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Great musicians and their neurological disorders
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Stroke, music, and creative output: Alfred Schnittke and other composers Yuri Zagvazdin1 College of Medical Sciences, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA 1 Corresponding author: Tel.: +1-954-2621315; Fax: +1-954-2621802, e-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998), a celebrated Russian composer of the twentieth century, suffered from several strokes which affected his left cerebral hemisphere. The disease, however, did not diminish his musical talent. Moreover, he stated that his illness in a way facilitated his work. The composer showed amazingly high productivity after his first and second injuries of the central nervous system. The main topic of this chapter is the effect of strokes on Schnittke’s output, creativity, and style of music. A brief biography of the composer with the chronology of his brain hemorrhages is included. In addition, the influence of cerebrovascular lesions on creative potential of other prominent composers such as Benjamin Britten, Jean Langlais, Vissarion Shebalin, Igor Stravinsky, and Ira Randall Thompson is discussed.
Keywords stroke, brain, lesion, recovery, music, creativity
Stroke is a devastating disease caused by either occlusion or rupture of the cerebral blood vessels. It affects physical and cognitive abilities of millions. Damage and recovery after this traumatic event vary substantially among individuals. Some can regain control over their brain functions almost without consequences, while the majority suffers from neuromuscular and cognitive impairments of various degrees (Bowman and Giddings, 2003). Nevertheless, many stroke victims continue to produce innovative contributions to their professions. Several authors of recent studies discussed the outcomes of cerebrovascular lesions in notable artists and writers (Annoni et al., 2005; Ba¨zner and Hennerici, 2006; Bogousslavsky, 2009; Boller et al., 2005; Colombo-Thuillard and Assal, 2007; Dieguez and Bogousslavsky, 2007; Iniesta, 2013; Mazzucchi et al., 2013; Piechowsky-Jozwiak and Bogousslavsky, 2013; Schott, 2012). In contrast, much less has been written about how cerebrovascular accidents have changed the lives and outputs of renowned Progress in Brain Research, ISSN 0079-6123, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.006 © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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creators of music. This type of brain injury has been suspected or documented to have occurred to J.S. Bach, H. Bulow, G. Enesco, C. Gluck, G.F. Handel, E. Humperdinck, F. Mendelssohn Bartholdi, O. Peterson, M. Ravel, J. Tavener, H. Vieuxtemps, and others. The focus of this chapter is on the effect of strokes on productivity, creativity, and style of music of a prominent Russian composer Alfred Schnittke. In addition, literature on the consequences of cerebrovascular damage to the creative output of other outstanding masters of composition is briefly reviewed.
1 ALFRED SCHNITTKE, HIS MUSIC AND LIFE The music of Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998) has been performed all over the world. People who listen to his compositions for the first time can be astonished by the emotional tension and anticipation of something dramatic and tragic that emanates from his melodies. Schnittke’s music has been described as “desperate, aggressive, consoling, enraptured, and inwardly torn all at the same time.”1 Full of sharp contrasts, his creations frequently assimilate a variety of styles ranging from early Christian chants to excerpts of twentieth-century material. His masterpieces are praised as sensational reflections of the innermost struggles of the human soul. Schnittke was a prolific writer. He produced nine symphonies, six concerti grossi, four violin concertos and string quartets, two cello concertos, two viola concertos, four concertos for piano, choral, chamber and solo instrumental pieces, and soundtracks for more than 60 films (Gimonov, 1998). His life was threatened by cerebrovascular injuries, which successively happened in July of 1985 and 1991. Not only did the composer recovered on both occasions, but paradoxically he was able to generate an overflow of musical gems in the aftermath. In June 1994, the third stroke paralyzed his right side and rendered him speechless. Yet Schnittke continued to write scores using his left hand. In this respect, his case mirrored that of his teacher and outstanding Russian composer Vissarion Shebalin (1902–1963). Critics and musicologists underscore intimate connections between Schnittke’s musical vocabulary and Christian, German, Jewish, and Russian traditions. The composer was born on November 24 1934 in Engels2 in the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Ivashkin, 1994, 1996; Kholopova, 2003).3 In 1941, when the boy was 6 years old, Hitler’s armed forces attacked the Soviet Union. A few months after Nazi invasion, Stalin’s order and subsequent deportation ended the Autonomous Republic, cutting short the life of Wolgadeutsche community which thrived in Russia for more than a century since the era of Catherine the Great. 1
See notes on the website of the Sikorski Publishing Group at http://www.sikorski.de/1492/en/consoling_ and_enraptured_alfred_schnittke_s_first_cello_concerto_in_hamburg.html. 2 Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) was a German philosopher, social scientist, political theorist, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. 3 The brief biography of Schnittke in this chapter is largely based on the books written by Ivashkin (1994, 1996) and Kholopova (2003).
ARTICLE IN PRESS 1 Alfred Schnittke, his music and life
Schnittke’s mother, Maria Fogel, was a local dweller of German nationality, so she and all of her relatives were facing the prospect of being sent to Eastern parts of the country. Fortunately, the members of Alfred’s nuclear family escaped this tragedy because his father Harry proved that he was not Volksdeutsche.4 In 1926, Harry arrived in Moscow from Germany with his parents, who originally were from Latvia. The terrible socioideological cloud that surrounded the war, and the fact that his father was Jewish, made Alfred’s cultural self-identification a tormenting issue which troubled him throughout his life. The composer, however, spoke about his heritage with pride. Schnittke once told to his biographer and notable violinist Alexander Ivashkin that he learned to speak Russian and German at the same time (Ivashkin, 1994, p. 24). However, Ivashkin later stated that the first language of the boy was a local colloquial variant of Volga German (Ivashkin, 1996, p. 15).5 Alfred loved books and read the original poetry of Goethe and Heine in his childhood. His early interest in literature is not surprising considering the occupation and passion of his family. Schnittke’s grandmother, Thea Katz, served as an editor in the State Publishing Company of foreign literature for many years. German played a crucial role in her career, the careers of her son Harry and his wife Maria Fogel, who worked most of their lives in Soviet newspapers distributed to the readers of this language. Alfred’s younger brother Victor was a translator and a talented poet.6 Their sister Irina became a teacher of the tongue of their predecessors. Fluency in the German language helped Schnittke to advance in his profession. He could take a full advantage of direct communications with the members of the International musical community, mainly in the countries of Central Europe. This was especially true in the second half of his life, when the restrictions imposed by Soviet government on interactions with foreigners were weakening. The benefits of bilingualism, however, might extend beyond establishing contacts and networking. A growing body of evidence suggests that the ability to use two languages expands intellectual potential due to reorganization of neuronal connections that hold implications for the resources with which bilinguals face cognitive tasks (Kroll et al., 2014). In 1946, Alfred received an opportunity to experience firsthand the richness of European music and literature when his family moved to Vienna. His father Harry € secured a position as a translator and correspondent for the Osterreichische Zeitung (Austrian Newspaper). This was daily published by the Soviet occupational forces for the population of the city. In their article about Schnittke, Moody and Ivashkin stated: “This decisive exposure to the Austro-German cultural tradition fundamentally influenced his future tastes and approach to form and vocabulary throughout his
4
People of German origin who lived outside the Third Reich. The composer suddenly switched from Russian to German when he was hit by stroke in 1985. 6 Victor Schnittke like his mother, brother, and sister had been a victim of stroke, which killed him in 1994. 5
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career” (Moody and Ivashkin, 2001, p. 568). In Austria, Alfred began his musical education at the age of 12 with piano teacher Charlotte Ruber. . . . He spoke German with a Viennese accent, and, arguably, composed in Viennese as well. . . . His harmonies had a Mahlerian heft, his melodies a Schubertian lilt; he spun them out effortlessly, wrote Alex Ross in Schnittke’s obituary. Ross (1998)
In 1948, Schnittke’s family returned to Russia and settled in Moscow. In the capital, Alfred passed examinations at the October Revolution Musical College (now Schnittke’s Musical College and Institute) and later at the Moscow Conservatory. There were no musicians in his family. However, his inclination toward the future profession became apparent quite early, prior to his departure to Austria. Schnittke recalled that in the last years of the war radio broadcasts of operas inspired him to sing Lensky’s aria from Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin (Ivashkin, 1994). In addition, radio introduced him to other genres, including instrumental and symphonic music. In particular, the Ninth Symphony of Dmitri Shostakovich (1906–1975)7 left a mark of something fresh, bright, and unexpected in the memory of 11-year-old boy (Ivashkin, 1996). In Vienna, Alfred attended various opera productions and listened to compositions of Beethoven, Wagner, Handel, Shubert, and other classical masters. He was excited by the idea of creating his own symphonies. His musical schooling in Vienna, however, was not strict or very demanding. Only in Moscow did Schnittke start building fundamentals in earnest, which allowed him to progress toward the realization of his dream. In 1953, Schnittke graduated Summa Cum Laude from the musical college and was accepted in the Moscow Conservatory, where he studied from 1953 to 1958. Shebalin characterized him at the time of graduation as the most professional among his peers. Alfred presented the oratorio Nagasaki for mezzo-soprano, mixed chorus and orchestra as his thesis work. It was one of his first reflections of Apocalypses, human suffering, and the good and evil of human nature. These themes, which seemed to occupy his thoughts early in life, became central in his music. Nagasaki, with its expressive musical palette and original instrumental effects, attracted attention of students and teachers of the Moscow conservatory, impressing even Shostakovich (Ivashkin, 1996). In 1958, Schnittke started his postgraduate studies with Evgeny Golubev, his composition mentor, and a former student of Shebalin and Myaskovsky.8 Both Golubev and Shebalin encouraged students to broaden their horizons and explore contemporary music. Inside the walls of the conservatory, a valuable forum for discussions and performances of contemporary music existed in the Student Scientific 7
Many critics consider Schnittke as Shostakovich heir. According to Ivashkin (1996), performances of Shostakovich’s 10th Symphony in 1953 and First Violin Concerto in 1955 made a great impact on Schnittke’s development as a composer. He did not imitate the great master, but fully adopted his dynamic profile and innate foundations and principles of his compositions. 8 Nikolai Yakovlevich Myaskovsky, or Miaskovsky, or Miaskowsky (1881–1950) was an outstanding Russian and Soviet composer. He is sometimes referred to as the “Father of the Soviet Symphony.”
