Art & science research series: 1
Stages in the research process Gelling L (2015) Stages in the research process. Nursing Standard. 29, 27, 44-49. Date of submission: January 10 2014; date of acceptance: October 3 2014.
Abstract Research should be conducted in a systematic manner, allowing the researcher to progress from a general idea or clinical problem to scientifically rigorous research findings that enable new developments to improve clinical practice. Using a research process helps guide this process. This article is the first in a 26-part series on nursing research. It examines the process that is common to all research, and provides insights into ten different stages of this process: developing the research question, searching and evaluating the literature, selecting the research approach, selecting research methods, gaining access to the research site and data, pilot study, sampling and recruitment, data collection, data analysis, and dissemination of results and implementation of findings.
Author Leslie Gelling Reader in research ethics, Faculty of Health, Social Care and Education, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, England. Correspondence to: [email protected], @Leslie_Gelling
Keywords Clinical nursing research, nursing research, qualitative research, quantitative research, research, research ethics, research methodology, research process, sampling
Review All articles are subject to external double-blind peer review and checked for plagiarism using automated software.
Online For related articles visit the archive and search using the keywords above. Guidelines on writing for publication are available at: journals.rcni.com/r/author-guidelines THE RESEARCH PROCESS is the method by which research is planned and conducted, and is essentially always the same, regardless of where and by whom the research is being conducted, or the purpose of the research. There are many research tools available to the researcher but they all share two objectives (Lacey 2010): to assist the researcher to design his or her research in a way that enables the research question to be answered; and to enable the researcher to conduct his or her research in a systematic manner to ensure that the findings are scientifically rigorous and have genuine potential for practical application.
To achieve these objectives, the researcher follows a stepwise research process. This article describes the research process and considers important decisions to be made by the researcher. The research journey can be complex, with many twists and turns; the research process provides a map to guide the researcher on his or her way.
What is the research process? The research process comprises a series of steps or stages that the researcher should progress through when planning and conducting research. It can be compared with the nursing process, in which the nurse plans how to deliver care to patients (Adams and Taylor 2014). Researchers use the research process to determine how to move from an idea about a problem in practice to generating research findings that may contribute to improving that practice. Different authors describe the stages of the research process in slightly different ways, but agree on the issues that are important to researchers. The number of stages varies in different models, from five (Adams and Taylor 2014) to 11 (Lacey 2010). Four models are summarised in Table 1. Adams and Taylor (2014) describe the stages of the research process using a pyramid model, in which each of the steps up the pyramid marks the next stage of the process. Each tier relies on support from the preceding tier or tiers for stability; each stage of the research will be sound only if the earlier stages in the research process are also sound. If, for example, a research problem is inadequately clarified in tier 1 (Table 1, model 1) as a result of a poor literature review, then tiers 2-5 will also be inadequate. There is growing recognition of the value of involving patients or service users in all stages of the research process (Darling and Parra 2013, Welsman et al 2014). Patient involvement, where possible, can have considerable advantages for many parts of the research process. Patients or service users can bring insights that might otherwise be overlooked to the planning and conduct of a research project. Some funding bodies now stipulate that research includes patients and will not fund research where patients are
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not involved. Research ethics committees may also look more favourably on applications where patients have been involved in developing the proposed research design. However, for some research projects this may not be possible. For example, some student projects are restricted on time, making it difficult to involve patients. Although the research process is usually described as linear – moving from ‘developing the research question’ to ‘disseminating the results’ – the researcher may often move backwards and forwards between stages, revisiting previously completed stages and having more than one stage in progress at the same time. For the purposes of this article, the research process is considered to have ten stages (Table 1, model 4, Lacey 2010). The article considers each of these stages in turn and demonstrates how important it is that the researcher remains flexible in his or her approach to the research process.
