Journal of Family Psychology 2015, Vol. 29, No. 3, 339-348

© 2015 American Psychological Association 0893-3200/15/$ 12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/fam0000089

Stress in Romantic Relationships and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: Influence of Parental Support Samantha F. Anderson, Rachel H. Salk, and Janet S. Hyde University of Wisconsin-Madison It is well known that stressful life events can play a role in the development of adolescent depressive symptoms; however, there has been little research on romantic stress specifically. The relationship between romantic stress and depressive symptoms is particularly salient in adolescence, as adolescence often involves the onset of dating. This and other stressors are often dealt with in the context of the family. The present study examined the relationship between romantic stress and depressive symptoms both concurrently and prospectively, controlling for preexisting depressive symptoms. We then explored whether support from parents buffers the negative effects of romantic stress on depressive symptoms. In addition, the study sought to determine whether the benefits of support vary by parent and child gender. A community sample of 375 adolescents completed self-report measures of parental support (both maternal and paternal), romantic stress, and depressive symptoms. A behavioral measure of maternal support was also obtained. For boys and girls, romantic stress at age 15 predicted depressive symptoms at ages 15 and 18, even when controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms. Perceived maternal support buffered the stress-depressive symptom relationship for both genders at age 15, even when controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms. Higher perceived paternal support was associated with lower adolescent depressive symptoms; however, it did not have a buffering effect. These results have implications for the development of effective family-centered methods to prevent the development of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Keywords: parental support, adolescence, romantic relationships, stress, depressive symptoms

Research has implicated adolescence as a key period for the development of depressive symptoms (Dekker et al., 2007). Ado­ lescents with depressive symptoms are not only more likely to develop major depression later but also more likely to have greater psychosocial impairment in a depressive episode and more recur­ rent episodes (Aalto-Setala, Marttunen, Tuulio-Henriksson, Poikolainen, & Lonnqvist, 2002; Colman, Wadsworth, Croudace, & Jones, 2007; Tram & Cole, 2006). Furthermore, elevated depres­ sive symptoms put adolescents at increased risk for other affective disorders and increased risk for suicidal behaviors in adulthood (Fergusson, Florwood, Ridder, & Beautrais, 2005; Fergusson & Woodward, 2002). Adolescent depressive symptoms are also as-

sociated with more proximal consequences during adolescence, including higher rates of substance use, antisocial behavior, and health service use (Rice, Lifford, Thomas, & Thapar, 2007). Fo­ cusing on risk factors for the development of depressive symptoms in this age group can inform efforts at preventing negative ado­ lescent and adult outcomes. Research has documented an increase in interpersonal stress in adolescence and its link with depressive symptoms, especially in girls (e.g., Cyranowski, Frank, Young, & Shear, 2000). However, little is known about stress specific to romantic relationships as a predictive factor for adolescent depressive symptoms, despite the reputation of adolescence as a period of romantic turmoil (Davila, 2001). Furthermore, there has been little study of moderators to this link, especially family variables. Given the importance of parents in adolescent development, parental support may play a critical role in exacerbating or buffering the effect of romantic stress on depressive symptoms in adolescents. In this study, we examined the association between romantic stress and depressive symptoms, both cross-sectionally and prospectively, controlling for previous depressive symptoms. Moreover, we tested whether support from parents can buffer adolescents from the negative effects of romantic stress on depressive symptoms.

This article was published Online First May 11, 2015. Samantha F. Anderson, Rachel H. Salk, and Janet S. Hyde, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Samantha F. Anderson is now at the University of Notre Dame. This article is based on Samantha F. Anderson’s senior thesis completed at University of Wisconsin-Madison. This research was supported by the University of Wisconsin Letters and Science Research Grant (to Samantha F. Anderson), National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Grant DGE-071823 to Rachel H. Salk, and National Institute of Mental Health Grant R01-MH44340 to Janet S. Hyde. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or the National Institute of Mental Health. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Samantha F. Anderson, Department of Psychology, 118 Haggar Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556. E-mail: [email protected]

Romantic Stress and Depressive Symptoms The relationship between stressful life events and depressive symptoms in adolescence has been well established (e.g., Evans et al., 2015). Events in the interpersonal domain have been shown to be especially relevant to depressive symptoms (e.g., Herres & Kobak, 2015; Nicolai, Laney, & Mezulis, 2013). However, the 339