ARTICLE IN PRESS 1 Alfred Schnittke, his music and life
Society. It consisted of a group of enthusiastic students, led by Edison Denisov (1929–1996), a remarkable composer and prominent figure of Russian musical avant-garde during the second half of the twentieth century. Schnittke was an active member of the society and had an opportunity to look into scores practically unknown in the USSR, e.g., the works of Schoenberg, Webern, Berg, Stravinsky, and other modern composers. After completing his postgraduate courses in 1961, he continued serious research into Western contemporary music. His studies of the second Viennese School led to creation of his serial compositions including the First Violin Sonata (1963). By 1968, however, Schnittke abandoned the serial method and dramatically changed his way of writing music. According to Ivashkin: . . . his main concern is the dramatic shape of the whole piece. There are shocking contrasts of opposing images, clashes of styles, and paradoxes in logic and development. He combines rather confusing hints and elements of different styles. Ivashkin (2002, p. 455)
This approach, which Schnittke called polystylism, became his unique mark and method. Talking about his method, the composer stated that the phenomenon of “polystylistics” in music existed long before he started to use the word and thought about interaction of musical material in different styles (A Schnittke Reader, 2002). Ives and Mahler were among the first twentieth-century composers who successfully experimented with it. Schnittke once told Ivashkin: The fact that I began to use a polystylistic method was brought about, first, by everything these composers had done before me, which I naturally could not ignore. But there was a personal element too. The polystylistic method, the use of interacting styles, gave me a way out of the difficult situation in which I had been put by having combine, over a long period, work for the cinema with work “at the desk.”9 There was a time when I simply did not know what to do: I had to drop either one or the other. A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. 17)
Schnittke found the way out of this difficulty by mixing his own elements in his symphonies and concertos with ideas, allusions, and quotations used in his soundtracks. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Schnittke’s national popularity reached unprecedented heights. With the beginning of reforms initiated by Michael Gorbachev in 1985, new opportunities were opening for the composer. He received recognition from the Soviet Government in the form of prestigious state awards. The flow of commissions from abroad was increasing. His music was in demand and he worked very hard. However, the splendid fruits of this labor flourished at the expense of Schnittke’s health. In one of his interviews, he recalled: 9
Schnittke worked on music for cinema very seriously. If the plot of a movie was set, for example, in the eighteenth century, allusions to or quotations from the composers representing that epoch would have a good chance to be inserted into soundtrack by Schnittke. Work “at the desk” consisted of scores written not for movie industry but for other purposes (e.g., performances at concert halls).
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In 1985, I have completed six long compositions during six months. I do not understand how I was able to do it. . . . I had an impression that time flew extremely fast and kept accelerating, and on the limit of this acceleration stroke hit me, and a new circle in my development began. Kotykhov (1999)
Schnittke’s first hemorrhage in the left hemisphere was quite severe (Kholopova, 2003). He lost consciousness but fortunately survived. Under the supervision of neurosurgeon Alexander Potapov, the patient was transported from Georgia (where he went on vacation in July) to Moscow at the end of August of 1985 (Ivashkin, 1996). There he successfully recovered from right hemiplegia and dysphasia. By the end of September, he resumed his work. During the following years, Schnittke completed numerous compositions including Symphony Number 5, First and Second Cello Concertos, the ballet Peer Gynt, piano sonatas, String Quartet Number 4, and other pieces of chamber and instrumental music. Some of these scores were written in Germany, where he had an opportunity to become a resident in 1989 as a recipient of special stipend from the Wissenshaftskolleg. Consequently, Schnittke spent a year in Berlin and moved to Hamburg where he began to teach composition in the local Hochschule fur Musik part-time. Schnittke was very busy composing and attending numerous premieres when stroke hit again. In July1991, while sharing memories about brilliant violinist Oleg Kagan with his old friend, film director Andrey Khrazhanovsky, the composer suddenly complained about having an acute headache (Kholopova, 2003). It was a symptom of his second cerebrovascular lesion, which was localized in the cerebellum (Ivashkin, 1996). However, again the composer recovered and continued his creative work with inspiring success. In June 1994, the third stroke dramatically worsened his health and resulted in aphasia and agraphia, but not amusia. Despite tremendous difficulties, Schnittke did not stop writing music. His last major piece was his Symphony Number 9. The next stroke ravaged the composer’s brain in July1998, and he passed away on August 3rd of that summer. The Memorial service was held in the Moscow Conservatory. In accordance with his will, Schnittke was interred by Eastern Orthodox traditions at the Novodevichy Cemetery in the capital, where many other prominent Russian musicians, including Dmitri Shostakovich, had been buried (Kholopova, 2003).
2 MUSIC AND STROKE: BRITTEN, LANGALAIS, SHEBALIN, STRAVINSKY, AND THOMPSON Stroke survivors can demonstrate a wide spectrum of abnormalities that affect their music comprehension or production. A priori, there cannot be any certainty about the long-term effects of cerebrovascular lesions on motor, cognitive and creative processes including perception, performance, or creation of melodies. It depends on various factors, such as the severity of damage, the areas of the brain affected, and the extent of recovery (Bowman and Giddings, 2003; Langhorne et al., 2011). As with
ARTICLE IN PRESS 2 Music and stroke
brain trauma in general, cerebrovascular accidents are likely to have negative consequences. However, Jacome described a patient who developed hypermusia and musicophilia after stroke ( Jacome, 1984). Historically, strokes and other types of brain damage have been a source of insightful information about music and language processing in the cerebral structures (Graziano et al., 2012; Peretz, 2006; Zatorre, 1984). In addition, changes in vocal or instrumental performance after cerebrovascular injures have been studied by clinicians (Murayama et al., 2004; Wilson et al., 2002). However, assessments of stroke consequences in terms of output and creativity of composers have been largely limited to occasional remarks in a few cases, which will be reviewed in this chapter. Neurological diseases of musicians, including stroke, have been briefly described in several reviews (Bentivoglio, 2003; Breitenfeld et al., 2010; Newmark, 2007). One of the most cited papers on this subject was published by Alexander Luria and his coworkers, who reported on the communicative and musical faculties of Shebalin after stroke (Luria et al., 1965). A number of researchers analyzed Handel’s and Ravel’s illnesses and came to conflicting conclusions whether cerebrovascular accidents or some other problems were responsible for the health troubles of these composers (Amaducci et al., 2002; Ba¨zner and Hennerici, 2005; Cavallera et al., 2012; Evers, 1996; Hunter, 2008). The case of Jean Langlais (1907–91), the blind French organist and composer, who, like Shebalin, suffered from stroke-induced aphasia without amusia, has also attracted attention of scholars (Labounsky, 2000; Signoret et al., 1987). Judd and coworkers published a detailed study of the effect of stroke on an American composer Ira Randall Thompson ( Judd et al., 1983). His initial aphasia and agraphia cleared rapidly, but he still suffered from alexia and mild anomia. According to the authors, critics characterized his composing skills as “undiminished.” The authors further stated that: his post-stroke compositions have been well received. Independent critics consider them to be as good as his pre-stroke compositions, but musically somewhat more conservative. Judd et al. (1983, p. 450)
Only a few researchers have paid attention to stroke-induced changes in a composer’s style of music, production, and creativity. Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014) discussed how these features were modified by the cardiovascular disease which affected Benjamin Britten (1913–1976). This brilliant British composer suffered from heart failure and stroke, which developed in 1973 during an operation for aortic valve replacement. The results of the surgery were far from perfect and recovery was very slow. Movements of his right hand and leg were compromised. He could not play the piano and was frequently depressed. Physical and emotional problems took their toll on his composing, and his productivity diminished after the operation. Although Britten’s poststroke scores are relatively short, their quality is considered to be superb. According to Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014), critics unanimously describe his Third String Quartet as masterpiece. Critics also agree that composer’s final works were “somberly colored,” as he apparently realized his impending mortality. Nevertheless, one of Britten’s biographers claims that the composer’s “renewed creativity