Stage 1: developing the research question Most research projects begin with an idea for a research problem, often arising from an issue in clinical practice. Researchers, especially students and novice researchers, may start out with ideas that are too broad or with research questions that are insufficiently focused (Adams and Taylor 2014). Such questions are difficult to
answer and create challenges for even the most experienced researchers. A researcher should have a clear and well-defined research question before he or she begins planning research (Law 2004). While research questions derive from observations in clinical practice, they may be influenced and refined by a critical review of the literature in the second stage of the process. Research questions may be revised multiple times during the research process. For example, the researcher may seek expert peer review after completing the literature review and before applying for ethical approval, at which point the reviewer may advise the researcher to modify the research question. The most important consideration in developing a research question is that it can be answered using the research methods and tools available to the researcher. For nurses engaging in healthcare research, research questions should also have clear relevance to clinical practice and patient care.
Stage 2: searching and evaluating the literature Searching and critically reviewing the literature is a skill that can be learned and developed, as with other elements of the research process (Booth et al 2012, Ridley 2012). A carefully constructed review of the literature considers both the strengths and
TABLE 1 Stages of the research process Model (authors)
Model 1 (Adams and Taylor 2014)
Model 2 (Moule and Goodman 2013)
Model 3 (Lacey 2010)
Model 4 (adapted from Lacey 2010)
Stages
Tier 1. Recognise and clarify the problem.
Developing research questions.
Developing the research question.
Developing the research question.
Tier 2. Discuss and plan the study.
Literature searching.
Searching and evaluating the literature.
Searching and evaluating the literature.
Choice of methodology and research design.
Selecting the research approach.
Preparing a research proposal.
Selecting research methods.
Literature reviewing.
Tier 3. Define the research question and select appropriate methodology.
Choosing a research design.
Tier 4. Refine the methodology.
Sampling.
Tier 5. Disseminate the findings.
Data collection.
Gaining access to the data.
Data analysis.
Sampling.
Interpretation and implications of the research.
Pilot study.
Ethical considerations.
Using research in practice.
Data collection. Data analysis. Dissemination of results. Implementation of the research.
Gaining access to the research site and data. Pilot study. Sampling and recruitment. Data collection. Data analysis. Dissemination of results and implementation of findings.
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Art & science research series: 1 weaknesses of existing research (Aveyard 2010). Critical review frameworks are available to help researchers undertake literature reviews and to focus on establishing the quality of published research (Oxford University Press 2015, University of the West of England 2015). Researchers should not assume that all published research is high quality because it has been subjected to peer review. A thorough, critical review of the literature is required to determine what research has been published already and to establish what is already known about the research topic. It can also help researchers to detect any gaps in existing knowledge identified by other researchers. A literature review also helps the researcher to refine his or her research question and may help decide how to conduct the research. For example, researchers studying similar topics may have established the research strategies most likely to collect meaningful data. Searching and reviewing the literature should continue throughout the research project, as new research is identified and new research findings are published. Further, as data collection and analysis progress it may become necessary to consider new research or re-examine existing research.
Stage 3: selecting the research approach The research approach or overall design of the research project is determined by the research question and the review of the literature. Some questions are best answered using a qualitative approach and others using a quantitative approach (Topping 2010). Qualitative research adopts an inductive approach (Box 1) and is used to develop understanding of social phenomena through the analysis of textual and other non-numerical forms of data. Qualitative data are usually analysed thematically to describe and explain the phenomena being studied. Quantitative research adopts a deductive approach (Box 1) and is most often used to test a theory through the collection and analysis of numerical data.
BOX 1 Inductive and deductive approaches Inductive reasoning involves analysing an individual situation to make a general assertion. For example, case reports of patients reviewed to clarify an underlying theme. Deductive reasoning means applying general laws, for example statistical analysis of a dataset, to an individual instance.
Over the past 20 years, the traditional requirement to adhere to a single research approach within a research project has been relaxed. This modern, combined approach is known as mixed methods research and gives the researcher an additional option. In mixed methods research, qualitative and quantitative approaches may be used either sequentially or concurrently within a single research project (Simons and Lathlean 2010, Robson 2011). It is important that the research approach adopted is determined by the research question and the subject of the research, rather than by the methodological preference of the researcher (Moule and Goodman 2013). The researcher will find it difficult to answer the research question unless the question and the approach are well matched.
