Sport-Specific Physiological Adaptations in Highly Trained Endurance Athletes KARI MARGRETHE LUNDGREN1, TRINE KARLSEN1,2, KYVIND SANDBAKK3, PHILIP E. JAMES4, and ARNT ERIK TJKNNA1 1

K.G. Jebsen Center for Exercise in Medicine, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, NORWAY; 2Department of Cardiology, St. Olavs University Hospital, Trondheim, NORWAY; 3Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, NORWAY; and 4Wales Heart Research Institute, Department of Cardiology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UNITED KINGDOM ABSTRACT LUNDGREN, K. M., T. KARLSEN, K. SANDBAKK, P. E. JAMES, and A. E. TJKNNA. Sport-Specific Physiological Adaptations in Highly Trained Endurance Athletes. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 47, No. 10, pp. 2150–2157, 2015. Purpose: This study aims to compare ˙ O2max), blood volume (BV), hemoglobin mass (Hbmass), and brachial endothelial function, measured as flowmaximal oxygen uptake (V mediated dilatation (FMD), in international-level endurance athletes primarily exercising with the whole body (cross-country skiing), lower body (orienteering), or upper body (flatwater kayak). Methods: Seventeen cross-country skiers, 15 orienteers, and 11 flatwater ˙ O2max, BV, Hbmass, and FMD. Additionally, body composition and annual training (type, volume, and intensity of kayakers were tested for V ˙ O2max values were 11.3% and 9.9% higher, respectively, in skiers training) were analyzed. Results: Absolute and body-mass-normalized V (5.83 T 0.60 LIminj1 and 77.9 T 4.2 mLIminj1Ikgj1) compared to orienteers (5.24 T 0.45 LIminj1 and 70.9 T 3.5 mLIminj1Ikgj1) (P G 0.01), whereas kayakers (5.78 T 0.56 LIminj1 and 73.7 T 6.3 mLIminj1Ikgj1) did not differ from skiers. BV was 9.9%–11.8% higher in skiers and orienteers compared to kayakers when normalized for total body mass and fat-free mass, and skiers had 9.2% and 9.9% higher Hbmass normalized for total body mass and fat-free mass compared to kayakers (all P G 0.05). Arterial diameter was 11.8%–15.0% larger in kayakers (4.38 T 0.63 mm) and skiers (4.22 T 0.36 mm) compared to orienteers (3.81 T 0.32 mm) (P G 0.05), ˙ O2max in cross-country skiers and greater whereas FMD did not differ between groups. Conclusions: This study indicates that higher V arterial diameters in the arms of skiers and kayakers are sport-specific physiological adaptations to chronic endurance training in whole-body and upper-body exercise modes. However, variations in these variables are not associated with BV or Hbmass. Key Words: MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE, BLOOD VOLUME, HEMOGLOBIN MASS, FLOW-MEDIATED DILATATION

˙ O2max) t is well accepted that maximal oxygen uptake (V is important for endurance performance. In elite endurance athletes, every step of the oxygen transport system is adapted to chronic exposure to endurance training (2,6,16,26). However, the diversity of accumulated adaptations associated with chronic exercise in different sports has not been fully examined. Such specific adaptations are likely most pronounced in elite athletes with high training volumes and are influenced by exercise intensity, duration, and frequency (22), as well as by differences in the contributions of exercising muscle mass to the upper and lower limbs. To the best of our knowledge, no study has systematically compared the long-term physiological effects of upper-body,

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I

lower-body, and whole-body exercises since the mid˙ O2max 1960s, when Saltin and Astrand (28) compared V j1 j1 j1 (mLImin Ikg and LImin ) in different endurance disciplines, including cross-country (XC) skiing, orienteering, and flatwater kayaking. XC skiing is a whole-body endurance exercise, and world˙ O2max class XC skiers have shown some of the highest V j1 j1 j1 values (in both mLImin Ikg and LImin ) ever reported in the literature (1,28,29). In comparison, studies on internationallevel runners or orienteers versus flatwater kayakers, where the lower and upper extremities, respectively, are mainly responsible for propulsion, indicate that these athletes ˙ O2max compared to elite XC skiers have lower levels of V ˙ O2max may be associated with (10,34,36,40). Differences in V differences in cardiac output, blood volume (BV), hemoglobin mass (Hbmass), role of flow-mediated endothelial function in the distribution of blood to working muscle, and effectiveness of oxygen uptake and mitochondrial respiration in muscle (2,11). However, cross-sectional comparisons of sport-specific physiological adaptations lack matching for performance levels. Additionally, comparisons of possible underlying mechanisms for chronic adaptations to lowerbody, upper-body, and whole-body exercises have not yet been examined.