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reached its peak” in 1975 (Matthews, 2003, p. 150). Another biographer stated, “even at this stage Britten’s physical exhaustion was not accompanied by any enfeeblement of his imaginative powers” (Oliver, 1996, p. 210). Signoret et al. (1987) described the consequences of Jean Langlais’s cerebrovascular accident. It happened in July of 1984 when the composer was 77. He had infarction in the territory of the left middle cerebral artery involving the temporal and the inferior parietal lobes. Initially, the organist’s right extremities were paralyzed, and he could not speak. In 15 days, he recovered his ability to walk and use his hands. Interestingly, Langlais started to speak not in French, but in English as his basic language skills began to return (Labounsky, 2000). His speech improvements, however, were limited. The blind composer could no longer read texts in Braille and had anomia. Yet, he was able to write, read, and play music after the stroke. Listeners still appreciated his performances. According to Labounsky (2000), the music of his poststroke years was “tingled with retrospection and introspection.” Memory slips and difficulties with his verbal communication frustrated Langlais. Like Britten, he suffered from depression. However, his poststroke “final burst of creative energy” resulted in the production of 16 works for organ, three hymns, two choral works, and a variety of instrumental pieces. These last compositions are considered to be fresh and similar in style to those created before stroke (Labounsky, 2000, p. 318). Renowned Russian composer Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) experienced a stroke that caused headache, right-sided dysesthesia with reduced coordination and dysarthria (O’Neill et al., 2014). It happened in 1956, when he was conducting a concert in Berlin. The celebrated master was 74 at that time. Nevertheless, he was conducting again 6 weeks later. According to O’Neill et al. (2014), Stravinsky composed more works in the following decade than he had in the 1930s and 1940s. Moreover, his music continued to show development and innovation as he adopted the serial composition method. Following the recovery after his stroke, the composer wrote the score for the ballet Agon considered as one of the “most spectacular successes of his entire career” (Walsh, 2006, p. 374). Eventually, the progress of Stravinsky’s illness and subsequent strokes led to his inability to produce music in the 1960s. As in the case of Stravinsky, Vissarion Shebalin’s first stroke, which occurred in 1953, did not rob him from ability to complete a number of masterpieces. In 1957, his best opera, Taming of the Shrew, premiered in the Bolshoi Theater with tremendous furor among spectators. More than 50 years later, this premiere, especially the performance of the main character Katherina by the brilliant Russian singer Galina Vishnevskaya, was called the most memorable Moscow experience by Firdaus Akhtyamova10 (Kadyrova, 2011). Shebalin’s opera was also successfully staged in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and various cities of the Soviet Union in the 1960s– 1980s and recently again reappeared in repertoire of some Russian theaters
10 Firdaus Akhtyamova (1939–2012) was an actress from Tatarstan, who received an international acclaim after winning the prize for the best female role in the movie Bibinur at International Film Festivals in New York and Kazan in 2010. She studied in Moscow in the late 1950s.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 3 The effect of stroke on Schnittke
(Ziangirova, 2012). After his first cerebrovascular accident, the composer lost control of his right hand and arm, which forced him to write his scores and conduct using his left upper extremity (Shebalina, 1990). Composing became an even more difficult process for Shebalin after his second stroke (Luria et al., 1968). Despite his condition, according to Meta Weiss,11 the composer experimented with a pseudo-twelve-tone style, though still within the tonal idiom, writing themes that featured all twelve tones melodically but relied on the functional harmony of tonality. Perhaps counterintuitively, his music was full of optimism following the onset of his aphasia, and, like his music before the strokes, . . . very clean and straightforward, but with new richness and depth despite the economy of means. Weiss (2013)
Anna Lazzarini12 came to conclusion that Shebalin “after the second stroke despite aphasia and right hemiparesis . . . could compose his music in a similar way but with less inhibitions and influences” (Lazzarini, 2012, p. 41). Overall, this brief review suggests that stroke might not always hamper creativity and ability to produce music. Moreover, the case of Stravinsky shows that the number of new works from a composer might not be diminished by cerebrovascular injury. It is rather difficult to argue on the basis of the small number of reviewed cases whether the style of music undergoes a significant change as a result of brain damage. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the effects of cerebrovascular lesions on Britten, Langlais, Stravinsky, Thompson, Shebalin, and Schnittke. An important point is that in all of the abovementioned cases, the left hemisphere was affected. By contrast, descriptions of cases in which composers had right hemispheric stroke are difficult to find. Engelbert Humperdinck (1854–1921), a notable German composer, apparently developed this condition, but was able to recover and continued to write music (Humperdinck, 1965). It is possible that a great Romanian master George Enescu (1881–1955) also suffered from the right hemispheric infarction and was able to compose. Another example is that of remarkable Canadian jazz pianist and composer Oscar Peterson (1925–2007). Finally, Judd reported a case of an American composer who lost his ability to create music as a result of his right frontoparietal and posterior temporal cerebrovascular lesions ( Judd, 1984).
3 THE EFFECT OF STROKE ON SCHNITTKE Shnittke’s successful return to composing after his stroke has been popularized in Russian publications as a rare example of complete functional recovery after brain injury (Malsteva, 2009). Moreover, there seems to be an assumption among Russian 11
Meta Weiss is a professional cellist and Tokyo Foundation’s Sylff Research Abroad program awardee for researching Shebalin’s String Quartets in Moscow. 12 Anna Lazarini is the president of the School of Music Il Contrappunto Veneziano of the Wolf Ferrari Association in Venice, Italy.
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Table 1 The effect of left hemispheric stroke on composers and their musical abilities Name, date of birth/death and age at the onset of stroke
Disturbancesa
Composing after stroke
References
Benjamin Britten (1913–1976, 59)
Right-hand paralysis
Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014)
Jean Langlais (1907–1991, 77)
Right hemiparesis, aphasia
Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971, 74)
Speech, right hemiparesis, rightside numbness Agraphia, aphasia, alexia, right homonymous hemianopia
Productivity decreased, music was “somberly colored,” although creative and not different in terms of style or quality Numerous works, no change in style, but “the pull toward chant and very simple style . . .” No decrease in productivity, change in style? Composing skills appear to be undiminished. Poststroke compositions appeared to be as good as prestroke ones, but “musically more conservative”
Judd et al. (1983)
Ira Randall Thompson (1899–1984, 77)
Labounsky (2000)
O’Neill et al. (2014)
a Disturbances in ordinary font largely resolved sometime after stroke, while those which are italicized did not.
researchers that the illness might have had paradoxical consequences and even augmented his creative potential (Chernigovskaya, 2011). The possibility of enhanced or emergent artistic expression after the onset of brain disease has been discussed in a number of publications (Annoni et al., 2005; Gordon, 2005; Schott, 2012). For instance, Annoni et al. (2005) suggested that modifications of style and increased creativity after strokes in two painters were at least partially due to their diseases. Another remarkable example of stroke-induced transformation is the case of Jon Sarkin, previously a calm, disciplined chiropractor. After a brain hemorrhage, he was seized by insatiable desire to paint (Nutt, 2011). Cerebral lesions could influence creative processes not only in visual artists, but also in composers. Some authors argued that Ravel’s and Donizetti’s late compositions could reflect the effects of their brain illnesses (Amaducci et al., 2002; Cavallera et al., 2012; Peschel and Peschel, 1992). Cases of sudden musicophilia seemingly triggered by cerebral disturbances have also been reported ( Jacome, 1984; Miller et al., 2000; Sacks, 2007). Was Schnittke’s musical productivity altered by his strokes? How strong is the evidence that his creativity was augmented by his disease? An attempt to answer the question about productivity necessitates a quantitative comparison of the number of compositions completed before and after the first and second stroke. According to Ivashkin, Schnittke’s musical output was three times greater after the first hemorrhage of 1985 than before the lesion (Sidorova, 2004).