Stage 4: selecting research methods The choice of appropriate research method is influenced by the research question, the literature review and the research approach selected. It may also be influenced by the researcher’s knowledge and skills and by the expertise of the research team, but the methods selected must also be appropriate to, and fit well with, the chosen research approach (Moule and Goodman 2013). For example, research using a qualitative approach often collects data through interviews, focus groups or observations. In contrast, research adopting a quantitative approach often collects numerical data, for example through direct measurement or questionnaires completed by participants. Another factor that influences the choice of research methods is the practicality of undertaking the research (Moule and Goodman 2013). Students and novice researchers often make the mistake of trying to do too much, making it difficult to complete the research in the time available. The researcher should ensure that he or she does not attempt to achieve more than is possible in the time available (Moule and Goodman 2013). For example, a student undertaking a research project with a submission deadline is unlikely to have sufficient time to complete a mixed methods project that includes interviews, questionnaires and focus groups. Whatever the research methods selected, it is important that they enable the researcher to answer the research question.
Stage 5: gaining access to the research site and data Before the researcher can move on from planning research to approaching participants and collecting data, he or she should obtain research ethics and governance approvals to access the research site or
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the data (Gelling 2010). Research ethics approval is usually obtained from either an NHS or university research ethics committee. Both types of research ethics committee seek to ensure that research is conducted ethically, with regard for the safety of all those involved in the research (Johnson and Long 2010, Gelling 2011, Watson and Gelling 2012). Research ethics committee approval requires that participants should be able to consent freely to participate in the research and have an adequate understanding of what the research will involve, what the potential benefits of the research might be and what potential side effects may result from their participation. Research governance approval is required from the organisation with direct responsibility for the patients involved in the research. Research undertaken in the NHS requires governance approval from the appropriate research and development (R&D) department at the research site. Research undertaken in universities, schools and other organisations requires permission from the organisation where the research will be conducted to access the research site and to approach potential research participants (Health Research Authority 2015). Seeking these permissions can be time-consuming, but will also make the researcher pay careful attention to the details of how he or she intends to conduct the research. Researchers may significantly amend their work, including the research question, as a result of seeking and obtaining these approvals.
Stage 6: pilot study Potential research participants can be approached and data can be collected when research ethics and governance approvals are received. Researchers should begin by conducting a pilot study (Adams and Taylor 2014). This is a smaller version of the main study and is undertaken to test the: Effectiveness of sampling and recruitment strategies. Data collection techniques. Feasibility of the research. Some elements of the research project may be adjusted following the pilot study, before recruitment and data collection for the main study begins (Lacey 2010). It may be necessary to re-seek approvals from the research ethics committee or R&D department before implementing any changes to the research project.
Stage 7: sampling and recruitment Sampling involves identifying a representative study population from the target population
being studied. There are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability (Moule and Goodman 2013). Probability sampling involves the random selection of participants, where every member of the population has an equal chance of being in the research. In non-probability sampling, the researcher determines the participants, so random selection is not involved. The decision as to who should be invited to participate in a research study is influenced by the research approach and the research design. For example, a qualitative researcher may use themes emerging from the ongoing data analysis to influence subsequent decisions about participant selection. When the researcher has established who should be involved in the research, he or she can approach potential participants who meet the predetermined, ethically approved inclusion and exclusion criteria. The researcher informs potential participants about the research before inviting them to participate and recruiting them to the research. In most instances, the participant will be invited to sign a consent form confirming his or her willingness to participate. The size of the sample is determined by the research method used; effective sampling allows the researcher to identify participants who can contribute the data required to answer the research question. Quantitative research generally requires large samples to demonstrate the ability to generalise following statistical analysis. The sample size can be determined through a power analysis, a calculation that determines how many participants are required to show that any findings have statistical significance. Qualitative research does not aim to demonstrate an ability to generalise, and so samples may be small. Participants should be selected to adequately reflect the research priorities, and the sample size should be sufficient to be considered scientifically rigorous (Procter et al 2010).
Stage 8: data collection Each methodological approach can employ a range of methods for collecting data from research participants. The data collection techniques used should be appropriate to the research approach selected and provide the researcher with the data he or she needs to answer the research question. For example, researchers undertaking qualitative and exploratory research studies may collect data through interviews and focus groups, which allow them to extract and explore textual data to describe and explain the phenomena being researched. In contrast, quantitative researchers may collect numerical data through direct
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Art & science research series: 1 observation or questionnaires. Data should be collected systematically and as previously planned to ensure high quality.
