JOURNAL
GABE
OF AIjOLESCENT
HEALTH
1991;12:515-518
KRUKS
Data on homeless and runaway youth were collected through a consortium of agencies, including one that provides services to a high percentage of gay- lesbian-, and bisexual-identified youth. Gay and bisexual male youth appear to be at increased risk for both homelessness and suicide. Gay male street youth may have been forced out of their homes because of their sexual orientation, and are more likely to engage in survival sex (prostitution) than their nongay male counterparts. In one sample, 53% of gay-identified street youths had attempted suicide, compared with 32% of a cohort of street youths that included both gay and nongay youths. Prejudice, discrimination, and homophobia are still rampant in society today; these factors contribute to a multiplicity of problems that face the young person who is gay. KEY WORDS:
Adolescence Gay youth Homeless youth Prostitution The Youth Services Department (YSD) of the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Community Service Center (GLCSC or The Center) has been providing services to street youth for over 16 years, with a residerltial component for the last 7 years. Services include street outreach, drop -in assistance and referral, bnd comprehensive residential life stabilization. Tht-rprogram provide3 ::ervices to both gay- and nongay- identified youth, a%Gloughannually approx-
From the Gay and Lesbian Community Services Confer, Los Angeles, California. Address reprint requests to: Gabc Kruks, Director of Youfh Services, Guy and Lesbian Community Center, 1213 N. Highland Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90038. Manuscript accepted November 20, 2990.
imately 65-70% are self-identified as being gay. On the average, 88% are males, 83% are aged 18-23 years, and 17% are aged 13-17. The YSD collects basic data on approximately 2,500 individuals annually, with about 800 subject to detailed interviews with an intake case worker. Most of these 800 youths will be case managed on an ongoing basis, the remainder receiving only material assistance such as clothing, bus vouchers, and L&d. Referrals to other resources (detoxification and medical) are also provided . These intake data provrde information on such issues as history of physical/sexual abuse, living situation prior to leaving home, reasons for leaving home, length of time on the streets, history of substance abuse, suicide attempts, and survival sex. Ongoing case management allows for gradual addition and correction of data as staff builds trust and an ongoing relationship with each youth. Areas in particular that are under-reported during intake are involvement in survival sex and sexual abuse. Although in Los Angeles the ratio of male to female homeless youth is approximately 55% male/ 45% female, voung lesbians who are strt+et youths Z+TP hard to idsl;.~fy in the same numbers as young -pi. $oth males and females ar-e often unlikely to *,.i. disclose their sexual orientation and are thus probably very under-reported. However, of 620 street youths reo living medical services at Children’s Hospital Los /ngeles, 68 (11%) identified themselves as being gay or bisexual at initial intake. Of this sample, 54 (79%) were male, and 14 (21%) were female. The small. percentage of lesbian-identified youths may be due in part to the general greater level of invisibility on the part of lesbians compared to gay men. Much of the research on sexual orientation has ter,c ed to identify more gay men than lesbians. However, this may reflect patterns of SOCialiZatiOn
0 Society for Adolescent Medicine, 1991 Published by Elsrvier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 655 Avenue of the Americas. New York, NY II ,010
515 lose139xl91/$3.§0
516
JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH Vol. 12, No. 7
KRLTKS
and law enforcement officials. In other words, in spite of improved legal standing in some states, homophobia is a very real problem throughout this nation. For young people growing up gay or lesbian, the direct and indirect impact of homophobia can be devastating. It may be aimed directly against them if they are self-identified or perceived as being lesbian/gay, or it might be the experience of seeing and hearing others being victimized. Just having to listen to the ridiculing jokes or the usual negative stereotypes portrayed by the media takes an incredible toll on adolescent self-esteem. Over 80% of the gay street youth receiving services at the YSD report one or more of these factors being a primary reason for leaving home and being on the streets. It is clear that the effects of homophobia and prejudice are one of the main reasons that gay youths seem to end up on the streets in such disproportionate numbers. Large urban areas with reputations for large and somewhat accepted lesbian/gay populations seem to be the most popular areas that attract gay/lesbian youths who have been expelled from their homes, or who are fleeing homophobia. These cities are places where gay youth believe they will find acceptance and nurturing, but instead they tend to experience exploitation and homelessness. It also seems that these same cities are favorites for other youths to run to as well, so it is difficult to estimate if gay youths are over-represented there. Thus, it is impossible to say if the 25% to 40% figures in any way represent the number of gay street youth nationally (Table 23.