Table 2 The effect of several left hemispheric strokes on composers and their musical abilities
Disturbancesa
Composing after the first stroke
Subsequent strokes: age and problems
Composing after subsequent strokes
Vissarion Shebalin (1902–1963, 51)
Speech, right leg and right arm weakness
Wrote his best opera
57, aphasia, right hemiplegia
His poststroke fifth symphony was referred to as “brilliant creative work,” his style became “more succinct”
Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998, 50)
Speech, right hemiparesis
No loss of creativity or productivity, change in style
56, slow and shaky gait, 59 aphasia, almost complete paralysis
Composed numerous works after 56, but only a few after 59
a
Disturbances in ordinary font largely resolved sometime after stroke, while those which are italicized did not.
References Luria et al. (1965), Weiss (2013) Ivashkin (1996), Kholopova (2003)
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Name, date of birth/death and age at the first stroke
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Moreover, the number of scores written by the composer after his second but prior to his third stroke (between September 1991 and May 1994) is astounding. His output is comprised of all three of his operas, three symphonies, three sonatas, two film scores, Concerto Grosso Number 6 for violin, piano, and string orchestra, and at least a dozen more pieces of orchestral, instrumental, and vocal music. Schnittke shared his thoughts about the effect of disease on his musical writing: I lost a lot in my memory, especially numbers and names. However, the illness had a positive side, because my memory changes help to shrug off my fatigue. Previously, I was frequently exhausted by my work; my thinking was chained by this tiredness. Now my fatigue slips out in an hour and a half, and I can move on. . . . Thus, on one hand it became more difficult, but on the whole easier for me . . .. Kotykhov (1999)
Schnittke admitted that the physical act of writing after his first stroke became more difficult (Ivashkin, 1994). However, he noticed an improvement in his ability to advance toward completion of his works, “as if I can visualize the final shape of piece while previously I would see something more or less suitable” (Ivashkin, 1994, p. 79). In addition, the composer discussed changes in his perception of other mental activities after his brain hemorrhage, for example, a reduction in analytical processes (literally in “intellectual thinking” or “knowledge”) and increased intuition. Again, he considered this shift as positive for his composing (Ivashkin, 1994). In addition, Schnittke emphasized his altered perception of time after stroke as a factor that affected his creation of music: Every year moves faster in comparison to the previous one. You have a perception of a long childhood, somewhat shorter period of youth, and then life accelerates . . .. My second circle13 returned me to the initial reference point. Time again moves slower . . . and the significance of every detail, every tiny aspect of what I am doing has increased. As if again, as some time ago, I am occupied less with duration, form and concept in general, but pay more attention to the choice of an instrument for solo, to sharpening instrumental contrast . . . Meylac (2007, p. 228)
A change in Schnittke’s compositions after his strokes has been noticed by musicologists and critics14 (Ivashkin, 1996; Kholopova, 2003). Their opinions regarding his style modification seems to be largely consistent. Many point to the intense
13
Schnittke referred to his poststroke period as “a life after death” or “second circle of life.” Evolution of Schnittke’s score writing following strokes was depicted by Jones (2009). In his account, the journalist starts with Klingende Buchstaben (Sounding Letters) composed in 1988 after the first stroke: “In Klingende Buchstaben, written in Russia, the script is confident, neatly laid out in black ink. In the Quartet for Percussion Instruments, after the second stroke, the notes are bigger and the bar lines wobbly and unperpendicular. In the Ninth Symphony, written during Schnittke’s third stroke, when he was almost completely paralyzed, the struggle to steer the pen is shockingly apparent in the agonizing multicircling of the wild notes and the many angry, scrawled crossings-out. The absence of words is striking: no title, no dynamic markings, nothing save the bald notes” (Jones, 2009). 14
ARTICLE IN PRESS 3 The effect of stroke on Schnittke
expressiveness of Schnittke’s late compositions despite an apparent decrease in note density of his scores. Alex Ross wrote: The stroke of 1985 spurred him on: in the next few years, he wrote music of exceptional lyrical generosity, even of embarrassing kitschiness. After a second stroke, in 1991, he became scarily austere. Ross (1998)
Twitchell (2006) stated, “Temporal expansion in Schnittke’s works after 1991 is carried further and frequently combined with thin textures, resulting in an austere style” (Twitchell, 2006, p. 9). Ivashkin’s remarks indicate that the style simplification did not lead to a reduction in emotionality: Schnittke’s late compositions are enigmatic. Their textures become very ascetic, and the number of notes is reduced. However, the latent tension increases, and the meaning . . . is to be found between the notes rather than in the musical text itself. A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. xiv)
Was the change in Schnittke’s music caused by his stroke(s) or did it come from his internal evolution? The opinions on this matter vary. Gidon Kremer, an outstanding violinist, attributed stylistic modifications to an internal evolution of the composer’ mind. In 1989, Kremer told Ivashkin: An inner change took place directly before or after his illness . . . already in the String Trio, written before his illness, I find the quintessence of his suffering, or even the whole of his struggle to find some unearthly power that might enable him . . . to overcome the force of gravity . . .. After his illness there was further development of this feeling. A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. 234)
Ivashkin considered this shift in style after stroke as a deliberate choice of the composer. He said: . . . I love the late compositions of Alfred. There are no many notes, and the score is white, not black. He just discovered another kind of music . . .. He needed quite different music filled with silence and tension. Sidorova (2004)
Overall, the qualitative and quantitative assessment of Shnittke’s later music seems to be consistent with the statement that the composer “suffered no loss of creativity and productivity after stroke” (Chang, 2008, p. 35). It is possible that new social developments initiated by Gorbachev in 1985 generated additional incentives (e.g., increased number of commissions from abroad) and stimulated Schnittke’s poststroke productive outburst. In addition, while working in the movie industry, the composer had accumulated materials used later in his symphonies and other pieces. These materials might have facilitated his creative process and, thus, also helped him to write music faster. The effect of these factors is difficult to evaluate. In any case, the sheer number of completed compositions strongly suggests that two strokes did not impair Schnittke’s productive output.
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The expressiveness of Schnittke’s poststroke works presents a compelling argument that he retained his creative capabilities despite the onset of the disease. The damage to the composer’s left hemisphere does not preclude a possibility of its positive effect on his creativity. A number of researchers have suggested that left hemispheric lesions could liberate artistic potential in some cases (Annoni et al., 2005; Nikolaenko and Pachalska, 2008; Schott, 2012; Seeley et al., 2008). There is evidence that left temporal lobe injury might also lead to an emergence of musical talent (Sacks, 2007, p.157). Moreover, the recently reported case of professional jazz guitarist Pat Martino shows that outstanding musical capabilities can be fully reacquired even when much of the left temporal lobe has been removed (Galarza et al., 2014). Finally, Miller et al. described preservation and emergence of composing skills in patients with frontotemporal dementia localized in the left hemisphere (Miller et al., 2000). Disinhibition and paradoxical functional facilitation of the nondominant hemisphere could be among the mechanisms responsible for these unexpected effects (Annoni et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2000; Schott, 2012). In-depth analyses of Schnittke’s compositions would be a further step toward affirming the hypothesis that damage of the left cerebral hemisphere by stroke might result in enhanced musical creativity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author thanks Dr. Christine Jackson and Lori Dribin from Nova Southeastern University for invaluable help in proofreading the manuscript and their comments. The author also thanks Meta Weiss, Nina Zagvazdina and Dr. Anastasia Mashukova for their support in preparation of this chapter. In addition, the author is grateful to Dr. Konstantin Kotliar from Aachen for his contribution in obtaining and translation of German literature.
