Perceptual and Mo~orSkills, 1991, 73, 943-951.

O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1991

STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS O F MALE TEACHERS: EFFECTS OF TEACHERS' DRESS AND STUDENTS' CHARACTERISTICS ' SARA BUTLER Miami University

AND

KATHY ROESEL Kentucky Cooperative Extension Setvice

Summary.-The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of a male teacher's clothing and selected students' characteristics on students' perceptions of teachers' characteristics. The sample consisted of 152 male and female high school students. Respondents selected one of four photographs of a male teacher model dressed in four different clothing styles for each of 20 teachers' characteristic statements. The mediating effects of students' gender, formality of clothing, and perceptions of the importance of clothing were also investigated. Significant differences among the four clothing styles were found for all 20 statements. Students' gender and rated importance of clothing had some influence on this relationship. The results supplement previous research on female teachers by suggesting that different types of clothing also influence students' perceptions of male teachers and that students' characteristics have some mediating effect.

Over the past several decades, researchers have established the importance of dress in person perception (Douty, 1963; Hamid, 1968, 1969; Conner, Peters, & Nagasawa, 1975). Theoretical approaches commonly employed by researchers include symbolic interactionism and cognitive theory (Davis, 1984). Kaiser (1983-84) has proposed that a synthesis of symbolic interactionism and cognitive theory could serve as a useful theoretical approach in examining the role of dress in communication. Kaiser suggests that both clothing symbolism and trait attribution using clothing cues are elements of interactions that occur between individuals. In discussing points of convergence between the two hypotheses, Kaiser highlights the importance of both situational contexts and perceivers' characteristics. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of dress on students' perceptions of male teachers' characteristics in varying teaching contexts. The mediating effect of the selected perceivers' (students') characteristics was also examined. Although researchers have examined the role of clothing in impression formation in a variety of contexts, relatively fewer investigations have focused on clothing in the school setting. Several studies exploring female teachers' dress have pointed to the importance of clothing in attributing personal characteristics to teachers (Peterson & Johnson, 1985; Reeder & a n g , 1984; Rollman, 1980). These studies suggest that teachers dressed as either feminine or informal were viewed as more approachable, sympathetic, and fair, while teachers dressed more formally were seen as more knowledgeable 'Address correspondence to Dr. Sara Butler, 285 McGuffey Hall, Miami University, Oxford,

OH 45056.

944

S. BUTLER &

K.ROESEL

and controlled. Chowdhar~(1988) found that variations in teachers' dress affected end of the semester ratings of teachers' competence. More recently, Butler and Roesel (1989) found that a female teacher dressed in jeans was seen as fun, approachable, not especially knowledgeable, commanding limited respect, not Iooking like a teacher, and generally preferable. In contrast, a suited female teacher was viewed as unapproachable, not especially fun, an authority figure who assigns homework, and as possessing the image of a teacher. The school setting provides an unique context for examining clothing and person perception for several reasons. First, the teacher interacts with the student in a variety of situations-in the classroom as an educator, after school as a club sponsor, in the office as a counselor, and in other roles as a disciplinarian. Secondly, there is no easily identifiable uniform for teachers that may serve to facilitate interactions. Third, teachers are often "on display" while in the classroom, allowing ample opportunity for students to study the teachers' clothing. Finally, both verbal and nonverbal communication between student and teacher have the potential to affect the learning environment. Kaiser's synthesis of symbolic interactionism and cognitive theory served as the theoretical framework for the study. Clothing style was the independent variable. Teachers' characteristics, as defined by various situational contexts, was the dependent variable. Perceivers' (students') characteristics of gender, formality of clothing, and perceptions of importance of clothing were selected as potential mediating variables. Previous research has pointed to the role of the selected mediating variables in perceptions of clothing among adolescents. Hamid (1969) found the interaction of the gender of the observer and dress affected impressions by high school students. Using college students, Buckley and Roach (1981) discovered that similarity in dress between college students had some effect on attraction between strangers. Lapitsky and Smith (1981) discovered positive relationships between clothing interest/importance of observers and their ratings of personal traits of attractively dressed models. The results of these studies point to the potential relationship between gender, dress of the observers, and observers' perceptions of the importance of clothing on person perception as affected by the model's dress. Relatively few studies have employed male models as stimulus figures. Using both male and female stimulus figures, Hamid (1969) found the attribution of personal characteristics to be more extreme when the stimulus person was female. On the other hand, the results of Rollman's 1980 study of teachers' dress suggested style of dress seemed to exert similar influences on perceptions for both male and female teachers. Male modeIs were selected for the present study because, with the exception of the Rollman study, males have not been used in the study of teachers' dress.

STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS O F TEACHERS

METHOD

A sample of 152 male and female students in Grades 10 through 12 in two northern Kentucky high schools participated in the study. Ages ranged from 15 to 19 years. Forty-two of the respondents were boys, 110 were girls. Teachers' characteristics were measured through students' responses to 20 statements generated by the authors. Some of the statements were designed to reflect the students' perceptions of the teachers in situations outside of the classroom. For example, students responded to the statement, "I would not want this teacher as my club sponsor." Other statements focused on the classroom role of the teacher, such as, "This teacher brings some fun into learning." Perceivers' (students') characteristics included gender, formality of clothing, and perceptions of the importance of clothing. Formality of clothing was measured by students' selection of clothing items worn to six different activities. Four forced-choice responses were provided: jeans, casual skirt/slacks, dress clothes, and do not participate. For example, students were asked to indicate whether they typically wore jeans, casual skirt/slacks, or dress clothes to school. Importance of clothing was measured by students' responses to four items using a three-point Likert-format scale. The four items were intended to reflect the respondents' attitudes regarding the importance of clothing in human communication, such as, "My clothes help me express who I am." The independent variable of clothing style was operationalized by utilizing headless color photographs of a male teacher model dressed in four clothing styles. The styles included (1) a long-sleeved casual shirt, jeans, and tennis shoes, (2) a long-sleeved crew neck sweater with a shirt underneath, grey dress pants, and plain shoes, (3) a long-sleeved shirt with the sleeves rolled up, a striped tie, dress pants, and plain shoes, and (4) a shirt with a small-print tie, a navy sports coat, grey dress pants, and dress shoes. The background, distance, and lighting were held constant for all models. The instruments were distributed by classroom teachers for the two schools. Each student received a two-page questionnaire, a set of four mounted photographs, and a computer scoring sheet. The order of the photographs was randomized to balance appearance. The instrument was self-administered; after the student read a statement about the teacher, the photograph was selected that best fitted the statement. Gender, formality of clothing, and perceptions of importance of clothing completed the survey. Data were analyzed by chi-squared and analysis of variance. Teachers' Characteristics and Clothing Style Chi-squared analyses gave significant associations among the four teacher models on all 20 statements; see Table 1. The teacher wearing jeans was

946

S. BUTLER & K. ROESEL

selected most frequently as a party chaperone and club sponsor and was viewed as a teacher with whom students could discuss problems. Although the teacher wearing jeans was seen as bringing fun into the classroom, his opinions were given the least respect and he was most frequently chosen as the teacher who does not seem to know anything. More students would prefer to have the teacher in jeans, even though he did not look like a teacher. TABLE 1

TEACHERS' CHARACTERISTICS AND CLOTHING STYLES(N= 157) Abbreviated Statement About Teacher

Jeans

Percent Responding Sweater Tie

X* S ort Zoat

Party chaperone Doesn't look like teacher Would quiet down No sense of humor Feel comfortable asking question Would not listen Prefer this teacher Uneasy discussing problem Grades fairIy Club sponsor Best illustrates teacher Doesn't know anything Respect teacher's opinion Least respect for teacher's opinion Brings fun to learning Assigns too much homework Knows subject well Afraid teacher would embarrass Would discuss personal problem Prefer not to have as teacher

