. EuroCriminology, 7, 73-75. LESTER, D. (2005) Suicide and the Holocaust. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science. OLESIK, J. (2008) Obóz jeniecki oflag II C Woldenberg [Prisoner camp Oflag IIC Woldenberg]. Dobigniew, Poland: Urząd Miejski w Dobigniewie. [In Polish] ROCKETT, I. R. H., KAPUSTA, N. D., & BHANDARI, R. (2011) Suicide misclassification in an international context. Suicidology Online, 2, 48-61. SOLZHENITSYN, A. (1974) The gulag archipelago. Glasgow, Scotland: Collins/Fontana. TOCZEWSKI, A. (2009) Oflag II C w Dobigniewie. Dzieje obozowej konspiracji [Oflag IIC in Dobiegniew: a history of camp conspiracies]. Dobigniew, Poland: Urząd Miasta w Dobigniewie, Muzeum Ziemi Lubuskiej w Zielonej Górze. [In Polish] Accepted February 4, 2013.
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![[The fate of Polish psychiatry under German occupation during World War II].](/assets/img/hold.png)