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specific influence of romantic stress (defined here as undesirable emotions stemming from dating, arguments with, or breakup with a significant other, or from desiring a relationship that one does not have) on adolescent depressive symptoms is less clear. Previous research on romantic relationships and depressive symptoms has largely used adult populations and focused on positive effects of relationships on mental health (Davila, 2008; Vujeva & Furman, 2011). The few studies examining romantic relationships and depressive symptoms in adolescents have focused on the presence or absence of dating and specific stressors such as breakups. Adolescent dating among both boys and girls is associated with current depressive symptoms (Quatman, Sampson, Robinson, & Watson, 2001) and predicts depressive symptoms over time. In a 1-year prospective study, Joyner and Udry (2000) found that adolescents who began dating between interviews, especially girls, had larger increases in depressive symptoms than those who were not romantically involved. Similar findings from another sample were reported over a period of 6 months for adolescent girls (Davila, Steinberg, Kachadourian, Cobb, & Fincham, 2004). Studies among adolescents have also explored the influence of specific stressors such as breakups and sexual activity on depres­ sive symptoms. Importantly, it was the actual event (not the adolescent’s emotional response to the event) that was the stressor in these studies. For example, sexual activity in short-term ro­ mances without emotional connection was associated with depres­ sive symptom increases in 11th and 12th grade Israeli girls (Shulman, Walsh. Weisman, & Schelyer, 2009). Recent breakups have also been found to increase the risk of a first episode of major depression in older adolescents (Monroe, Rohde, Seeley, & Lewinsohn, 1999). Several theoretical models attempt to account for the link be­ tween adolescent romantic relationships and depressive symptoms (e.g., Davila et al., 2004; Joyner & Udry, 2000). The framework for the current study is the stress and coping model, which posits that adolescent romantic relationships are inherently emotional and involve challenges, such as need for intimacy and fear of rejection, for which adolescents may not have coping and support resources (Larson, Clore, & Wood, 1999). This model suggests that adoles­ cents with more support from trusted others would be at lower risk for depressive symptoms when facing challenging romantic situ­ ations. Emerging evidence for this hypothesis comes from a study finding that the link between romance and depressive symptoms is stronger for girls with emotionally distant parents (Steinberg & Davila, 2008), suggesting negative consequences when an impor­ tant support system is not present. Furthermore, lower levels of support from a romantic partner and higher stress levels have also been linked with depressive symptoms in older adolescent girls (Daley & Hammen, 2002). To empirically advance the stress and coping theory, it is important to evaluate the role that parents may play in providing important support to adolescents in romantic situations. Despite these theoretical insights, the extant empirical research on romantic relationships and adolescent depressive symptoms is incomplete. First, most research concentrates on the presence or absence of dating and specific events such as breakups, which do not capture the appraisal of the event by the adolescent. Some adolescents might have mostly positive experiences with dating just as some adolescents may benefit from a breakup in an un­ healthy relationship. Despite some advantages to event measures,

measures of appraisals of stress allow for the important role of personal and contextual factors in determining whether a poten­ tially threatening event is indeed stressful (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983). In addition, gender differences have not been adequately studied, as all-female samples are the norm in research on romantic relationships and depressive symptoms (e.g., Daley & Hammen, 2002; Shulman et ah, 2009). Gender differences are important to study because research has found that girls may be more susceptible to the negative effects of stress than boys. For example, a meta-analysis found a gender difference of d = 0.29 for appraisals of negative life events, with adolescent girls viewing events more negatively than boys (Davis, Matthews, & Twamley, 1999). Finally, most studies have not taken the effect of earlier depres­ sive symptoms into account (Davila, 2008; Vujeva & Furman, 2011), limiting the conclusions that can be drawn about the influ­ ences of romantic stress on depressive symptoms. History of depressive symptoms is a strong predictor of current depressive symptoms (Tram & Cole, 2006). Therefore, when identifying risk factors for current depressive symptoms, it is important that these variables contribute additional risk beyond that of previous depres­ sive symptoms. Second, stress generation theories specify that individuals with depressive histories experience more stressors, “due at least in part, to their own characteristics and behaviors than do individuals without depression histories” (Hammen, 2006, p. 1066). Thus, controlling for the well-documented effect of past depressive symptoms on future depressive symptoms allows the assessment of the consequences of romantic stress above and beyond that of both previous depressive symptoms and stress generation processes. Third, depressive symptoms may influence the reporting of romantic stress, such that adolescents with more depressive symptoms will report more negative experiences of romantic stress. Thus, controlling for previous depressive symp­ toms can help eliminate this reporting bias.

Parental Support and Depressive Symptoms Parental support has also been linked to depressive symptoms. Two models that explain this relationship have been proposed, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive. The main effect model states that increased support creates a positive environment that directly decreases adolescents’ depressive risk even when controlling for stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Evidence supporting this model is fairly substantial, although the majority of studies investigating this hypothesis have been cross-sectional (Turner, Turner, & Hale, 2014). Prospective studies also support the main effect model. For example, higher levels of perceived parental support predicted lower levels of depressive symptoms over 1 year in adolescent girls and boys (Ling, Yang, Zhang, Yi, & Yao, 2010 ). A second model for understanding the influence of parental support on adolescent depressive symptoms is the buffering hy­ pothesis, which states that higher levels of support can attenuate the negative effects of stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985). The buffering hypothesis is an interaction model, postulating a stress-by-support interaction predicting depressive symptoms. Studies based on this model are limited and have yielded equivocal results. Perceived family cohesion has been shown to be a buffer against depressive symptoms for girls, but not boys, experiencing achievement- and