which still tends to cast women as nonsexual beings, thus resulting in women tending to iden* their homosexual feelings less and often later than men.
ti 0~
society,
Identification and Survival Issues There are a number of differences between gay street youth and their nongay counterparts. Contrary to the popular belief that most males involved in prostitution/survival sex are not gay but are just having gay sex for the money, data collected by Children’s Hospital Los Angeles (CHLA) (unpublished observations) show that 72% of males involved in survival sex identify themselves as gay or bisexual (Table 1). A few cities with large homeless youth populations have attempted to ascertain the percentage of street youth who are in fact gay. This is extremely difficult to do with any accuracy. Because of the stigma and fear of being identified as gay, youths in general are very reluctant to self-identify as gay; street youths are no exception, regardless of the survival behaviors they adopt (1,2). However, agencies working with street youth in several cities have made some rough estimates. For example, in Los Angeles an estimated 25-35% of street youths are gay (3) and in Seattle an estimated 40% (4). If one accepts Kinsey reports of approximately 10% of the population being gay, these estimates, if accurate, clearly indicate an extreme over-representation of gays in street youth populations. The lesbian and gay community, over the last 20 years, has made many important strides in its struggle for civil liberties. However, homosexuality is still illegal in 26 states, and only two of them have basic antidiscrimination laws on the books. The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (NGLTF) has reported a steady increase in violent hate crimes against gays and lesbians over the last 5 years (5). In spite of the documented increase in these crimes, it is common knowledge that there is still a gross under-reporting of hate crime on the part of both gays and lesbians
Suicide Nearly all street youths have multiple problems (including substance abuse), often resulting from abuse and neglect (6). Gay street youths also typically share many of these same problems. However, they usually have to face an additional set of problems
Table 1. Comparisonof Youths Involved in SurvivalSex (n = 153)to Gay and BisexualYouths (n = 68) Involved in SurvivalSex; and Comparisonof Cay/BisexualYouths Involved (n = 43) to Gay/BisexualYouths Not Involved in Survival Sex
Demographics Male Female
All youths involved n %
Gay/Bisexual youths involved n %
Gay/Bisexual youths Involved Not involved n % n %
49
32
35
72
35
65
19
35
104
68
8
8
8
57
6
43
November1991
GAY/LESBIAN STREETYOUTHISSUES
517
Table 2. Compkison of Origin of All Youths Involved in Survival Sex, All Youths Not Involved in Survival Sex, and All Gay-Identified Youths Allyouths involved Origin of youths
Local Los Angeles County California Other state Other country
n
%
14 47 31 58 3
9 31 20 38 2
stemming from the rejection and low self-esteem experienced because of their sexual orientation. A recent report from the Department of Health and Human Services (7) cited a number of studies showing gay youths attempting suicide ,;tt from three to six times the rate of their nongay counterparts. Most of these studies did not focus on street youth populations specificallcI $ut some did include them as a part of the sample “;3ne study examined the differences between gay youths who had attempted suicide and those who had not (8). For the Lormer, researchers found significant correlations between suicide attempts and rejection by social supports, awareness of being gay and first sexual experience at an earlier age, attempts to deal with the comingout process at an earlier age, and earlier ongoing substance abuse. In looking at this suicide study and the CHLA data, some similarities are immediately obvious. When comparing age of first sexual experience between all street youths in the CHLA sample and the gay-identified street youths, only 13% (n = 79) of all street youths had their first sexual expericEcr between the ages of 10 and 14 years. For thi ga;* identified street youths, this figure was 55% (n 2 34). In the Schneider study (8), gay youths who had attempted suicide were far more likely to have had their first sexual experiences before age 14 years than gay youths who had not attempted suicide. According to data from 53 gay-identified street youths collected as a part of the Schneider study (but not included in the published article), a full 53% of gay street youths served by the YSD had attempted suicide & least once, and 47% more than once (un)a~jJi 2. -,5 observations). The CHLA &;a”: show an overall suici,.k attempt rate of 3290 6,sI ali street youths that inkshides 11% gay-identified youths. ‘This rate suggests that, as with the general youth population, gaj’ street youth are at increased risk for attempting suicide compared to their nongay counterparts. This is an area that warrants further investigation in the future.