Stage 9: data analysis In the penultimate stage of the research process, the researcher analyses the data collected in the previous stage. Qualitative and quantitative data are processed and analysed differently. Usually, researchers analyse quantitative data when all the data have been collected, although they may undertake an interim analysis. Quantitative data are used to test the study hypothesis and answer the research question (Freeman and Walters 2010, Walters and Freeman 2010). Qualitative data are analysed soon after collection as part of an ongoing process, constant comparison. Each analysis may influence the selection of subsequent participants and/or the way subsequent data are collected (Lathlean 2010, Jirwe 2011). Since analysis of the data is ongoing, qualitative researchers are repeatedly shifting between stages eight and nine of the research process. Regardless of how data are collected, it is important that they are used to answer the research question identified in earlier stages of the research process. Distractions from the original focus of the research, as determined by the original research question, can adversely affect quality.
Stage 10: dissemination and implementation Regardless of its quality, research will be proven worthless if findings are not disseminated and implemented in practice when appropriate (Adams and Taylor 2014). Too often, the dissemination and implementation of findings is treated as an afterthought and not considered an integral part of the research. Research can influence practice
only if the research findings are disseminated in a systematic manner. In recent years, there has been a shift towards placing greater emphasis on the effects of research and its implications for practice (Hamers and Visser 2012). Research findings may be disseminated in many different ways. As with other parts of the research process, dissemination should be planned in advance and be appropriate to the research approach. Common means of dissemination include publication in peer-reviewed journals and presentation at professional conferences or meetings. These allow the researcher to share his or her findings with professional colleagues, who may choose to implement them in their own clinical practice. Research participants, patients and support groups are increasingly included as an essential part of the process of dissemination (Nierse et al 2012). When appropriate, researchers are also expected to share the findings of their research with those who participated in the research and with the groups who might benefit from the findings of the research.
Conclusion Undertaking research may be compared to going on a long and complicated journey, with a risk of getting lost. The ten-stage research process described in this article provides a map to help the researcher navigate the research journey. Each stage of the research process must be sound to support the stages that follow. It is important that all nurses have an understanding of the research process, even if they are not planning to undertake research, since knowledge about this process is invaluable when reviewing research papers or reports. The next article in this series will consider some of the issues researchers should consider when planning research NS
References Adams D, Taylor R (2014) The research process. In Taylor R (Ed) The Essentials of Nursing and Heathcare Research. Sage Publications Limited, London, 177-190. Aveyard H (2010) Doing a Literature Review in Health and Social Care. Second edition. Open University Press, Maidenhead. Booth A, Papaioannou D, Sutton A (2012) Systematic Approaches to a
Successful Literature Review. Sage Publications Limited, London. Darling E, Parra MA (2013) Involving patients and the public in research. Nurse Researcher. 20, 6, 21-25. Freeman J, Walters S (2010) Examining relationships in quantitative data. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 455-472.
Gelling L (2010) Gaining access to the research site. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 114-126.
performance indicator of nursing research. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 21, 21-22, 2997-2999.
Gelling L (2011) Why do I have to apply for ethical approval before I can begin my research? Nursing Times. 107, 30-31, 23.
Health Research Authority (2015) NHS/HSC R&D Review or Permission. www.hra.nhs.uk/ resources/applying-for-reviews/ nhs-hsc-rd-review (Last accessed: February 5 2015.)
Hamers JP, Visser AP (2012) Societal impact – an important
Jirwe M (2011) Analysing qualitative data. Nurse Researcher. 18, 3, 4-5.
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Johnson M, Long T (2010) Research ethics. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 27-35. Lacey A (2010) The research process. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 13-26. Lathlean J (2010) Qualitative analysis. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 423-436. Law R (2004) From research topic to research question: a challenging process. Nurse Researcher. 11, 4, 54-66.