ROMANTIC STRESS, SUPPORT, AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS

sexuality-related stress (Rubin et al., 1992). However, other stud­ ies have failed to find support for the buffering hypothesis. In a 6-month prospective study of Canadian adolescents, researchers found that perceived parental support showed a main effect but not buffering effects against dependent negative life events on depres­ sive symptoms (Auerbach, Bigda-Peyton, Eberhart, Webb, & Ho, 2011). In fact, Burton, Stice, and Seeley (2004) argued that pro­ spective studies to date have shown almost no support for the buffering model (cf. Ge, Lorenz, Conger, Elder, & Simons, 1994). These authors did not find evidence that perceived parental support was a buffer to general negative life events in a study of adolescent girls. However, the study followed a single-sex design and used clinical diagnoses rather than symptom measures; the latter may provide a more sensitive test, insofar as they are able to capture subclinical levels. Regardless of whether studies examine parental support as a main effect or buffer of stress on adolescent depressive symptoms, the extant literature on whether maternal or paternal support differs in its effects on depressive symptoms is very limited. Many studies use a global measure of parental support and do not distinguish maternal from paternal support (e.g., Ling et al., 2010; Stice, Ragan, & Randall, 2004). However, maternal and paternal support may differentially influence depressive symptoms. Indeed, one study reported that mother-child relationship quality predicted depressive symptoms for both genders, but father-child relation­ ship quality predicted only for boys (Branje, Hale, Frijns, & Meeus, 2010). However, another study reported that the associa­ tion between father-child relationship quality and depressive symptoms was evident for both boys and girls (Sheeber, Davis, Leve, Hops, & Tildesley, 2007). Much more research is needed on this topic. Despite the salience of the family environment during adoles­ cence, the extant literature on parental support and adolescent depressive symptoms is limited in four key ways. First, there is a paucity of specific tests of whether parental support buffers the effects of stress on adolescent depressive symptoms. Second, most research has used only self-reports of support. Objective behav­ ioral measures of support are less likely to confound adolescent traits that could influence perception of support. Third, few studies have tested for differences between maternal and paternal support. Determining the best prevention measures will require examina­ tions of the role of both parents. Finally, as mentioned above, most studies have not controlled for earlier depressive symptoms.

The Current Study It is clear that additional research is needed on the relationship between romantic stress, adolescent depressive symptoms, and parental support. Romantic stress has not previously been disen­ tangled from other stressors in examinations of buffering, yet this type of stress may be very prevalent and important on its own in adolescence. Despite the fact that the role of parents has been shown to be a vital component during adolescence, there is min­ imal research exploring parental stress buffering for adolescent depressive symptoms. In addition, there has been little attention to gender differences for both the adolescent and parent. Few studies have tested for gender differences in the effects of romantic stress on depressive symptoms, as well as differences between the effects of maternal and paternal support. Lastly, in terms of study design.

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the majority of extant research is cross-sectional, prospective stud­ ies had equivocal results, and very few studies controlled for prior depressive symptoms. Accordingly, we aimed to address these limitations with data from a community sample followed prospectively. We assessed depressive symptoms because a dimensional characterization is especially descriptive of adolescent depression and better embod­ ies individual variation (Hankin, Fraley, Lahey, & Waldman, 2005). We hypothesized that higher levels of romantic stress at age 15 would be associated with greater depressive symptoms concur­ rently at age 15 and prospectively at age 18 in both boys and girls, even when controlling for prior depressive symptoms. We pro­ posed that parental support (perceived maternal and paternal sup­ port, assessed at age 15, and maternal support, assessed behaviorally at age 13) would moderate the link between stress and depressive symptoms, such that high levels of romantic stress would predict higher depressive symptoms in adolescents with low but not high support. We hypothesized that support would have buffering effects for both boys and girls, but that the effects of support may vary by parent and child gender. Given the paucity of past research and ambiguous findings on the role of gender in the support domain, we did not specify specific hypotheses for gender. However, we note that past research has focused more on girls, and it is important to learn whether similar or different effects occur for boys.

Method Participants Participants were the adolescents and their parents in the Wis­ consin Study of Families and Work (Hyde, Klein, Essex, & Clark, 1995), a longitudinal study that began in 1991 with 570 pregnant women and their husbands/partners (78% were recruited from the Milwaukee metropolitan area and 22% from the Madison area). Reflecting the ethnic composition of Wisconsin, the majority of the adolescents were European American (90%), with smaller numbers of African American (4%), Asian American (2%), His­ panic (2%), and Native American (2%) participants. The original community sample had an average household income of $49,803, aligning with the national average at the time of $48,169 (U.S. Department of Labor, 1993). The data for this study were collected when participants were ages 11 years (M = 11.5 years, SD = 0.32), 13 years (M = 13.58 years, SD = 0.25), 15 years (M = 15.27 years, SD = 0.25), and 18 years (M = 18.5 years, SD = 0.25). These time points corre­ sponded to the summers after completion of fifth, seventh, ninth, and 12th grades. The sample preimputation included 375 partici­ pants (49% female) who provided data for at least one assessment at ages 13, 15, or 18. Every effort was made to retain all partici­ pants across adolescent assessments. Of these participants, 230 youth (61.0%) participated in all three assessments, 61 (16.2%) participated in two assessments, and 84 (22.4%) participated in one assessment. Depressive symptoms at age 11 were used to improve the multiple imputation model; relevant auxiliary vari­ ables can aid in arriving at the most accurate and precise estimates for missing participant scores (statistically, the missing at random assumption is made more likely; Schafer & Graham, 2002). Mul­ tiple imputation has been found to yield unbiased and efficient