All youths not involved n % 84 192 56 112 23
18 41 12 24 5
All gay/bisexual youths
n
%
12 12 8 30 2
19 1F 12 47 3
Need for Support The internalization of homophobia and the negative stereotypes about gays are powerful forces for gay street youths to overcome. The psychological distress and damage that young people can experience growing up gay in this society should not be underestimated. At the very time that youth are struggling to find identity and acceptance, they are forced to deal with being perceived as bad, sick, wrong, or even evil-regardless of what the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-III might say. Many gay street youths literally feel that, as gays, being a prostitute or street person is all they are good for. A life where they are used and badly treated fits their self-image. It is impossible to help gay street youths really stabilize their lives without dealing with these fundamental orientation issues. For this reason. health care professionals working with gay street youth must be able both to understand and to deal positively with sexual orientation issues. Whereas it is not necessarily essential that profes(7 nals themselves be gay to provide appropriate help, there is a certain understanding that is difficult for a nongay person COachieve. There is a d;;ree of isolation that the gay youth or adult experienrcs that is by and large unique. A person of color, a woman, or the adherent of a particular religion may encounter many kinds of prejudice and discrimination. The fundamental difference is that in these situations the person can, at least, get support from family or like-minded peers. The gay youth is usually totally alone ,.ith his or her gay/lesbian feelings, whether it is a secret or not, 2nd is unable to get support from an:Vqj-u?. It 9.4often on the streets that many of these gay youths find, for the first time, peer acceptance and support. This “family” of the streets can make the road to stabilizatiogl extremely difficult. Many of these youths feel so bonded to their street family that they may have little desire to leave street life.
518
KRUKS
Gay male street youths, as well as nonlesbian fern& street youths, seem to be particularly vulnerable for emotional as well as sexual exploitation. In many ways gay male and nonlesbian female street youths develop very similar patterns of survival behavior, and frequently may form close bonds and hang out together. The nongay male street youths engaging in survival sex obviously are looking for little beyond material sustenance from their “clients,” who are only very rarely female. But the youth8 (male and female) who seek love from males frequently end up in what is know11 as “sugar daddy” relationships. These relationships are often extremely damaging for a number of reasons. The “sugar daddy” usually presents himseIf to the youth in a loving caretaker role. For a street youth who has a past history of rejection and/or abuse, the promise of being loved and cared for is a compelling one. However, these relationships in many ways have similar dynamics to incest. Many gay youths coming to the YSD for services have long histories of being involved in a succession of “sugar daddy” relationships. Each of these is a cycle of falling in love, relieving that life will now be wonderful forever and that this older adult truly loves the young person, discovering th:_t in fact it is just sex that the adult wants, feeling the impect of one more betrayal, and ending up on the streets
JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH Vol. 12, No. 7
again. The whole cycle lasts an average of l-2 months, and the youth often becomes extremely suicidal at the end of each cycle. While to date we have not been able b collect and analyze detailed data on these patterns of survival behavior, this is another area that warrants ftlrther investigation.
References 1. Martin AD, Hetrick ES. The stigmatization of the gay and lesbian adolescent. New York, Hayworth, 1988. 2. Martin AD, Hetrick ES. Learning to hide: The socialization of the gay adolescent. University of Chicago, Annals of the American Society for Adolescent Psychiatry, 1982. 3. Los Angeles County Task Force on Runaway and Homeless Youth, Report and Recommendations of the Task Force, Los Angeles: 1988. 4. Seattle Commission on Children and Youth. Report on Gay and Lesbian Youth in Seattle. City of Seattle: Department of Human Resources, 1988. 5. National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Report on Hate Crimes Statistics for 1990. Washington, D.C.: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, 1991. 6. Yates GL, MacKenzie R, Pennbridge J. A risk profile comparison of runaway and non-runaway youth. Am J Public Health 1988;78:820-1. 7. Gibson P. Report of the Secretarv’s Task Force on Youth Suicide. Washington, DC.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, 1,989. 8. Schneider SG, et al. Suicidal behavior in adolescent and young adult gay men. American Association of Suicidologi: Journal of Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 1989;4.