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Nutt, A.E., 2011. Shadows Bright as Glass. Free Press, New York. O’Neill, D., Macsweeney, C.A., Cornell, I.A., Moss, H., 2014. Stravinsky syndrome: giving a voice to chronic stroke disease. Q. J. Med. 107, 489–493. Oliver, M., 1996. Benjamin Britten. Phaedon, London. Peretz, I., 2006. The nature of music from biological perspective. Cognition 100, 1–32. Peschel, E., Peschel, R., 1992. Donizetti and the music of mental derangement: Anna Bolena, Lucia di Lammermoor, and composer’s neurological illness. Yale J. Biol. Med. 65, 189–200. Piechowsky-Jozwiak, B., Bogousslavsky, J., 2013. Neurological diseases in famous painters. Prog. Brain Res. 203, 255–275. Ross, A., 1998. The Tragic Prankster. The New Yorker (September 7) Accessed at: https:// alfredschnittke.wordpress.com/2006/10/. Sacks, O., 2007. Musicophilia. Alfred Knopf, New York, Toronto. Schnittke, A., 2002. A Schnittke Reader. In: Ivashkin, A. (Ed.), Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Schott, G.D., 2012. Pictures as a neurological tool: lessons from enhanced and emergent artistry in brain disease. Brain 135, 1947–1963. Seeley, W.W., Matthews, B.R., Crawford, R.K., Gorno-Tempini, M.L., Foti, D., Mackenzie, I.R., Miller, B.L., 2008. Unravelling Bole´ro: progressive aphasia, transmodal creativity and the right posterior neocortex. Brain 131, 39–49. Shebalina, A.M., 1990. V.Y. Shebalin: Gody Zhizni i Tvorchestva V.Y. Shebalin: Life and Work, Sovetsky Compositor, Moscow (in Russian). Sidorova, T., 2004. Potamu chto eto byl Schnitke (Because it was Schnittke). Culture (November 18–22) (in Russian). Signoret, J.L., van Eeckhout, P., Poncet, M., Castaigne, P., 1987. Aphasia sans amusie chez un organist aveugle. Rev. Neurol. 143, 172–181 (in French). Twitchell, H.B., 2006. Alfred Schnittke’s Cello Sonata No. 2 (1993/94): Referential music in the composer’s late style. Doctoral Dissertation. Paper AAI3252601. Accessed at: http:// digitalcommons.uconn.edu/dissertations/AAI3252601. Walsh, S., 2006. Stravinsky: The Second Exile, France and America 1934–1971. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Weiss, M., 2013. Is there a link between music and language? How loss of language affected the compositions of Vissarion Shebalin. Voices from the Sylff Community. Accessed at: http://www.tokyofoundation.org/sylff/12911. Wilson, S.J., Pressing, J.L., Wales, R.J., 2002. Modelling rhythmic function in a musician post-stroke. Neuropsychologia 40, 1494–1505. Zatorre, R.J., 1984. Musical perception and cerebral function: a critical review. Music Percept. 2, 196–221. Ziangirova, M., 2012. Ukroschenie na arene (Taming on the arena). Omsk Tribune. 22 (36), June 7th. Accessed at: http://www.tribunaomsk.ru/webroot/material/view?id¼631 (in Russian).
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Stroke, music, and creative output: Alfred Schnittke and other composers Yuri Zagvazdin1 College of Medical Sciences, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA 1 Corresponding author: Tel.: +1-954-2621315; Fax: +1-954-2621802, e-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998), a celebrated Russian composer of the twentieth century, suffered from several strokes which affected his left cerebral hemisphere. The disease, however, did not diminish his musical talent. Moreover, he stated that his illness in a way facilitated his work. The composer showed amazingly high productivity after his first and second injuries of the central nervous system. The main topic of this chapter is the effect of strokes on Schnittke’s output, creativity, and style of music. A brief biography of the composer with the chronology of his brain hemorrhages is included. In addition, the influence of cerebrovascular lesions on creative potential of other prominent composers such as Benjamin Britten, Jean Langlais, Vissarion Shebalin, Igor Stravinsky, and Ira Randall Thompson is discussed.
Keywords stroke, brain, lesion, recovery, music, creativity
Stroke is a devastating disease caused by either occlusion or rupture of the cerebral blood vessels. It affects physical and cognitive abilities of millions. Damage and recovery after this traumatic event vary substantially among individuals. Some can regain control over their brain functions almost without consequences, while the majority suffers from neuromuscular and cognitive impairments of various degrees (Bowman and Giddings, 2003). Nevertheless, many stroke victims continue to produce innovative contributions to their professions. Several authors of recent studies discussed the outcomes of cerebrovascular lesions in notable artists and writers (Annoni et al., 2005; Ba¨zner and Hennerici, 2006; Bogousslavsky, 2009; Boller et al., 2005; Colombo-Thuillard and Assal, 2007; Dieguez and Bogousslavsky, 2007; Iniesta, 2013; Mazzucchi et al., 2013; Piechowsky-Jozwiak and Bogousslavsky, 2013; Schott, 2012). In contrast, much less has been written about how cerebrovascular accidents have changed the lives and outputs of renowned Progress in Brain Research, ISSN 0079-6123, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.006 © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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creators of music. This type of brain injury has been suspected or documented to have occurred to J.S. Bach, H. Bulow, G. Enesco, C. Gluck, G.F. Handel, E. Humperdinck, F. Mendelssohn Bartholdi, O. Peterson, M. Ravel, J. Tavener, H. Vieuxtemps, and others. The focus of this chapter is on the effect of strokes on productivity, creativity, and style of music of a prominent Russian composer Alfred Schnittke. In addition, literature on the consequences of cerebrovascular damage to the creative output of other outstanding masters of composition is briefly reviewed.
1 ALFRED SCHNITTKE, HIS MUSIC AND LIFE The music of Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998) has been performed all over the world. People who listen to his compositions for the first time can be astonished by the emotional tension and anticipation of something dramatic and tragic that emanates from his melodies. Schnittke’s music has been described as “desperate, aggressive, consoling, enraptured, and inwardly torn all at the same time.”1 Full of sharp contrasts, his creations frequently assimilate a variety of styles ranging from early Christian chants to excerpts of twentieth-century material. His masterpieces are praised as sensational reflections of the innermost struggles of the human soul. Schnittke was a prolific writer. He produced nine symphonies, six concerti grossi, four violin concertos and string quartets, two cello concertos, two viola concertos, four concertos for piano, choral, chamber and solo instrumental pieces, and soundtracks for more than 60 films (Gimonov, 1998). His life was threatened by cerebrovascular injuries, which successively happened in July of 1985 and 1991. Not only did the composer recovered on both occasions, but paradoxically he was able to generate an overflow of musical gems in the aftermath. In June 1994, the third stroke paralyzed his right side and rendered him speechless. Yet Schnittke continued to write scores using his left hand. In this respect, his case mirrored that of his teacher and outstanding Russian composer Vissarion Shebalin (1902–1963). Critics and musicologists underscore intimate connections between Schnittke’s musical vocabulary and Christian, German, Jewish, and Russian traditions. The composer was born on November 24 1934 in Engels2 in the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Ivashkin, 1994, 1996; Kholopova, 2003).3 In 1941, when the boy was 6 years old, Hitler’s armed forces attacked the Soviet Union. A few months after Nazi invasion, Stalin’s order and subsequent deportation ended the Autonomous Republic, cutting short the life of Wolgadeutsche community which thrived in Russia for more than a century since the era of Catherine the Great. 1
See notes on the website of the Sikorski Publishing Group at http://www.sikorski.de/1492/en/consoling_ and_enraptured_alfred_schnittke_s_first_cello_concerto_in_hamburg.html. 2 Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) was a German philosopher, social scientist, political theorist, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. 3 The brief biography of Schnittke in this chapter is largely based on the books written by Ivashkin (1994, 1996) and Kholopova (2003).