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estimates, even for percentage of missingness up to 70-80% (e.g., Sinharay, Stem, & Russell, 2001). The sample for multiple impu­ tation analyses included 413 (52% female) participants who com­ pleted at least one assessment at ages 11, 13, 15, or 18.

Procedure The study was approved by the University of Wisconsin Insti­ tutional Review Board. Parents provided consent and children provided assent for their participation until age 18, when partici­ pants provided consent. At each wave of data collection, partici­ pants received monetary compensation. After families agreed to participate, a home visit was scheduled at ages 11, 13, and 15, and data were collected on a laptop computer provided by the researchers. Questionnaires were completed online at age 18 (with the exception of 42%, who preferred a paper copy returned by mail). Reporting sensitive information via computer yields more accurate responding (Turner et al., 1998). Adolescents completed a set of questionnaires, including measures that were not part of the present investigation. At age 15, these included self-report of maternal and paternal support, an index of stressful romantic life events, and a measure of depressive symptoms (also given at ages 11, 13, and 18). At age 13, the adolescents and their mothers also participated in a Math Homework Task (MHT; Hyde, Else-Quest, Alibali, Knuth, & Romberg, 2006) during the home visit. This task can be used to derive a behavioral index of mother-child relationship quality. During the 15-min MHT, mothers instructed their child on a set of challenging math problems. The MHT creates a somewhat stress­ ful situation and thus is appropriate for analyzing maternal support in response to stress.

Measures Romantic stress. Romantic stress was assessed at age 15 via selected items on the young adolescent version of the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale (Compas, Davis, Forsythe, & Wagner, 1987). Seven items measured romantic stress (e.g., arguments or problems with boyfriend or girlfriend). Adolescents indicated whether each event occurred in the past year and rated its desirability/undesirability on a scale from —4 (extremely undesirable) to + 4 (extremely desirable). Neutral events were indicated with a zero. To compute a total stress score, we scored all events marked in the neutral to desirable range as 0. The absolute values of all items marked in the undesirable range were summed to produce a total romantic stress score. Six of the seven items required involve­ ment in a romantic relationship during the past year. The seventh item (“not having a boyfriend or girlfriend”) was perceived neg­ atively by 28% of the adolescents who endorsed this item. Thus, even adolescents not in dating relationships in the past year expe­ rienced romantic stress. We included this item so that we could model romantic stress more globally to include those who were not dating. Depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms were measured at ages 11, 13, 15, and 18 with the Children’s Depression Inven­ tory (Kovacs, 1985). Questions assess cognitive (e.g., “I was sure that terrible things would happen to me”), behavioral (e.g., “Most days I did not feel like eating”), and affective (e.g., “I was sad all the time”) aspects of depression. For each item, of three statements

representing increasing symptom severity (scores of 0, 1, and 2), children choose the best self-description for the past 2 weeks. In the current study, given that assessments were conducted in sum­ mer, we omitted three items that referenced school. Participants’ scores on the remaining 24 items were averaged and then multi­ plied by 27 to create a total score that was comparable to the complete 27-item Children’s Depression Inventory. The scale is highly valid and reliable in adolescence (Craighead, Smucker, Craighead. & Ilardi, 1998). For the 24 included items, Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .83 to .87 at ages 13 to 18. Parental support. Adolescent self-report of support from mother and from father was assessed at age 15 with the Network of Relationships Inventory (Furman & Buhrmester, 1985). The adolescents rated their mother and father separately on 18 selected items (e.g., “How often does this person help you when you need to get something done?”) measuring support, criticism, satisfac­ tion, companionship, conflict, and reliable alliance. Each item was rated on a scale, from 1 (little or none) to 5 (the most). All 18 items were averaged to produce a measure of perceived maternal support and a measure of perceived paternal support. Cronbach’s alpha was .93 for both measures at age 15. At age 13, maternal support was measured behaviorally through videotaped interactions between mother and child on the MHT (Hyde et al., 2006). These interactions were coded based on mothers’ supportive presence, respect for child autonomy, hostility (reverse scored), valuing/warmth, and on the dyad’s affective mutuality/felt security (Owen et al., 2007; Owen, Klausli, & Mur­ rey, 2000). Two raters coded each of these constructs on a scale from 1 (very low) to 7 (very high). Interrater reliability was high, intraclass correlation coefficient (3, k) = .846, and instances in which the two coders disagreed were resolved through discussion. The five scores for each construct were combined to produce a total behavioral measure of maternal support. Although this mea­ sure was obtained prior to the romantic stress measure, this type of support has been found to be consistent across time (Barber, Stolz, & Olsen, 2005).