Moule P, Goodman M (2013) Nursing Research: An Introduction. Sage Publications Limited, London. Nierse CJ, Schipper K, van Zadelhoff E, van de Griendt J, Abma TA (2012) Collaboration and co-ownership in research: dynamics and dialogues between patient research partners and professional researchers in a research team. Health Expectations. 15, 3, 242-254. Oxford University Press (2015) Frameworks for Critiquing Research Articles. tinyurl.com/nv7u98a (Last accessed: February 5 2015.) Procter S, Allan T, Lacey A (2010) Sampling. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing.
Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 142-152. Ridley D (2012) The Literature Review: A Step-By-Step Guide for Students. Second edition. Sage Publications Limited, London. Robson C (2011) Real World Research. Third edition. John Wiley and Sons, Oxford.
University of the West of England (2015) Example Frameworks for Critically Appraising Research Articles. tinyurl.com/mslgc9a (Last accessed: February 5 2015.) Walters S, Freeman J (2010) Descriptive analysis of quantitative data. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 437-454.
Simons L, Lathlean J (2010) Mixed methods. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 331-342.
Watson R, Gelling L (2012) NHS Research Ethics Committees: for whose protection? Journal of Clinical Nursing. 21, 15-16, 2097-2098.
Topping A (2010) The quantitative-qualitative continuum. In Gerrish K, Lacey A (Eds) The Research Process in Nursing. Sixth edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 129-141.
Welsman J, Gibson A, Heaton J, Britten N (2014) Involving patients and the public in healthcare operational research. British Medical Journal. 349, doi:10.1136/bmj.g4903.
Call for papers Nursing Standard is welcoming submissions from experienced or new authors on a variety of subjects
Contact the Art & Science editor Gwen Clarke at [email protected]
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Stages in the research process Gelling L (2015) Stages in the research process. Nursing Standard. 29, 27, 44-49. Date of submission: January 10 2014; date of acceptance: October 3 2014.
Abstract Research should be conducted in a systematic manner, allowing the researcher to progress from a general idea or clinical problem to scientifically rigorous research findings that enable new developments to improve clinical practice. Using a research process helps guide this process. This article is the first in a 26-part series on nursing research. It examines the process that is common to all research, and provides insights into ten different stages of this process: developing the research question, searching and evaluating the literature, selecting the research approach, selecting research methods, gaining access to the research site and data, pilot study, sampling and recruitment, data collection, data analysis, and dissemination of results and implementation of findings.
Author Leslie Gelling Reader in research ethics, Faculty of Health, Social Care and Education, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, England. Correspondence to: [email protected], @Leslie_Gelling
Keywords Clinical nursing research, nursing research, qualitative research, quantitative research, research, research ethics, research methodology, research process, sampling
Review All articles are subject to external double-blind peer review and checked for plagiarism using automated software.
Online For related articles visit the archive and search using the keywords above. Guidelines on writing for publication are available at: journals.rcni.com/r/author-guidelines THE RESEARCH PROCESS is the method by which research is planned and conducted, and is essentially always the same, regardless of where and by whom the research is being conducted, or the purpose of the research. There are many research tools available to the researcher but they all share two objectives (Lacey 2010): to assist the researcher to design his or her research in a way that enables the research question to be answered; and to enable the researcher to conduct his or her research in a systematic manner to ensure that the findings are scientifically rigorous and have genuine potential for practical application.
To achieve these objectives, the researcher follows a stepwise research process. This article describes the research process and considers important decisions to be made by the researcher. The research journey can be complex, with many twists and turns; the research process provides a map to guide the researcher on his or her way.