The teacher wearing a sport coat was chosen most often as the teacher who knows his subject matter, but was viewed as having no sense of humor, not listening to opinions, and assigning too much homework. Students would more often quiet down for this teacher, but more felt uneasy in discussing a problem with him and felt he might embarrass them. This teacher was selected most often as the teacher students would prefer not to have. The teacher wearing a shirt and tie was chosen most often as the person who looked like a teacher. He was also seen as knowing the subject matter and was most often viewed as grading fairly. The teacher wearing a tie was chosen least often as the teacher for whom students had the least respect. Both the teacher in the sweater and the teacher in the tie were selected as the teachers with whom students would feel comfortable asking a question.

STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS

947

No other significant differences were found for the teacher wearing a sweatet. These results inhcated that students do characterize teachers differently based on clothing. The context in which the students were asked to evaluate the teacher also affected the selection. In general, the teacher wearing jeans was viewed more as a friend and as preferable for interactive situations, but he was not seen as knowledgeable and was not respected. The teacher wearing a sport coat, on the other hand, seemed perceived as intimidating. H e was viewed as knowledgeable but not approachable. The teacher in the tie appeared to be perceived as an interesting blend of the teachers wearing jeans or a sport coat. H e was considered to be knowledgeable and fair, yet approachable. The fourth teacher, wearing the sweater, evoked little response over-all. These results substantiate the findings of earlier studies of female teachers' dress which indicated a tendency for informally dressed teachers to be viewed as more approachable and more formally dressed reachers to be viewed as knowledgeable and as disciplinarians (Reeder & King, 1984; Peterson & Johnson, 1985; Rollman, 1980). Contrary to,i)utler and Roesel (1989), however, the dress at the extremes were not the bnly styles to elicit reaction. This might be explained by the fact that the range of difference in male teachers' clothing is more limited than the range for women's clothing. I n addition, the male stimulus wearing a tie also had rolled-up shirt sleeves. This mixture of formality and informality may have precipitated the responses of knowledgeability and approachability found for the teacher wearing a tie. In his analysis of male teachers, Rollman found a pattern similar to that of the present study. However, R o b a n ' s definition of styles only as informal, moderate, and formal did not allow for interpretation of more subtle clothing cues. Effects of Mediating Variables Of the three perceivers' characteristics investigated, gender had the greatest effect. Significant differences between boys and girls were found on ten of the 20 statements. For the most part, the opinions of boys and girls were relatively consistent for the teachers wearing jeans or a tie. A higher proportion of boys selected the teacher wearing a sweater as the one for whom they had respect and for whom they would quiet down. More boys also selected the teacher wearing a sweater (in addition to the teacher in a sport coat) as desirable for a club sponsor. Girls, on the other hand, seemed more uncomfortable with the teacher in a sport coat than boys. Boys felt comfortable asking a question of the teacher in a sport coat and would discuss a personal problem with him more than girls. Girls respected teachers both in a sport coat or a tie, but viewed the former as assigning too much homework more often than boys and would prefer not to have .him more than boys.

S. BUTLER & K. ROESEL TABLE 2

MEANS (PERCENTS) A N D STANDARD DEVIATIONS BY SEXOF RESPONDENT ON TEACHERS' STATEMENT(N= 157) Abbreviated Statement About Teacher 3. Would quiet down

5. Feel comfortable asking- question A

10. Club sponsor 11. Best illustrates

reacher

Jeans Boys Girls

x2

Percent Responding Sweater Tie Boys Girls Boys Girls

Sport Coat Boys Girls

9.8

4.5

26.8

7.3

22.0

29.1

39.0

59.1

15.9t

7.1 42.9

19.1 55.5

28.6 23.8

36.4 14.5

11.8 14.3

30.3 22.7

21.4 19.0

2.7 7.3

16.7$ 7.5*

21.4

12.7

28.6

9.1

35.7

60.9

3.9

11.8

13.5t

16.7

7.3

31.0

15.5

26.2

40.9

26.2

36.4

9.1'