Data Analysis Multiple imputation (Rubin, 1987) was used to account for missing observations to avoid the bias associated with simple pairwise deletion. We ran 10 imputations and used pooled data in analyses. Packages mice and Hmisc in R were used for the impu­ tation. Following the suggestion of von Hippel (2009) and Enders, Baraldi, and Cham (2014), we centered predictors and created product terms prior to the imputation. We determined the correla­ tion between romantic stress and depressive symptoms, both con­ currently and prospectively. Hierarchical multiple regression was used, in which romantic stress, support, and the interaction be­ tween the two were entered as predictors of depressive symptoms. To determine moderation of the stress-depressive symptoms as­ sociation by parental support, we evaluated the Support X Roman­ tic Stress interaction. Regressions were carried out separately for perceived maternal support, perceived paternal support, and the behavioral measure of maternal support. Both boys and girls were included in each model. We then ran these regressions in a separate model with depressive symptoms at age 13 as a covariate. Finally, we added adolescent gender to each model and evaluated the two-way interactions between adolescent gender and romantic

ROMANTIC STRESS, SUPPORT, AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS

stress and the three-way interactions between gender, romantic stress, and each type of support.

Results

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trolling for earlier depressive symptoms), so multiple regression findings for behavioral support are not described further.

Regression Analyses

Descriptive Analyses Means and standard deviations for all measures are presented in Table 1 (preimputation; imputation estimates were highly similar). The means for depressive symptoms were consistent with a com­ munity adolescent sample (e.g., Craighead et al., 1998), and the range included individuals who scored above a rough cutpoint (19) for clinical levels of depressive symptoms in community samples (Kovacs, 2001). Perceived maternal and paternal support averages were close to the midpoint of the scale. Of 144 total girls, 139 endorsed at least one romantic stressor in the past year; 125 boys (of 127 total) endorsed at least one romantic stressor in the past year. Of these participants, 80 girls and 63 boys endorsed at least one romantic stressor as undesirable. In terms of gender differ­ ences, girls had significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms at ages 13, /(370) = 2.59, p = .01, and 15, r(266) = 2.70, p = .007. Unexpectedly at age 18, depressive symptoms did not differ significantly by gender. In addition, girls had higher levels of romantic stress than boys at age 15 at a marginally significant level, t(261) = 1.89, p = .059. None of the parental support measures differed significantly by adolescent gender, but adoles­ cents perceived significantly more support from mothers than fathers, f(267) = 20.70, p < .001. Bivariate correlations for all variables are shown in Table 1 (preimputation). As predicted, a significant correlation emerged between age 15 romantic stress and depressive symptoms at ages 15 and 18 for both genders. Significant correlations were in the predicted direction for both genders. The behavioral measure of maternal support did not correlate with the self-report measures of support; however, it significantly correlated with girls’ age 13 and 18 depressive symptoms and boys’ age 18 depressive symptoms. Behavioral support produced only one significant result in the multiple regressions (predicting age 18 depressive symptoms, con­

The results of the multiple regressions can be found in Table 2, which displays the final step in each of the hierarchical regression models using multiple imputation. As hypothesized, for partici­ pants experiencing average levels of maternal and paternal sup­ port, romantic stress at age 15 significantly predicted depressive symptoms at ages 15 and 18, even controlling for age 13 depres­ sive symptoms (with the exception of a marginally significant simple main effect for age 18 depressive symptoms, controlling for prior depressive symptoms). Main effects in models without in­ cluding the interaction term were highly similar. The left columns of Table 2 show the results using the selfreport measure of maternal support. Consistent with prior research, simple main effects emerged for maternal support, such that higher levels of maternal support were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms at both ages 15 and 18 for participants experiencing average levels of romantic stress, even when control­ ling for age 13 depressive symptoms. However, the simple main effect predicting depressive symptoms at age 15 was qualified by a significant interaction between romantic stress and self-report of maternal support, controlling for earlier levels of depressive symp­ toms. The interaction is graphed in Figure 1. For adolescents with low perceived maternal support ( -1 SD\ 3.03), there was an effect of romantic stress on depressive symptoms (p < .001), such that for every 1-unit increase in romantic stress, depressive symptoms increased by 0.70 units. For those with high perceived maternal support (+1 SD\ 4.45), the effect of romantic stress on depressive symptoms was nonsignificant, B = 0.16, p = .39. That is, high levels of maternal support did indeed buffer against the effects of romantic stress on depressive symptoms. The total model ac­ counted for 43% of the variance in age 15 depressive symptoms, and the interaction accounted for 1% of the variance. Maternal support did not moderate the relationship between romantic stress and age 18 depressive symptoms.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations Variable 1. Behavioral maternal support (age 13) 2. SR maternal support (age 15) 3. SR paternal support (age 15) 4. Romantic stress (age 15) 5. Depressive symptoms (age 13) 6. Depressive symptoms (age 15) 7. Depressive symptoms (age 18) Mean (SD) Overall Minimum Maximum Girls Boys Gender difference (d)