What is the research process? The research process comprises a series of steps or stages that the researcher should progress through when planning and conducting research. It can be compared with the nursing process, in which the nurse plans how to deliver care to patients (Adams and Taylor 2014). Researchers use the research process to determine how to move from an idea about a problem in practice to generating research findings that may contribute to improving that practice. Different authors describe the stages of the research process in slightly different ways, but agree on the issues that are important to researchers. The number of stages varies in different models, from five (Adams and Taylor 2014) to 11 (Lacey 2010). Four models are summarised in Table 1. Adams and Taylor (2014) describe the stages of the research process using a pyramid model, in which each of the steps up the pyramid marks the next stage of the process. Each tier relies on support from the preceding tier or tiers for stability; each stage of the research will be sound only if the earlier stages in the research process are also sound. If, for example, a research problem is inadequately clarified in tier 1 (Table 1, model 1) as a result of a poor literature review, then tiers 2-5 will also be inadequate. There is growing recognition of the value of involving patients or service users in all stages of the research process (Darling and Parra 2013, Welsman et al 2014). Patient involvement, where possible, can have considerable advantages for many parts of the research process. Patients or service users can bring insights that might otherwise be overlooked to the planning and conduct of a research project. Some funding bodies now stipulate that research includes patients and will not fund research where patients are
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not involved. Research ethics committees may also look more favourably on applications where patients have been involved in developing the proposed research design. However, for some research projects this may not be possible. For example, some student projects are restricted on time, making it difficult to involve patients. Although the research process is usually described as linear – moving from ‘developing the research question’ to ‘disseminating the results’ – the researcher may often move backwards and forwards between stages, revisiting previously completed stages and having more than one stage in progress at the same time. For the purposes of this article, the research process is considered to have ten stages (Table 1, model 4, Lacey 2010). The article considers each of these stages in turn and demonstrates how important it is that the researcher remains flexible in his or her approach to the research process.
Stage 1: developing the research question Most research projects begin with an idea for a research problem, often arising from an issue in clinical practice. Researchers, especially students and novice researchers, may start out with ideas that are too broad or with research questions that are insufficiently focused (Adams and Taylor 2014). Such questions are difficult to
answer and create challenges for even the most experienced researchers. A researcher should have a clear and well-defined research question before he or she begins planning research (Law 2004). While research questions derive from observations in clinical practice, they may be influenced and refined by a critical review of the literature in the second stage of the process. Research questions may be revised multiple times during the research process. For example, the researcher may seek expert peer review after completing the literature review and before applying for ethical approval, at which point the reviewer may advise the researcher to modify the research question. The most important consideration in developing a research question is that it can be answered using the research methods and tools available to the researcher. For nurses engaging in healthcare research, research questions should also have clear relevance to clinical practice and patient care.
Stage 2: searching and evaluating the literature Searching and critically reviewing the literature is a skill that can be learned and developed, as with other elements of the research process (Booth et al 2012, Ridley 2012). A carefully constructed review of the literature considers both the strengths and
TABLE 1 Stages of the research process Model (authors)
Model 1 (Adams and Taylor 2014)
Model 2 (Moule and Goodman 2013)
Model 3 (Lacey 2010)
Model 4 (adapted from Lacey 2010)
Stages
Tier 1. Recognise and clarify the problem.
Developing research questions.
Developing the research question.
Developing the research question.
Tier 2. Discuss and plan the study.
Literature searching.
Searching and evaluating the literature.
Searching and evaluating the literature.
Choice of methodology and research design.
Selecting the research approach.
Preparing a research proposal.
Selecting research methods.
Literature reviewing.
Tier 3. Define the research question and select appropriate methodology.
Choosing a research design.
Tier 4. Refine the methodology.
Sampling.
Tier 5. Disseminate the findings.
Data collection.
Gaining access to the data.
Data analysis.
Sampling.
Interpretation and implications of the research.
Pilot study.
Ethical considerations.
Using research in practice.
Data collection. Data analysis. Dissemination of results. Implementation of the research.
Gaining access to the research site and data. Pilot study. Sampling and recruitment. Data collection. Data analysis. Dissemination of results and implementation of findings.
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Art & science research series: 1 weaknesses of existing research (Aveyard 2010). Critical review frameworks are available to help researchers undertake literature reviews and to focus on establishing the quality of published research (Oxford University Press 2015, University of the West of England 2015). Researchers should not assume that all published research is high quality because it has been subjected to peer review. A thorough, critical review of the literature is required to determine what research has been published already and to establish what is already known about the research topic. It can also help researchers to detect any gaps in existing knowledge identified by other researchers. A literature review also helps the researcher to refine his or her research question and may help decide how to conduct the research. For example, researchers studying similar topics may have established the research strategies most likely to collect meaningful data. Searching and reviewing the literature should continue throughout the research project, as new research is identified and new research findings are published. Further, as data collection and analysis progress it may become necessary to consider new research or re-examine existing research.