ARTICLE IN PRESS 1 Alfred Schnittke, his music and life
Schnittke’s mother, Maria Fogel, was a local dweller of German nationality, so she and all of her relatives were facing the prospect of being sent to Eastern parts of the country. Fortunately, the members of Alfred’s nuclear family escaped this tragedy because his father Harry proved that he was not Volksdeutsche.4 In 1926, Harry arrived in Moscow from Germany with his parents, who originally were from Latvia. The terrible socioideological cloud that surrounded the war, and the fact that his father was Jewish, made Alfred’s cultural self-identification a tormenting issue which troubled him throughout his life. The composer, however, spoke about his heritage with pride. Schnittke once told to his biographer and notable violinist Alexander Ivashkin that he learned to speak Russian and German at the same time (Ivashkin, 1994, p. 24). However, Ivashkin later stated that the first language of the boy was a local colloquial variant of Volga German (Ivashkin, 1996, p. 15).5 Alfred loved books and read the original poetry of Goethe and Heine in his childhood. His early interest in literature is not surprising considering the occupation and passion of his family. Schnittke’s grandmother, Thea Katz, served as an editor in the State Publishing Company of foreign literature for many years. German played a crucial role in her career, the careers of her son Harry and his wife Maria Fogel, who worked most of their lives in Soviet newspapers distributed to the readers of this language. Alfred’s younger brother Victor was a translator and a talented poet.6 Their sister Irina became a teacher of the tongue of their predecessors. Fluency in the German language helped Schnittke to advance in his profession. He could take a full advantage of direct communications with the members of the International musical community, mainly in the countries of Central Europe. This was especially true in the second half of his life, when the restrictions imposed by Soviet government on interactions with foreigners were weakening. The benefits of bilingualism, however, might extend beyond establishing contacts and networking. A growing body of evidence suggests that the ability to use two languages expands intellectual potential due to reorganization of neuronal connections that hold implications for the resources with which bilinguals face cognitive tasks (Kroll et al., 2014). In 1946, Alfred received an opportunity to experience firsthand the richness of European music and literature when his family moved to Vienna. His father Harry € secured a position as a translator and correspondent for the Osterreichische Zeitung (Austrian Newspaper). This was daily published by the Soviet occupational forces for the population of the city. In their article about Schnittke, Moody and Ivashkin stated: “This decisive exposure to the Austro-German cultural tradition fundamentally influenced his future tastes and approach to form and vocabulary throughout his
4
People of German origin who lived outside the Third Reich. The composer suddenly switched from Russian to German when he was hit by stroke in 1985. 6 Victor Schnittke like his mother, brother, and sister had been a victim of stroke, which killed him in 1994. 5
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career” (Moody and Ivashkin, 2001, p. 568). In Austria, Alfred began his musical education at the age of 12 with piano teacher Charlotte Ruber. . . . He spoke German with a Viennese accent, and, arguably, composed in Viennese as well. . . . His harmonies had a Mahlerian heft, his melodies a Schubertian lilt; he spun them out effortlessly, wrote Alex Ross in Schnittke’s obituary. Ross (1998)
In 1948, Schnittke’s family returned to Russia and settled in Moscow. In the capital, Alfred passed examinations at the October Revolution Musical College (now Schnittke’s Musical College and Institute) and later at the Moscow Conservatory. There were no musicians in his family. However, his inclination toward the future profession became apparent quite early, prior to his departure to Austria. Schnittke recalled that in the last years of the war radio broadcasts of operas inspired him to sing Lensky’s aria from Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin (Ivashkin, 1994). In addition, radio introduced him to other genres, including instrumental and symphonic music. In particular, the Ninth Symphony of Dmitri Shostakovich (1906–1975)7 left a mark of something fresh, bright, and unexpected in the memory of 11-year-old boy (Ivashkin, 1996). In Vienna, Alfred attended various opera productions and listened to compositions of Beethoven, Wagner, Handel, Shubert, and other classical masters. He was excited by the idea of creating his own symphonies. His musical schooling in Vienna, however, was not strict or very demanding. Only in Moscow did Schnittke start building fundamentals in earnest, which allowed him to progress toward the realization of his dream. In 1953, Schnittke graduated Summa Cum Laude from the musical college and was accepted in the Moscow Conservatory, where he studied from 1953 to 1958. Shebalin characterized him at the time of graduation as the most professional among his peers. Alfred presented the oratorio Nagasaki for mezzo-soprano, mixed chorus and orchestra as his thesis work. It was one of his first reflections of Apocalypses, human suffering, and the good and evil of human nature. These themes, which seemed to occupy his thoughts early in life, became central in his music. Nagasaki, with its expressive musical palette and original instrumental effects, attracted attention of students and teachers of the Moscow conservatory, impressing even Shostakovich (Ivashkin, 1996). In 1958, Schnittke started his postgraduate studies with Evgeny Golubev, his composition mentor, and a former student of Shebalin and Myaskovsky.8 Both Golubev and Shebalin encouraged students to broaden their horizons and explore contemporary music. Inside the walls of the conservatory, a valuable forum for discussions and performances of contemporary music existed in the Student Scientific 7
Many critics consider Schnittke as Shostakovich heir. According to Ivashkin (1996), performances of Shostakovich’s 10th Symphony in 1953 and First Violin Concerto in 1955 made a great impact on Schnittke’s development as a composer. He did not imitate the great master, but fully adopted his dynamic profile and innate foundations and principles of his compositions. 8 Nikolai Yakovlevich Myaskovsky, or Miaskovsky, or Miaskowsky (1881–1950) was an outstanding Russian and Soviet composer. He is sometimes referred to as the “Father of the Soviet Symphony.”
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Society. It consisted of a group of enthusiastic students, led by Edison Denisov (1929–1996), a remarkable composer and prominent figure of Russian musical avant-garde during the second half of the twentieth century. Schnittke was an active member of the society and had an opportunity to look into scores practically unknown in the USSR, e.g., the works of Schoenberg, Webern, Berg, Stravinsky, and other modern composers. After completing his postgraduate courses in 1961, he continued serious research into Western contemporary music. His studies of the second Viennese School led to creation of his serial compositions including the First Violin Sonata (1963). By 1968, however, Schnittke abandoned the serial method and dramatically changed his way of writing music. According to Ivashkin: . . . his main concern is the dramatic shape of the whole piece. There are shocking contrasts of opposing images, clashes of styles, and paradoxes in logic and development. He combines rather confusing hints and elements of different styles. Ivashkin (2002, p. 455)
This approach, which Schnittke called polystylism, became his unique mark and method. Talking about his method, the composer stated that the phenomenon of “polystylistics” in music existed long before he started to use the word and thought about interaction of musical material in different styles (A Schnittke Reader, 2002). Ives and Mahler were among the first twentieth-century composers who successfully experimented with it. Schnittke once told Ivashkin: The fact that I began to use a polystylistic method was brought about, first, by everything these composers had done before me, which I naturally could not ignore. But there was a personal element too. The polystylistic method, the use of interacting styles, gave me a way out of the difficult situation in which I had been put by having combine, over a long period, work for the cinema with work “at the desk.”9 There was a time when I simply did not know what to do: I had to drop either one or the other. A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. 17)
Schnittke found the way out of this difficulty by mixing his own elements in his symphonies and concertos with ideas, allusions, and quotations used in his soundtracks. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Schnittke’s national popularity reached unprecedented heights. With the beginning of reforms initiated by Michael Gorbachev in 1985, new opportunities were opening for the composer. He received recognition from the Soviet Government in the form of prestigious state awards. The flow of commissions from abroad was increasing. His music was in demand and he worked very hard. However, the splendid fruits of this labor flourished at the expense of Schnittke’s health. In one of his interviews, he recalled: 9
Schnittke worked on music for cinema very seriously. If the plot of a movie was set, for example, in the eighteenth century, allusions to or quotations from the composers representing that epoch would have a good chance to be inserted into soundtrack by Schnittke. Work “at the desk” consisted of scores written not for movie industry but for other purposes (e.g., performances at concert halls).
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In 1985, I have completed six long compositions during six months. I do not understand how I was able to do it. . . . I had an impression that time flew extremely fast and kept accelerating, and on the limit of this acceleration stroke hit me, and a new circle in my development began. Kotykhov (1999)
Schnittke’s first hemorrhage in the left hemisphere was quite severe (Kholopova, 2003). He lost consciousness but fortunately survived. Under the supervision of neurosurgeon Alexander Potapov, the patient was transported from Georgia (where he went on vacation in July) to Moscow at the end of August of 1985 (Ivashkin, 1996). There he successfully recovered from right hemiplegia and dysphasia. By the end of September, he resumed his work. During the following years, Schnittke completed numerous compositions including Symphony Number 5, First and Second Cello Concertos, the ballet Peer Gynt, piano sonatas, String Quartet Number 4, and other pieces of chamber and instrumental music. Some of these scores were written in Germany, where he had an opportunity to become a resident in 1989 as a recipient of special stipend from the Wissenshaftskolleg. Consequently, Schnittke spent a year in Berlin and moved to Hamburg where he began to teach composition in the local Hochschule fur Musik part-time. Schnittke was very busy composing and attending numerous premieres when stroke hit again. In July1991, while sharing memories about brilliant violinist Oleg Kagan with his old friend, film director Andrey Khrazhanovsky, the composer suddenly complained about having an acute headache (Kholopova, 2003). It was a symptom of his second cerebrovascular lesion, which was localized in the cerebellum (Ivashkin, 1996). However, again the composer recovered and continued his creative work with inspiring success. In June 1994, the third stroke dramatically worsened his health and resulted in aphasia and agraphia, but not amusia. Despite tremendous difficulties, Schnittke did not stop writing music. His last major piece was his Symphony Number 9. The next stroke ravaged the composer’s brain in July1998, and he passed away on August 3rd of that summer. The Memorial service was held in the Moscow Conservatory. In accordance with his will, Schnittke was interred by Eastern Orthodox traditions at the Novodevichy Cemetery in the capital, where many other prominent Russian musicians, including Dmitri Shostakovich, had been buried (Kholopova, 2003).