GABE
OF AIjOLESCENT
HEALTH
1991;12:515-518
KRUKS
Data on homeless and runaway youth were collected through a consortium of agencies, including one that provides services to a high percentage of gay- lesbian-, and bisexual-identified youth. Gay and bisexual male youth appear to be at increased risk for both homelessness and suicide. Gay male street youth may have been forced out of their homes because of their sexual orientation, and are more likely to engage in survival sex (prostitution) than their nongay male counterparts. In one sample, 53% of gay-identified street youths had attempted suicide, compared with 32% of a cohort of street youths that included both gay and nongay youths. Prejudice, discrimination, and homophobia are still rampant in society today; these factors contribute to a multiplicity of problems that face the young person who is gay. KEY WORDS:
Adolescence Gay youth Homeless youth Prostitution The Youth Services Department (YSD) of the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Community Service Center (GLCSC or The Center) has been providing services to street youth for over 16 years, with a residerltial component for the last 7 years. Services include street outreach, drop -in assistance and referral, bnd comprehensive residential life stabilization. Tht-rprogram provide3 ::ervices to both gay- and nongay- identified youth, a%Gloughannually approx-
From the Gay and Lesbian Community Services Confer, Los Angeles, California. Address reprint requests to: Gabc Kruks, Director of Youfh Services, Guy and Lesbian Community Center, 1213 N. Highland Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90038. Manuscript accepted November 20, 2990.
imately 65-70% are self-identified as being gay. On the average, 88% are males, 83% are aged 18-23 years, and 17% are aged 13-17. The YSD collects basic data on approximately 2,500 individuals annually, with about 800 subject to detailed interviews with an intake case worker. Most of these 800 youths will be case managed on an ongoing basis, the remainder receiving only material assistance such as clothing, bus vouchers, and L&d. Referrals to other resources (detoxification and medical) are also provided . These intake data provrde information on such issues as history of physical/sexual abuse, living situation prior to leaving home, reasons for leaving home, length of time on the streets, history of substance abuse, suicide attempts, and survival sex. Ongoing case management allows for gradual addition and correction of data as staff builds trust and an ongoing relationship with each youth. Areas in particular that are under-reported during intake are involvement in survival sex and sexual abuse. Although in Los Angeles the ratio of male to female homeless youth is approximately 55% male/ 45% female, voung lesbians who are strt+et youths Z+TP hard to idsl;.~fy in the same numbers as young -pi. $oth males and females ar-e often unlikely to *,.i. disclose their sexual orientation and are thus probably very under-reported. However, of 620 street youths reo living medical services at Children’s Hospital Los /ngeles, 68 (11%) identified themselves as being gay or bisexual at initial intake. Of this sample, 54 (79%) were male, and 14 (21%) were female. The small. percentage of lesbian-identified youths may be due in part to the general greater level of invisibility on the part of lesbians compared to gay men. Much of the research on sexual orientation has ter,c ed to identify more gay men than lesbians. However, this may reflect patterns of SOCialiZatiOn
0 Society for Adolescent Medicine, 1991 Published by Elsrvier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 655 Avenue of the Americas. New York, NY II ,010
515 lose139xl91/$3.§0
516
JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH Vol. 12, No. 7
KRLTKS
and law enforcement officials. In other words, in spite of improved legal standing in some states, homophobia is a very real problem throughout this nation. For young people growing up gay or lesbian, the direct and indirect impact of homophobia can be devastating. It may be aimed directly against them if they are self-identified or perceived as being lesbian/gay, or it might be the experience of seeing and hearing others being victimized. Just having to listen to the ridiculing jokes or the usual negative stereotypes portrayed by the media takes an incredible toll on adolescent self-esteem. Over 80% of the gay street youth receiving services at the YSD report one or more of these factors being a primary reason for leaving home and being on the streets. It is clear that the effects of homophobia and prejudice are one of the main reasons that gay youths seem to end up on the streets in such disproportionate numbers. Large urban areas with reputations for large and somewhat accepted lesbian/gay populations seem to be the most popular areas that attract gay/lesbian youths who have been expelled from their homes, or who are fleeing homophobia. These cities are places where gay youth believe they will find acceptance and nurturing, but instead they tend to experience exploitation and homelessness. It also seems that these same cities are favorites for other youths to run to as well, so it is difficult to estimate if gay youths are over-represented there. Thus, it is impossible to say if the 25% to 40% figures in any way represent the number of gay street youth nationally (Table 23.