Stage 3: selecting the research approach The research approach or overall design of the research project is determined by the research question and the review of the literature. Some questions are best answered using a qualitative approach and others using a quantitative approach (Topping 2010). Qualitative research adopts an inductive approach (Box 1) and is used to develop understanding of social phenomena through the analysis of textual and other non-numerical forms of data. Qualitative data are usually analysed thematically to describe and explain the phenomena being studied. Quantitative research adopts a deductive approach (Box 1) and is most often used to test a theory through the collection and analysis of numerical data.
BOX 1 Inductive and deductive approaches Inductive reasoning involves analysing an individual situation to make a general assertion. For example, case reports of patients reviewed to clarify an underlying theme. Deductive reasoning means applying general laws, for example statistical analysis of a dataset, to an individual instance.
Over the past 20 years, the traditional requirement to adhere to a single research approach within a research project has been relaxed. This modern, combined approach is known as mixed methods research and gives the researcher an additional option. In mixed methods research, qualitative and quantitative approaches may be used either sequentially or concurrently within a single research project (Simons and Lathlean 2010, Robson 2011). It is important that the research approach adopted is determined by the research question and the subject of the research, rather than by the methodological preference of the researcher (Moule and Goodman 2013). The researcher will find it difficult to answer the research question unless the question and the approach are well matched.
Stage 4: selecting research methods The choice of appropriate research method is influenced by the research question, the literature review and the research approach selected. It may also be influenced by the researcher’s knowledge and skills and by the expertise of the research team, but the methods selected must also be appropriate to, and fit well with, the chosen research approach (Moule and Goodman 2013). For example, research using a qualitative approach often collects data through interviews, focus groups or observations. In contrast, research adopting a quantitative approach often collects numerical data, for example through direct measurement or questionnaires completed by participants. Another factor that influences the choice of research methods is the practicality of undertaking the research (Moule and Goodman 2013). Students and novice researchers often make the mistake of trying to do too much, making it difficult to complete the research in the time available. The researcher should ensure that he or she does not attempt to achieve more than is possible in the time available (Moule and Goodman 2013). For example, a student undertaking a research project with a submission deadline is unlikely to have sufficient time to complete a mixed methods project that includes interviews, questionnaires and focus groups. Whatever the research methods selected, it is important that they enable the researcher to answer the research question.
Stage 5: gaining access to the research site and data Before the researcher can move on from planning research to approaching participants and collecting data, he or she should obtain research ethics and governance approvals to access the research site or
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the data (Gelling 2010). Research ethics approval is usually obtained from either an NHS or university research ethics committee. Both types of research ethics committee seek to ensure that research is conducted ethically, with regard for the safety of all those involved in the research (Johnson and Long 2010, Gelling 2011, Watson and Gelling 2012). Research ethics committee approval requires that participants should be able to consent freely to participate in the research and have an adequate understanding of what the research will involve, what the potential benefits of the research might be and what potential side effects may result from their participation. Research governance approval is required from the organisation with direct responsibility for the patients involved in the research. Research undertaken in the NHS requires governance approval from the appropriate research and development (R&D) department at the research site. Research undertaken in universities, schools and other organisations requires permission from the organisation where the research will be conducted to access the research site and to approach potential research participants (Health Research Authority 2015). Seeking these permissions can be time-consuming, but will also make the researcher pay careful attention to the details of how he or she intends to conduct the research. Researchers may significantly amend their work, including the research question, as a result of seeking and obtaining these approvals.
Stage 6: pilot study Potential research participants can be approached and data can be collected when research ethics and governance approvals are received. Researchers should begin by conducting a pilot study (Adams and Taylor 2014). This is a smaller version of the main study and is undertaken to test the: Effectiveness of sampling and recruitment strategies. Data collection techniques. Feasibility of the research. Some elements of the research project may be adjusted following the pilot study, before recruitment and data collection for the main study begins (Lacey 2010). It may be necessary to re-seek approvals from the research ethics committee or R&D department before implementing any changes to the research project.