2 MUSIC AND STROKE: BRITTEN, LANGALAIS, SHEBALIN, STRAVINSKY, AND THOMPSON Stroke survivors can demonstrate a wide spectrum of abnormalities that affect their music comprehension or production. A priori, there cannot be any certainty about the long-term effects of cerebrovascular lesions on motor, cognitive and creative processes including perception, performance, or creation of melodies. It depends on various factors, such as the severity of damage, the areas of the brain affected, and the extent of recovery (Bowman and Giddings, 2003; Langhorne et al., 2011). As with
ARTICLE IN PRESS 2 Music and stroke
brain trauma in general, cerebrovascular accidents are likely to have negative consequences. However, Jacome described a patient who developed hypermusia and musicophilia after stroke ( Jacome, 1984). Historically, strokes and other types of brain damage have been a source of insightful information about music and language processing in the cerebral structures (Graziano et al., 2012; Peretz, 2006; Zatorre, 1984). In addition, changes in vocal or instrumental performance after cerebrovascular injures have been studied by clinicians (Murayama et al., 2004; Wilson et al., 2002). However, assessments of stroke consequences in terms of output and creativity of composers have been largely limited to occasional remarks in a few cases, which will be reviewed in this chapter. Neurological diseases of musicians, including stroke, have been briefly described in several reviews (Bentivoglio, 2003; Breitenfeld et al., 2010; Newmark, 2007). One of the most cited papers on this subject was published by Alexander Luria and his coworkers, who reported on the communicative and musical faculties of Shebalin after stroke (Luria et al., 1965). A number of researchers analyzed Handel’s and Ravel’s illnesses and came to conflicting conclusions whether cerebrovascular accidents or some other problems were responsible for the health troubles of these composers (Amaducci et al., 2002; Ba¨zner and Hennerici, 2005; Cavallera et al., 2012; Evers, 1996; Hunter, 2008). The case of Jean Langlais (1907–91), the blind French organist and composer, who, like Shebalin, suffered from stroke-induced aphasia without amusia, has also attracted attention of scholars (Labounsky, 2000; Signoret et al., 1987). Judd and coworkers published a detailed study of the effect of stroke on an American composer Ira Randall Thompson ( Judd et al., 1983). His initial aphasia and agraphia cleared rapidly, but he still suffered from alexia and mild anomia. According to the authors, critics characterized his composing skills as “undiminished.” The authors further stated that: his post-stroke compositions have been well received. Independent critics consider them to be as good as his pre-stroke compositions, but musically somewhat more conservative. Judd et al. (1983, p. 450)
Only a few researchers have paid attention to stroke-induced changes in a composer’s style of music, production, and creativity. Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014) discussed how these features were modified by the cardiovascular disease which affected Benjamin Britten (1913–1976). This brilliant British composer suffered from heart failure and stroke, which developed in 1973 during an operation for aortic valve replacement. The results of the surgery were far from perfect and recovery was very slow. Movements of his right hand and leg were compromised. He could not play the piano and was frequently depressed. Physical and emotional problems took their toll on his composing, and his productivity diminished after the operation. Although Britten’s poststroke scores are relatively short, their quality is considered to be superb. According to Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014), critics unanimously describe his Third String Quartet as masterpiece. Critics also agree that composer’s final works were “somberly colored,” as he apparently realized his impending mortality. Nevertheless, one of Britten’s biographers claims that the composer’s “renewed creativity
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reached its peak” in 1975 (Matthews, 2003, p. 150). Another biographer stated, “even at this stage Britten’s physical exhaustion was not accompanied by any enfeeblement of his imaginative powers” (Oliver, 1996, p. 210). Signoret et al. (1987) described the consequences of Jean Langlais’s cerebrovascular accident. It happened in July of 1984 when the composer was 77. He had infarction in the territory of the left middle cerebral artery involving the temporal and the inferior parietal lobes. Initially, the organist’s right extremities were paralyzed, and he could not speak. In 15 days, he recovered his ability to walk and use his hands. Interestingly, Langlais started to speak not in French, but in English as his basic language skills began to return (Labounsky, 2000). His speech improvements, however, were limited. The blind composer could no longer read texts in Braille and had anomia. Yet, he was able to write, read, and play music after the stroke. Listeners still appreciated his performances. According to Labounsky (2000), the music of his poststroke years was “tingled with retrospection and introspection.” Memory slips and difficulties with his verbal communication frustrated Langlais. Like Britten, he suffered from depression. However, his poststroke “final burst of creative energy” resulted in the production of 16 works for organ, three hymns, two choral works, and a variety of instrumental pieces. These last compositions are considered to be fresh and similar in style to those created before stroke (Labounsky, 2000, p. 318). Renowned Russian composer Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) experienced a stroke that caused headache, right-sided dysesthesia with reduced coordination and dysarthria (O’Neill et al., 2014). It happened in 1956, when he was conducting a concert in Berlin. The celebrated master was 74 at that time. Nevertheless, he was conducting again 6 weeks later. According to O’Neill et al. (2014), Stravinsky composed more works in the following decade than he had in the 1930s and 1940s. Moreover, his music continued to show development and innovation as he adopted the serial composition method. Following the recovery after his stroke, the composer wrote the score for the ballet Agon considered as one of the “most spectacular successes of his entire career” (Walsh, 2006, p. 374). Eventually, the progress of Stravinsky’s illness and subsequent strokes led to his inability to produce music in the 1960s. As in the case of Stravinsky, Vissarion Shebalin’s first stroke, which occurred in 1953, did not rob him from ability to complete a number of masterpieces. In 1957, his best opera, Taming of the Shrew, premiered in the Bolshoi Theater with tremendous furor among spectators. More than 50 years later, this premiere, especially the performance of the main character Katherina by the brilliant Russian singer Galina Vishnevskaya, was called the most memorable Moscow experience by Firdaus Akhtyamova10 (Kadyrova, 2011). Shebalin’s opera was also successfully staged in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and various cities of the Soviet Union in the 1960s– 1980s and recently again reappeared in repertoire of some Russian theaters
10 Firdaus Akhtyamova (1939–2012) was an actress from Tatarstan, who received an international acclaim after winning the prize for the best female role in the movie Bibinur at International Film Festivals in New York and Kazan in 2010. She studied in Moscow in the late 1950s.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 3 The effect of stroke on Schnittke
(Ziangirova, 2012). After his first cerebrovascular accident, the composer lost control of his right hand and arm, which forced him to write his scores and conduct using his left upper extremity (Shebalina, 1990). Composing became an even more difficult process for Shebalin after his second stroke (Luria et al., 1968). Despite his condition, according to Meta Weiss,11 the composer experimented with a pseudo-twelve-tone style, though still within the tonal idiom, writing themes that featured all twelve tones melodically but relied on the functional harmony of tonality. Perhaps counterintuitively, his music was full of optimism following the onset of his aphasia, and, like his music before the strokes, . . . very clean and straightforward, but with new richness and depth despite the economy of means. Weiss (2013)
Anna Lazzarini12 came to conclusion that Shebalin “after the second stroke despite aphasia and right hemiparesis . . . could compose his music in a similar way but with less inhibitions and influences” (Lazzarini, 2012, p. 41). Overall, this brief review suggests that stroke might not always hamper creativity and ability to produce music. Moreover, the case of Stravinsky shows that the number of new works from a composer might not be diminished by cerebrovascular injury. It is rather difficult to argue on the basis of the small number of reviewed cases whether the style of music undergoes a significant change as a result of brain damage. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the effects of cerebrovascular lesions on Britten, Langlais, Stravinsky, Thompson, Shebalin, and Schnittke. An important point is that in all of the abovementioned cases, the left hemisphere was affected. By contrast, descriptions of cases in which composers had right hemispheric stroke are difficult to find. Engelbert Humperdinck (1854–1921), a notable German composer, apparently developed this condition, but was able to recover and continued to write music (Humperdinck, 1965). It is possible that a great Romanian master George Enescu (1881–1955) also suffered from the right hemispheric infarction and was able to compose. Another example is that of remarkable Canadian jazz pianist and composer Oscar Peterson (1925–2007). Finally, Judd reported a case of an American composer who lost his ability to create music as a result of his right frontoparietal and posterior temporal cerebrovascular lesions ( Judd, 1984).
3 THE EFFECT OF STROKE ON SCHNITTKE Shnittke’s successful return to composing after his stroke has been popularized in Russian publications as a rare example of complete functional recovery after brain injury (Malsteva, 2009). Moreover, there seems to be an assumption among Russian 11
Meta Weiss is a professional cellist and Tokyo Foundation’s Sylff Research Abroad program awardee for researching Shebalin’s String Quartets in Moscow. 12 Anna Lazarini is the president of the School of Music Il Contrappunto Veneziano of the Wolf Ferrari Association in Venice, Italy.