1

2 .131

3 -.037 .345**

.026 .039 -.106 -.158* -.074 -.186*

.315** -.271** -.317** -.510** -.333**

-.050 -.176* -.158 -.219*

5.62 (0.80) 2.80 7.00 5.66 (0.78) 5.59 (0.88) 0.084

3.73 (0.72) 1.00 5.00 3.77 (0.74) 3.71 (0.68) 0.084

2.79 (0.55) 1.06 4.44 2.77 (0.74) 2.83 (0.74) 0.081

4 .009 -.030 -.043 .315** .411** .200* 1.48(1.98) 0.00 9.00 1.67(2.14) 1.25 (1.78) 0.277+

5 -.096 -.276** -.116 .286**

6 -.082 -.314** -.088 .217* .493**

.621** .275**

.364**

4.32 (4.80) 0.00 29.25 4.93 (5.22) 3.66 (4.23) 0.267**

5.02 (5.57) 0.00 34.88 5.65 (5.89) 3.91 (5.02) 0.318**

7 -.200* -.324** -.159 .228* .336** .389** 5.80 (6.06) 0.00 30.38 5.99 (5.76) 5.48 (6.43) 0.084

Note. The above data are preimputation. The imputation produced highly similar estimates. Correlations are above the diagonal for boys and below the diagonal for girls. SR = self-report. + p = .059. ’ p < .05. **p < .01.

ANDERSON. SALK, AND HYDE

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Table 2 Multiple Regression With Romantic Stress, Support, and Their Interaction Predicting Depressive Symptoms at Ages 15 and 18 Maternal support (age 15) Variable

Model 1 (B)

Model 2 (B)

Paternal support (age 15) Model 1 (B)

Model 2 (B)

Age 15 depressive symptoms Predictor Depressive symptoms (age 13) Romantic stress (age 15) Support Romantic Stress X Support R2

0.689*** -2.598*** 0.799*** .285

0.489*** 0.440** -1.895*** -0.380* .433

0.901*** -1.171* 0.357 .129

0.594*"' 0.519**' -0.423 0.507+H .376

Age 18 depressive symptoms Predictor Depressive symptoms (age 13) Romantic stress (age 15) Support Romantic Stress X Support R2

0.517** -2.464*** 0.090 .126

0.268* 0.378+++ -2.078*** 0.323 .167

0.618*** -1.609* 0.066 .069

0.295** 0.426* -1 .2 3 7 “ 0.147 .122

Note. Model 1 predictors: age 15 romantic stress, support, Romantic Stress X Support interaction. Model 2 predictors: age 13 depressive symptoms, age 15 romantic stress, support, Romantic Stress X Support interaction. The interactions with gender were not significant and were omitted from these models. + p = .06. + > = .07. +++ p = .08. > = .1. > < . 0 5 . * > £ . 0 1 . * * > £ .0 0 1 .

The right columns of Table 2 report the results for the self-report measure of paternal support. Self-report of paternal support sig­ nificantly predicted age 15 and 18 depressive symptoms in the hypothesized direction, although this simple main effect became marginal (age 18) and nonsignificant (age 15) after controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms. Main effects in models without including the interaction term were highly similar. Paternal support interacted with romantic stress to predict depressive symptoms at age 15 at a trend level, after controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms; however, the pattern of this interaction was not sup­ portive of buffering. This model accounted for 37% of the variance in age 15 depressive symptoms. No other significant interactions emerged.

Moderation by Gender The relationship between romantic stress and depressive symp­ toms (at ages 15 and 18) did not differ by adolescent gender (ps > .09). To determine whether the moderating capacity of support on romantic stress differs depending on the gender of the adolescent, we analyzed the three-way interactions between adolescent gender, romantic stress, and each type of support. No significant three-way interactions emerged (ps > .15), indicating that the romantic stress-depressive symptom relationship is similarly affected by parental support for both boys and girls. Especially relevant to the present study’s findings, the buffering effect of perceived maternal support on romantic stress for age 15 depressive symptoms was similar for boys and girls (B = 0.097, p — .812).

Discussion

8 .0

7.5 7.0

6.0 ©

5.5

%

5.0

§

4.5

% t

A0

u

3.0

■Low maternal support

3.5

High maternal support

1 2

2.0

a

1.5

*

1.0

H

0.5 0 .0

Low romantic stress

High romantic stress

Figure 1. Interaction between romantic stress and maternal support in predicting depressive symptoms at age 15, graphed at high (+1 SD) and low ( - 1 SD) levels of romantic stress and support, controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms.