Stage 7: sampling and recruitment Sampling involves identifying a representative study population from the target population
being studied. There are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability (Moule and Goodman 2013). Probability sampling involves the random selection of participants, where every member of the population has an equal chance of being in the research. In non-probability sampling, the researcher determines the participants, so random selection is not involved. The decision as to who should be invited to participate in a research study is influenced by the research approach and the research design. For example, a qualitative researcher may use themes emerging from the ongoing data analysis to influence subsequent decisions about participant selection. When the researcher has established who should be involved in the research, he or she can approach potential participants who meet the predetermined, ethically approved inclusion and exclusion criteria. The researcher informs potential participants about the research before inviting them to participate and recruiting them to the research. In most instances, the participant will be invited to sign a consent form confirming his or her willingness to participate. The size of the sample is determined by the research method used; effective sampling allows the researcher to identify participants who can contribute the data required to answer the research question. Quantitative research generally requires large samples to demonstrate the ability to generalise following statistical analysis. The sample size can be determined through a power analysis, a calculation that determines how many participants are required to show that any findings have statistical significance. Qualitative research does not aim to demonstrate an ability to generalise, and so samples may be small. Participants should be selected to adequately reflect the research priorities, and the sample size should be sufficient to be considered scientifically rigorous (Procter et al 2010).
Stage 8: data collection Each methodological approach can employ a range of methods for collecting data from research participants. The data collection techniques used should be appropriate to the research approach selected and provide the researcher with the data he or she needs to answer the research question. For example, researchers undertaking qualitative and exploratory research studies may collect data through interviews and focus groups, which allow them to extract and explore textual data to describe and explain the phenomena being researched. In contrast, quantitative researchers may collect numerical data through direct
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Art & science research series: 1 observation or questionnaires. Data should be collected systematically and as previously planned to ensure high quality.
Stage 9: data analysis In the penultimate stage of the research process, the researcher analyses the data collected in the previous stage. Qualitative and quantitative data are processed and analysed differently. Usually, researchers analyse quantitative data when all the data have been collected, although they may undertake an interim analysis. Quantitative data are used to test the study hypothesis and answer the research question (Freeman and Walters 2010, Walters and Freeman 2010). Qualitative data are analysed soon after collection as part of an ongoing process, constant comparison. Each analysis may influence the selection of subsequent participants and/or the way subsequent data are collected (Lathlean 2010, Jirwe 2011). Since analysis of the data is ongoing, qualitative researchers are repeatedly shifting between stages eight and nine of the research process. Regardless of how data are collected, it is important that they are used to answer the research question identified in earlier stages of the research process. Distractions from the original focus of the research, as determined by the original research question, can adversely affect quality.
Stage 10: dissemination and implementation Regardless of its quality, research will be proven worthless if findings are not disseminated and implemented in practice when appropriate (Adams and Taylor 2014). Too often, the dissemination and implementation of findings is treated as an afterthought and not considered an integral part of the research. Research can influence practice
only if the research findings are disseminated in a systematic manner. In recent years, there has been a shift towards placing greater emphasis on the effects of research and its implications for practice (Hamers and Visser 2012). Research findings may be disseminated in many different ways. As with other parts of the research process, dissemination should be planned in advance and be appropriate to the research approach. Common means of dissemination include publication in peer-reviewed journals and presentation at professional conferences or meetings. These allow the researcher to share his or her findings with professional colleagues, who may choose to implement them in their own clinical practice. Research participants, patients and support groups are increasingly included as an essential part of the process of dissemination (Nierse et al 2012). When appropriate, researchers are also expected to share the findings of their research with those who participated in the research and with the groups who might benefit from the findings of the research.
Conclusion Undertaking research may be compared to going on a long and complicated journey, with a risk of getting lost. The ten-stage research process described in this article provides a map to help the researcher navigate the research journey. Each stage of the research process must be sound to support the stages that follow. It is important that all nurses have an understanding of the research process, even if they are not planning to undertake research, since knowledge about this process is invaluable when reviewing research papers or reports. The next article in this series will consider some of the issues researchers should consider when planning research NS
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Call for papers Nursing Standard is welcoming submissions from experienced or new authors on a variety of subjects
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