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Table 1 The effect of left hemispheric stroke on composers and their musical abilities Name, date of birth/death and age at the onset of stroke
Disturbancesa
Composing after stroke
References
Benjamin Britten (1913–1976, 59)
Right-hand paralysis
Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014)
Jean Langlais (1907–1991, 77)
Right hemiparesis, aphasia
Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971, 74)
Speech, right hemiparesis, rightside numbness Agraphia, aphasia, alexia, right homonymous hemianopia
Productivity decreased, music was “somberly colored,” although creative and not different in terms of style or quality Numerous works, no change in style, but “the pull toward chant and very simple style . . .” No decrease in productivity, change in style? Composing skills appear to be undiminished. Poststroke compositions appeared to be as good as prestroke ones, but “musically more conservative”
Judd et al. (1983)
Ira Randall Thompson (1899–1984, 77)
Labounsky (2000)
O’Neill et al. (2014)
a Disturbances in ordinary font largely resolved sometime after stroke, while those which are italicized did not.
researchers that the illness might have had paradoxical consequences and even augmented his creative potential (Chernigovskaya, 2011). The possibility of enhanced or emergent artistic expression after the onset of brain disease has been discussed in a number of publications (Annoni et al., 2005; Gordon, 2005; Schott, 2012). For instance, Annoni et al. (2005) suggested that modifications of style and increased creativity after strokes in two painters were at least partially due to their diseases. Another remarkable example of stroke-induced transformation is the case of Jon Sarkin, previously a calm, disciplined chiropractor. After a brain hemorrhage, he was seized by insatiable desire to paint (Nutt, 2011). Cerebral lesions could influence creative processes not only in visual artists, but also in composers. Some authors argued that Ravel’s and Donizetti’s late compositions could reflect the effects of their brain illnesses (Amaducci et al., 2002; Cavallera et al., 2012; Peschel and Peschel, 1992). Cases of sudden musicophilia seemingly triggered by cerebral disturbances have also been reported ( Jacome, 1984; Miller et al., 2000; Sacks, 2007). Was Schnittke’s musical productivity altered by his strokes? How strong is the evidence that his creativity was augmented by his disease? An attempt to answer the question about productivity necessitates a quantitative comparison of the number of compositions completed before and after the first and second stroke. According to Ivashkin, Schnittke’s musical output was three times greater after the first hemorrhage of 1985 than before the lesion (Sidorova, 2004).
Table 2 The effect of several left hemispheric strokes on composers and their musical abilities
Disturbancesa
Composing after the first stroke
Subsequent strokes: age and problems
Composing after subsequent strokes
Vissarion Shebalin (1902–1963, 51)
Speech, right leg and right arm weakness
Wrote his best opera
57, aphasia, right hemiplegia
His poststroke fifth symphony was referred to as “brilliant creative work,” his style became “more succinct”
Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998, 50)
Speech, right hemiparesis
No loss of creativity or productivity, change in style
56, slow and shaky gait, 59 aphasia, almost complete paralysis
Composed numerous works after 56, but only a few after 59
a
Disturbances in ordinary font largely resolved sometime after stroke, while those which are italicized did not.
References Luria et al. (1965), Weiss (2013) Ivashkin (1996), Kholopova (2003)
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Moreover, the number of scores written by the composer after his second but prior to his third stroke (between September 1991 and May 1994) is astounding. His output is comprised of all three of his operas, three symphonies, three sonatas, two film scores, Concerto Grosso Number 6 for violin, piano, and string orchestra, and at least a dozen more pieces of orchestral, instrumental, and vocal music. Schnittke shared his thoughts about the effect of disease on his musical writing: I lost a lot in my memory, especially numbers and names. However, the illness had a positive side, because my memory changes help to shrug off my fatigue. Previously, I was frequently exhausted by my work; my thinking was chained by this tiredness. Now my fatigue slips out in an hour and a half, and I can move on. . . . Thus, on one hand it became more difficult, but on the whole easier for me . . .. Kotykhov (1999)
Schnittke admitted that the physical act of writing after his first stroke became more difficult (Ivashkin, 1994). However, he noticed an improvement in his ability to advance toward completion of his works, “as if I can visualize the final shape of piece while previously I would see something more or less suitable” (Ivashkin, 1994, p. 79). In addition, the composer discussed changes in his perception of other mental activities after his brain hemorrhage, for example, a reduction in analytical processes (literally in “intellectual thinking” or “knowledge”) and increased intuition. Again, he considered this shift as positive for his composing (Ivashkin, 1994). In addition, Schnittke emphasized his altered perception of time after stroke as a factor that affected his creation of music: Every year moves faster in comparison to the previous one. You have a perception of a long childhood, somewhat shorter period of youth, and then life accelerates . . .. My second circle13 returned me to the initial reference point. Time again moves slower . . . and the significance of every detail, every tiny aspect of what I am doing has increased. As if again, as some time ago, I am occupied less with duration, form and concept in general, but pay more attention to the choice of an instrument for solo, to sharpening instrumental contrast . . . Meylac (2007, p. 228)
A change in Schnittke’s compositions after his strokes has been noticed by musicologists and critics14 (Ivashkin, 1996; Kholopova, 2003). Their opinions regarding his style modification seems to be largely consistent. Many point to the intense
13
Schnittke referred to his poststroke period as “a life after death” or “second circle of life.” Evolution of Schnittke’s score writing following strokes was depicted by Jones (2009). In his account, the journalist starts with Klingende Buchstaben (Sounding Letters) composed in 1988 after the first stroke: “In Klingende Buchstaben, written in Russia, the script is confident, neatly laid out in black ink. In the Quartet for Percussion Instruments, after the second stroke, the notes are bigger and the bar lines wobbly and unperpendicular. In the Ninth Symphony, written during Schnittke’s third stroke, when he was almost completely paralyzed, the struggle to steer the pen is shockingly apparent in the agonizing multicircling of the wild notes and the many angry, scrawled crossings-out. The absence of words is striking: no title, no dynamic markings, nothing save the bald notes” (Jones, 2009). 14
ARTICLE IN PRESS 3 The effect of stroke on Schnittke
expressiveness of Schnittke’s late compositions despite an apparent decrease in note density of his scores. Alex Ross wrote: The stroke of 1985 spurred him on: in the next few years, he wrote music of exceptional lyrical generosity, even of embarrassing kitschiness. After a second stroke, in 1991, he became scarily austere. Ross (1998)
Twitchell (2006) stated, “Temporal expansion in Schnittke’s works after 1991 is carried further and frequently combined with thin textures, resulting in an austere style” (Twitchell, 2006, p. 9). Ivashkin’s remarks indicate that the style simplification did not lead to a reduction in emotionality: Schnittke’s late compositions are enigmatic. Their textures become very ascetic, and the number of notes is reduced. However, the latent tension increases, and the meaning . . . is to be found between the notes rather than in the musical text itself. A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. xiv)
Was the change in Schnittke’s music caused by his stroke(s) or did it come from his internal evolution? The opinions on this matter vary. Gidon Kremer, an outstanding violinist, attributed stylistic modifications to an internal evolution of the composer’ mind. In 1989, Kremer told Ivashkin: An inner change took place directly before or after his illness . . . already in the String Trio, written before his illness, I find the quintessence of his suffering, or even the whole of his struggle to find some unearthly power that might enable him . . . to overcome the force of gravity . . .. After his illness there was further development of this feeling. A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. 234)
Ivashkin considered this shift in style after stroke as a deliberate choice of the composer. He said: . . . I love the late compositions of Alfred. There are no many notes, and the score is white, not black. He just discovered another kind of music . . .. He needed quite different music filled with silence and tension. Sidorova (2004)
Overall, the qualitative and quantitative assessment of Shnittke’s later music seems to be consistent with the statement that the composer “suffered no loss of creativity and productivity after stroke” (Chang, 2008, p. 35). It is possible that new social developments initiated by Gorbachev in 1985 generated additional incentives (e.g., increased number of commissions from abroad) and stimulated Schnittke’s poststroke productive outburst. In addition, while working in the movie industry, the composer had accumulated materials used later in his symphonies and other pieces. These materials might have facilitated his creative process and, thus, also helped him to write music faster. The effect of these factors is difficult to evaluate. In any case, the sheer number of completed compositions strongly suggests that two strokes did not impair Schnittke’s productive output.
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The expressiveness of Schnittke’s poststroke works presents a compelling argument that he retained his creative capabilities despite the onset of the disease. The damage to the composer’s left hemisphere does not preclude a possibility of its positive effect on his creativity. A number of researchers have suggested that left hemispheric lesions could liberate artistic potential in some cases (Annoni et al., 2005; Nikolaenko and Pachalska, 2008; Schott, 2012; Seeley et al., 2008). There is evidence that left temporal lobe injury might also lead to an emergence of musical talent (Sacks, 2007, p.157). Moreover, the recently reported case of professional jazz guitarist Pat Martino shows that outstanding musical capabilities can be fully reacquired even when much of the left temporal lobe has been removed (Galarza et al., 2014). Finally, Miller et al. described preservation and emergence of composing skills in patients with frontotemporal dementia localized in the left hemisphere (Miller et al., 2000). Disinhibition and paradoxical functional facilitation of the nondominant hemisphere could be among the mechanisms responsible for these unexpected effects (Annoni et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2000; Schott, 2012). In-depth analyses of Schnittke’s compositions would be a further step toward affirming the hypothesis that damage of the left cerebral hemisphere by stroke might result in enhanced musical creativity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author thanks Dr. Christine Jackson and Lori Dribin from Nova Southeastern University for invaluable help in proofreading the manuscript and their comments. The author also thanks Meta Weiss, Nina Zagvazdina and Dr. Anastasia Mashukova for their support in preparation of this chapter. In addition, the author is grateful to Dr. Konstantin Kotliar from Aachen for his contribution in obtaining and translation of German literature.
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