16.7

7.3

21.4

14.5

21.4

11.8

40.5

66.4

8.9*

45.2

37.6

21.4

21.1

11.9

34.9

21.4

6.4

12.4t

19.0

20.0

23.8

13.6

19.0

6.4

10.5

42.8

9.7*

13. Respec~steacher's

opltuon Least respect for teacher's opinion 16. Assigns too much homework 19. Would discuss ~ersonal~roblern 20. Prefer not to have as teacher

I n addition to gender, formality of clothing and importance of clothing were investigated as potential mediating variables. For the measure of formality of clothng, students were asked to indicate what they wore to six typical teen functions. Sixty percent or more of the respondents indicated they wore jeans to school, football games, and shopping. A considerable number did not participate in any teen club or church activities (21.8% and 13.5%, respectively). For the "school dance" activity, over half of the students responded that they wore dress clothes. Less than 10% of the students wore dress clothes to school, football games, shopping, or teen clubs. The lack of distribution across the four preselected categories of clothing precluded further analysis. The large number of cells with low frequencies made application of chi squared questionable. Although the effects of similarity of dress between student and teacher could not be evaluated, the results provide further evidence of the high level of conformity in clothing among adolescents. Analysis of variance was conducted on the sum of the four items on importance of clothing and the 20 teachers' statements to examine the effects of the importance placed on clothing by the perceiver. The potential range of means for the summed clothing importance items was -4.0 to 4.0. Generally, means were positive, indicating that most respondents believe clothing to be important. Significant effects of importance of clothing were found for two statements; see Table 3. Multiple-range follow-up tests indicated that the students who selected the teacher in jeans as the one who would not listen and

STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS O F TEACHERS

949

TABLE 3 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: EFFECTSOF IMPORTANCE OF CLOTHING ( N = 157) Abbreviated S tacement About Teacher

Jeans M SD

Importance of Clochlng Sweater Tie Sport Coat M SD M SD M SD

F

Party chaperone Doesn't look like reacher Would quiet down No sense of humor Feel comfortable asking question Would not Listen Prefer this teacher Uneasy discussing problem Grades fairly Club sponsor Best illuscrates teacher Doesn't know anything Respect teacher's opinion Least respect for teacher's opinion Brings fun to learning Assigns too much homework Knows subject well Afraid reacher would embarrass Would discuss personal problem Prefer not co have as teacher

who knows his subject well had lower scores on importance of clothing than those who selected other teachers for these items. Although the effects of importance of clothing on perceptions of teachers' characteristics were limited, an interesting possibility can be derived from the two significant statements. The highest percentage of students selected the teacher wearing a sport coat as one who would not listen and who knows his subject matter well; see Table 1. Relatively few students chose the teacher wearing jeans for either statement. Those who did choose the teacher wearing jeans, however, had significantly lower scores on importance of clothing; see Table 3 . It is possible that these respondents were not attuned to the information on clothing available to them. That is, because they do not place as high an importance on clothing, they did not utilize clothing cues in the same manner as their peers in assigning characteristics to teachers.