which still tends to cast women as nonsexual beings, thus resulting in women tending to iden* their homosexual feelings less and often later than men.
ti 0~
society,
Identification and Survival Issues There are a number of differences between gay street youth and their nongay counterparts. Contrary to the popular belief that most males involved in prostitution/survival sex are not gay but are just having gay sex for the money, data collected by Children’s Hospital Los Angeles (CHLA) (unpublished observations) show that 72% of males involved in survival sex identify themselves as gay or bisexual (Table 1). A few cities with large homeless youth populations have attempted to ascertain the percentage of street youth who are in fact gay. This is extremely difficult to do with any accuracy. Because of the stigma and fear of being identified as gay, youths in general are very reluctant to self-identify as gay; street youths are no exception, regardless of the survival behaviors they adopt (1,2). However, agencies working with street youth in several cities have made some rough estimates. For example, in Los Angeles an estimated 25-35% of street youths are gay (3) and in Seattle an estimated 40% (4). If one accepts Kinsey reports of approximately 10% of the population being gay, these estimates, if accurate, clearly indicate an extreme over-representation of gays in street youth populations. The lesbian and gay community, over the last 20 years, has made many important strides in its struggle for civil liberties. However, homosexuality is still illegal in 26 states, and only two of them have basic antidiscrimination laws on the books. The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (NGLTF) has reported a steady increase in violent hate crimes against gays and lesbians over the last 5 years (5). In spite of the documented increase in these crimes, it is common knowledge that there is still a gross under-reporting of hate crime on the part of both gays and lesbians
Suicide Nearly all street youths have multiple problems (including substance abuse), often resulting from abuse and neglect (6). Gay street youths also typically share many of these same problems. However, they usually have to face an additional set of problems
Table 1. Comparisonof Youths Involved in SurvivalSex (n = 153)to Gay and BisexualYouths (n = 68) Involved in SurvivalSex; and Comparisonof Cay/BisexualYouths Involved (n = 43) to Gay/BisexualYouths Not Involved in Survival Sex
Demographics Male Female
All youths involved n %
Gay/Bisexual youths involved n %
Gay/Bisexual youths Involved Not involved n % n %
49
32
35
72
35
65
19
35
104
68
8
8
8
57
6
43
November1991
GAY/LESBIAN STREETYOUTHISSUES
517
Table 2. Compkison of Origin of All Youths Involved in Survival Sex, All Youths Not Involved in Survival Sex, and All Gay-Identified Youths Allyouths involved Origin of youths
Local Los Angeles County California Other state Other country
n
%
14 47 31 58 3
9 31 20 38 2
stemming from the rejection and low self-esteem experienced because of their sexual orientation. A recent report from the Department of Health and Human Services (7) cited a number of studies showing gay youths attempting suicide ,;tt from three to six times the rate of their nongay counterparts. Most of these studies did not focus on street youth populations specificallcI $ut some did include them as a part of the sample “;3ne study examined the differences between gay youths who had attempted suicide and those who had not (8). For the Lormer, researchers found significant correlations between suicide attempts and rejection by social supports, awareness of being gay and first sexual experience at an earlier age, attempts to deal with the comingout process at an earlier age, and earlier ongoing substance abuse. In looking at this suicide study and the CHLA data, some similarities are immediately obvious. When comparing age of first sexual experience between all street youths in the CHLA sample and the gay-identified street youths, only 13% (n = 79) of all street youths had their first sexual expericEcr between the ages of 10 and 14 years. For thi ga;* identified street youths, this figure was 55% (n 2 34). In the Schneider study (8), gay youths who had attempted suicide were far more likely to have had their first sexual experiences before age 14 years than gay youths who had not attempted suicide. According to data from 53 gay-identified street youths collected as a part of the Schneider study (but not included in the published article), a full 53% of gay street youths served by the YSD had attempted suicide & least once, and 47% more than once (un)a~jJi 2. -,5 observations). The CHLA &;a”: show an overall suici,.k attempt rate of 3290 6,sI ali street youths that inkshides 11% gay-identified youths. ‘This rate suggests that, as with the general youth population, gaj’ street youth are at increased risk for attempting suicide compared to their nongay counterparts. This is an area that warrants further investigation in the future.