The current study demonstrates that stress specific to romantic relationships is linked to higher levels of depressive symptoms in adolescence, and that this relationship is moderated by maternal support, for both boys and girls. As hypothesized, romantic stress at age 15 predicted higher depressive symptoms both concurrently and prospectively (3 years later), even controlling for prior depres­ sive symptoms. This finding provides valuable prospective evi­ dence that romantic stress predicts depressive symptoms among adolescent girls and boys. Furthermore, higher levels of maternal and paternal support at age 15 predicted lower depressive symp­ toms at ages 15 and 18. Most important for present purposes, maternal support moderated the relationship between age 15 ro­ mantic stress and depressive symptoms at age 15, controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms. This was a conservative test of the buffering hypothesis, indicating that maternal support has buffer­ ing capabilities above and beyond the known association with earlier and current depressive symptoms. Although paternal sup-

ROMANTIC STRESS, SUPPORT, AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS

port did not buffer the negative effects of romantic stress, it was still a protective factor for depressive symptoms in adolescent girls and boys. This result is informative, given the lack of prior study on paternal support.

Romantic Stress This is the first study to find that perceived romantic stress predicts depressive symptoms both concurrently and prospectively (3 years later) in adolescent girls and boys. This effect was robust even when controlling for prior levels of depressive symptoms. These results add meaningful nuances to the extant literature. Examinations of romantic involvement reveal that adolescents engaged in steady dating report higher levels of and greater in­ creases in depressive symptoms than those who are not engaged romantically (Joyner & Udry, 2000; Quatman et ah, 2001), effects that the current study finds may be due to undesirable stresses (e.g., problems with boyfriend/girlfriend) in those relationships.

Parental Support The present study provided evidence for a direct relationship between parental support and depressive symptoms, which adds to the literature corroborating the main effect model of support. The current findings support research showing that familial support has an inverse relationship with adolescent depressive symptoms (e.g., Branje et al., 2010; Stice et ah, 2004) and document the positive effects of both maternal and paternal support. Given our prospec­ tive design, we were able to examine the direct prospective effects of maternal and paternal support on depressive symptoms 3 years later and show that perceived support from both parents does have long-term implications. Maternal support as a buffer to stress. The results of this study also provide a clearer view of the moderating capacity of maternal support in adolescence. Maternal support buffered the negative impact of romantic stress at age 15 similarly for boys and girls. This result contradicts that of Auerbach et ah (2011), who found that parental support did not moderate the effect of stress on depressive symptoms. This disparity could be due to the fact that the Auerbach study used maternal support averaged with paternal support, and it was only maternal support that buffered romantic stress in the current study. The buffering capacity of maternal support lends support to the stress and coping model of romantic relationship stress, outlined by Larson and colleagues (1999). On their own, adolescents may not have the coping skills and resources necessary to handle the challenges inherent in romantic relationships. However, the pres­ ent study showed that perceiving support from mothers may ame­ liorate some of the negative consequences of romantic stress. In fact, the pattern of the interaction suggests that those with higher levels of maternal support did not display the higher levels of depressive symptoms that are generally associated with higher levels of romantic stress. Thus, maternal support may serve as an important resource to help adolescents handle romantic challenges. We were also able to paint a more nuanced picture of when buffering by maternal support is likely to occur. Maternal support did not buffer the negative impact of romantic stress on age 18 depressive symptoms. It is still unclear why maternal support has usually failed to show a buffering effect prospectively. It may be

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that perceived support is not consistent across time during the later stages of adolescence; support at age 15 may not signal similar levels of perceived support 3 years later. It is also possible that younger and middle adolescents benefit from maternal support because of the nature of stresses and the importance of the parentchild relationship during this developmental stage. Maternal sup­ port at younger ages may not have as vital a role in buffering stress prospectively (e.g., 3 years later) because of the growing indepen­ dence of the adolescent and the differential quality of the stressors (Helsen, Vollebergh, & Meeus, 2000). Finally, romantic stress is likely to be a dynamic construct that waxes and wanes as adoles­ cents enter and exit romantic relationships. It is perhaps not sur­ prising that maternal support at age 15 does not have prospective buffering effects on a construct that is likely to change by the time the adolescent is 18. More nuanced investigations of the way support interacts with stressors at different ages are needed to elucidate these inconsistencies. It is also important to reiterate that moderation by support remained significant in predicting depres­ sive symptoms while holding earlier depressive symptom levels constant. Thus, the concurrent buffering capacity of maternal sup­ port on depressive symptoms remained even after controlling for the highly influential effect of earlier depressive symptoms. Influence of paternal support. The present study found that paternal support did not significantly moderate the stressdepressive symptoms relationship, despite significant simple main effects not controlling for earlier depressive symptoms. These results suggest that maternal and paternal support are both protec­ tive factors for adolescent depression but in different ways. It may be that maternal support, and not paternal support, is a buffer to romantic stress because mothers tend to have more intimate knowledge about their adolescent children than fathers (Waizenhofer, Buchanan, & Jackson-Newsom, 2004). Although we did not measure adolescents’ perceived support specifically in romantic relationships, mothers may be more supportive than fathers in this domain given their greater knowledge about the adolescent. Pater­ nal support may have buffering capacities in different domains of stressors or for adolescents who are especially close with their fathers. Future research using measures more sensitive to paternal support may help elucidate the specific role that the father-child relationship plays with regard to depressive symptoms and stress in adolescence. Furthermore, the fact that maternal support, but not paternal support, was a buffer to stress in this study is especially important for another reason. Some have argued that adolescents who are likely to perceive higher levels of support may be more optimistic and thus also more likely to report lower levels of depressive symptoms, regardless of actual level. That is, the relationship between support and depressive symptoms is accounted for by a third variable (adolescent’s optimism or positive affect) and there­ fore is spurious. However, the fact that those who report higher levels of paternal support do not show the effect of buffering lends support to the notion that it is maternal support that buffers the negative consequences of romantic stress, whereas paternal sup­ port has more of a direct protective effect. Influence of behavioral support. Finally, the behavioral measure of maternal support at age 13 was not related to age 15 perceived maternal support in this sample. This may be a limita­ tion; however, behavioral support frequently does not correlate with perceived support (Uchino, 2009). Moreover, the behavioral