Conclusions These results should be evaluated with certain limitations in mind. Although the headless photographs control for other variables, they also ensure the perceiver's attention to clothing. In a realistic setting, additional

950

S. BUTLER & K. ROESEL

stimuli may dilute the strength of the clothing cue. I n addition, the instruments were simplified with the adolescent subjects in mind, which necessitated less powerful statistical analysis. The measure of formality of clothing was perhaps too simplified as it did not allow for a wide enough range of clothing styles. To measure differences in formahty of clothing among conformity-conscious adolescents, more subtle variation should be built into the instrument. The present results support earlier evidence on the importance of clothing in person perception. The differences between the teacher in jeans and the teacher in a sport coat point to the influence of context on preferences, which Kaiser (1983-84) suggested has been a neglected area of study. The teacher in jeans was preferred for "nonteaching" activities such as party chaperone or club sponsor. I n contrast, the teacher in a sport coat elicited the greatest response in more traditional disciplinary or classroom situations. H e was viewed as relatively rigid and unapproachable, especially by girls. I n their study of female teachers' dress, Butler and Roesel (1989) found the teachers at the extremes of dress (jeans and suit) elicited the most response and the teachers in between (slacks and dress) evoked little response. In the present study, the teachers at the extremes (jeans and sport coat) again received the greatest reactions. The teacher with the tie also evoked significant response, however. H e seemed to project mixed cues in that students rated him both approachable and knowledgeable. Reaction may have been to the authority of the tie and the informality of the rolled sleeves. Similar mixed messages were evidently not projected by the moderately dressed female teachers in the Butler and Roesel study. Kaiser (1983-84) has also pointed to the lack of attention paid to participants' characteristics in the study of the role of clothing in person perception. The results of the present study suggest that the perceivers' characteristics of gender and perhaps importance of clothing may predispose an individual to the awareness and selection of clothing cues. Although lirnited, the findings related to the role of importance of clothing hint that individuals who d o not view clothing as important may not utilize clothing cues in the same manner as those who place a higher importance on clothing. Additional investigation of this relationship using more sophisticated measures is warranted. Because the importance of clothing among adolescents is established and a variety of situational contrasts are present in the teaching profession, the study of teachers' dress offers rich opportunity to pursue the study of the role of clothing in person perception. Research should more clearly define the teaching context and more thoroughly investigate perceivers' characteristics. Long-term effects of clothing on interactions of teachers and students and on the learning environment are also worthy of study.

STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS O F TEACHERS REFERENCES BUCKLEY,H . M., & ROACH,M. E. (1981) Attraction as a function of attitudes and dress. Home Economics Research Journal, 10, 88-97. BUTLER,S., & ROESEL,K. (1989) Research note: the influence of dress on students' perceptions of teacher characteristics. Clothing and Tertiles Research lournal, 1, 57-59. CHOWDHARY, U. (1988) Instructor's attire as a biasing factor in students' ratings of an instructor. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 6, 17-22. B. H., PETERS,K., & NAGASAWA, R. H. (1975) Person and costume: effects on the CONNER, formation of firsc impressions. Home Economics Research Journal, 4, 32-41. DAVIS,L. L. (1984) Clothing and human behavior: a review. Home Economics Research ]ournal, 12, 325-339. D o m y , H. I. (1963) Influence of clothing on perceptions of persons. Journal of Home Economics, 5 5 , 197.202. HAMID,P. N. (1968) Style of dress as a perceptual cue in impression formation. Perceptual and Motor Skllis. 26. 904-906. HAMID,P. N. (1969) Changes in person perception as a function of dress. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 29, 191-194. KAISER,S. B. (1983-84) Toward a concextual social-psychology of dothing: a synthesis of symbolic interactionist and cognitive theoretical perspectives. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 2 , 1-9. LAPITSKY, M., & SMITH, C. M. (1981) Impact of clothing on impressions of personal characteristics and writing ability. Home Economics Research Journal, 9, 327-335. PETERSON, T. C., &JOHNSON, M. (1985) Effects of teacher's st le of dress on high school students' ratings of teacher characteristics. Proceedings of /Je Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing. Monument, CO: Association. P. 223. REEDER,E . N., & KING,K. C. (1984) Are teachers dressing for success? Illinois Teacher, 27, 212-213. ROLLMAN,S. A. (1980) Some effects of teacher's style of dress. (ERIC Document ED 184191, Microfiche Edition)

Accepfed November G, 1991.