All youths not involved n % 84 192 56 112 23
18 41 12 24 5
All gay/bisexual youths
n
%
12 12 8 30 2
19 1F 12 47 3
Need for Support The internalization of homophobia and the negative stereotypes about gays are powerful forces for gay street youths to overcome. The psychological distress and damage that young people can experience growing up gay in this society should not be underestimated. At the very time that youth are struggling to find identity and acceptance, they are forced to deal with being perceived as bad, sick, wrong, or even evil-regardless of what the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-III might say. Many gay street youths literally feel that, as gays, being a prostitute or street person is all they are good for. A life where they are used and badly treated fits their self-image. It is impossible to help gay street youths really stabilize their lives without dealing with these fundamental orientation issues. For this reason. health care professionals working with gay street youth must be able both to understand and to deal positively with sexual orientation issues. Whereas it is not necessarily essential that profes(7 nals themselves be gay to provide appropriate help, there is a certain understanding that is difficult for a nongay person COachieve. There is a d;;ree of isolation that the gay youth or adult experienrcs that is by and large unique. A person of color, a woman, or the adherent of a particular religion may encounter many kinds of prejudice and discrimination. The fundamental difference is that in these situations the person can, at least, get support from family or like-minded peers. The gay youth is usually totally alone ,.ith his or her gay/lesbian feelings, whether it is a secret or not, 2nd is unable to get support from an:Vqj-u?. It 9.4often on the streets that many of these gay youths find, for the first time, peer acceptance and support. This “family” of the streets can make the road to stabilizatiogl extremely difficult. Many of these youths feel so bonded to their street family that they may have little desire to leave street life.
518
KRUKS
Gay male street youths, as well as nonlesbian fern& street youths, seem to be particularly vulnerable for emotional as well as sexual exploitation. In many ways gay male and nonlesbian female street youths develop very similar patterns of survival behavior, and frequently may form close bonds and hang out together. The nongay male street youths engaging in survival sex obviously are looking for little beyond material sustenance from their “clients,” who are only very rarely female. But the youth8 (male and female) who seek love from males frequently end up in what is know11 as “sugar daddy” relationships. These relationships are often extremely damaging for a number of reasons. The “sugar daddy” usually presents himseIf to the youth in a loving caretaker role. For a street youth who has a past history of rejection and/or abuse, the promise of being loved and cared for is a compelling one. However, these relationships in many ways have similar dynamics to incest. Many gay youths coming to the YSD for services have long histories of being involved in a succession of “sugar daddy” relationships. Each of these is a cycle of falling in love, relieving that life will now be wonderful forever and that this older adult truly loves the young person, discovering th:_t in fact it is just sex that the adult wants, feeling the impect of one more betrayal, and ending up on the streets
JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH Vol. 12, No. 7
again. The whole cycle lasts an average of l-2 months, and the youth often becomes extremely suicidal at the end of each cycle. While to date we have not been able b collect and analyze detailed data on these patterns of survival behavior, this is another area that warrants ftlrther investigation.
References 1. Martin AD, Hetrick ES. The stigmatization of the gay and lesbian adolescent. New York, Hayworth, 1988. 2. Martin AD, Hetrick ES. Learning to hide: The socialization of the gay adolescent. University of Chicago, Annals of the American Society for Adolescent Psychiatry, 1982. 3. Los Angeles County Task Force on Runaway and Homeless Youth, Report and Recommendations of the Task Force, Los Angeles: 1988. 4. Seattle Commission on Children and Youth. Report on Gay and Lesbian Youth in Seattle. City of Seattle: Department of Human Resources, 1988. 5. National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Report on Hate Crimes Statistics for 1990. Washington, D.C.: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, 1991. 6. Yates GL, MacKenzie R, Pennbridge J. A risk profile comparison of runaway and non-runaway youth. Am J Public Health 1988;78:820-1. 7. Gibson P. Report of the Secretarv’s Task Force on Youth Suicide. Washington, DC.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, 1,989. 8. Schneider SG, et al. Suicidal behavior in adolescent and young adult gay men. American Association of Suicidologi: Journal of Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 1989;4.