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support measure did correlate with age 15 and age 18 depressive symptoms; however, it was not a robust predictor of depressive symptoms with other variables in the model. It may be that the support an adolescent perceives is what matters in protecting against depressive symptoms. Studies with more sensitive behav­ ioral support measures may aid in elucidating these results.

Limitations, Strengths, and Future Directions Some limitations to the current investigation must be discussed. The self-report support measures did not specifically assess paren­ tal support in the area of romantic stress, and it is possible that parents may offer differential levels of support in different do­ mains of the adolescent’s life. It may be that general maternal support acts as a buffer or that support specifically in the area of romantic stress acts as a buffer of depressive symptoms. In addi­ tion, this study used a measure of depressive symptoms as the outcome variable, rather than clinical major depression. The link between romantic stress, support, and depressive symptoms may depend on the way in which this outcome construct is measured. It would be beneficial to establish whether these results hold for diagnostic measures of depression as well. Finally, although a diverse sample was used, participants were all recruited in the state of Wisconsin. Multiethnic and cross-cultural investigations of this relationship would increase the generalizability of these findings. This study also has notable strengths. First, by including both girls and boys, we learned that both boys and girls benefit similarly from maternal support, which is a notable addition to the literature. By using a more extended prospective design, this study provides prospective evidence that changes in depressive symptoms follow romantic stress and experiences of support. The use of a romantic stress measure that incorporates the adolescent’s appraisal of a variety of romantic-relationship-based stressors is also new. Fur­ thermore, measuring support in multiple ways allowed for a more generalizable examination of support. Finally, the present results reveal a more nuanced description of the influence of support as it varies by parent gender. Research on paternal support is slim. This investigation found that for both genders it is maternal, not pater­ nal, support that has a clear buffering effect on romantic distress. However, both maternal and paternal support showed simple main effects, in which higher levels of support were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms. This has implications for the development of interventions that can most advantageously use support to benefit adolescents at risk for depressive symptoms and the consequences that may follow from those symptoms. Future examinations should look for mediators to the romantic stress-depressive symptom relationship. For example, Joyner and Udry (2000) found that changes in relationships with parents for girls and declines in academic achievement for boys were mech­ anisms for depressive symptom increases in dating adolescents. Other factors, such as jealousy from peers and objectified body consciousness, may also play a mediating role for boys or girls. It is also possible that romantic stress in early or mid-adolescence predicts romantic stress in later stages of adolescence, which leads to elevated levels of depressive symptoms then. Finally, future research should further examine the romantic stress-depressive symptom relationship for adolescents who perceive undesirable stress from not having a boyfriend or girlfriend. These adolescents may represent an understudied group that perceives stress in the

romantic realm, but does not experience the stressors that only occur within dating relationships themselves.

Conclusion From the present study, it is clear that romantic stress is a specific domain of interpersonal stress that has implications for current and future adolescent depressive symptoms. Particular attention needs to be paid to this area of stress, as adolescence is a period that marks the beginning of dating and increases in depressive symptoms for many individuals. Fortunately, maternal support moderated the relationship between romantic stress and depressive symptoms, acting as a buffer to protect adolescents from some of the harmful implications of stress. With these and other findings, researchers can move toward a more comprehen­ sive understanding of the causes and etiology of adolescent de­ pressive symptoms, with the goal of developing more effective treatment and prevention measures. The findings suggest that interventions to increase support from mothers and fathers may help reduce depressive symptoms in adolescence, and that moth­ ers’ support, in particular, may be effective in reducing the impact of romantic stress on depressive symptoms for adolescents.

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Received January 7, 2015 Revision received March 27, 2015 Accepted March 31, 2015 ■

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