Address for correspondence: Arnt Erik TjLnna, Ph.D., Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 7491, Norway; E-mail: [email protected]. Submitted for publication October 2014. Accepted for publication January 2015. 0195-9131/15/4710-2150/0 MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISEÒ Copyright Ó 2015 by the American College of Sports Medicine DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000634

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Norwegian elite athletes perform at high international levels in XC skiing, orienteering, and flatwater kayaking. Thus, they are unique research models for investigating the effects of exercise, with varying contributions of lower body, upper body, and whole body in humans. Assuming that the genetic component does not differ substantially in its contribution to successful elite athletes of different sports, physio˙ O2max, BV, Hbmass, and brachial logical adaptations of V endothelial function (FMD) may provide further insight into the upper limits of humans’ ability to adapt to such training. Additionally, body composition, hematological variables, and distribution of training volume and intensity may provide insight into potential mechanisms related to physiological diversities among athletes. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to compare ˙ O2max, BV, Hbmass, and FMD in international-level enV durance athletes primarily using whole-body (XC skiing), lower-body (orienteering), and upper-body (flatwater kayak) exercises in their training. It was hypothesized that XC ˙ O2max values than orienteers and skiers would have higher V ˙ O2max values flatwater kayakers, and that the higher V corresponded with higher BV and Hbmass.

METHODS

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Subjects. Forty-three male elite endurance athletes competing at the national or international level in XC skiing (n = 17), orienteering (n = 15), or flatwater kayaking (n = 11) volunteered to participate in the study. In all three sports, the included athletes ranged from having podium places in world cup events to being among the top 15 in the national championship; an expert panel in the Norwegian Olympic Committee judged the three groups to have comparable international performance levels. Exclusion criteria for participation were significant blood loss (Q500 mL) within the last 3 months, anemia (e13 gIdLj1), 10 d or more of altitude training during the past 3 months, kidney failure (reduced production of erythropoietin), cardiovascular or pulmonary disease, or medication limiting maximal endurance performance. All experimental procedures were approved by the Regional Committees for Medical and Health Research Ethics. All subjects received oral and written information about the study before they signed an informed consent form. Study design. In this cross-sectional design, measurement of anthropometry, brachial endothelial function, Hbmass, and BV was performed, and blood samples were collected. The tests were performed in the morning after a 12-h fasting period; the subjects drank 500 mL of water 2 h before this investigation. The international-level XC skiers, orienteers, and flatwater kayakers who took part in the study were tested directly following the end of the primary competition phase ˙ O2max was measured on a sepof each sport. Additionally, V arate day within 14 d of the original tests, and we ensured that all of the athletes showed comparable fitness on both testing days. High-intensity exercise; training sessions lasting more than 1.5 h; intake of caffeine, alcohol, vitamins, and minerals;

and use of tobacco were avoided in the 24-h period before testing on both days. Additionally, type, volume, and intensity of training over the 6-month period before testing were analyzed based on training diaries. Maximal oxygen uptake. After an initial low-intensity ˙ O2max was measured in an incremental test until warm-up, V exhaustion, using a direct ergospirometry system with a mixing chamber (Oxycon Pro; Erich Jaeger GmbH, Hoechberg, Germany). The ergospirometry system was calibrated using high-precision gas (16.00% T 0.04% O2 and 5.00% T 0.1% CO2; Riessner-Gase GmbH & Co., Lichtenfels, Germany), and the inspiratory flowmeter was calibrated using a 3-L-volume syringe (Hans Rudolph Inc., Kansas City, MO, USA). The test was performed on a treadmill (Woodway USA Inc., Waukesha, WI, USA) at a fixed inclination of 10.5% and with an increase in speed of 1 kmIhj1 every minute until exhaustion. A plateau in oxygen uptake (despite increased workload) and a respiratory exchange ratio Q1.05 were used as criteria ˙ O2max (14). The mean of the three highest for determining V ˙ O2max. HRpeak was consecutive 10 s was used to determine V measured by an HR monitor (Polar RS400; Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland), and HRpeak was defined as the highest recorded value during the test. Peak oxygen pulse ˙ O2max (mLIminj1) divided (mL per beat) was calculated as V by HRpeak (39). Blood variables. Carbon monoxide (CO) rebreathing spirometry (Blood Tec, GbR, Bayreuth, Germany), as described by Prommer and Schmidt (24) and Schmidt and Prommer (31), was used to determine BV, Hbmass, red cell volume (RCV), and plasma volume (PV). Subjects inhaled a bolus of CO gas (99.9%) at doses of 1 mLIkgj1 body mass and rebreathed the gas mixture for 2 min. Capillary blood samples were collected after 15 min of seated rest before the test and again at 6 and 8 min after rebreathing of CO. In addition, a venous ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) sample was collected for hematocrit analysis. Capillary blood samples were analyzed for HbCO% with the ABL800 FLEX analyzer (Radiometer Medical ApS, BrLnshLj, Denmark) at 0, 6, and 8 min of the test. In addition, end-tidal CO concentration was measured with a CO gas tester (DraegerÒ, Luebeck, Germany) before and 4 min after CO inhalation. Gas volume and CO concentration were measured with the spirometer after the procedure. BV, Hbmass, RCV, and PV were calculated with Spico Calculation software version 2.0 (Blood tec GbR, Bayreuth, Germany). The method is regarded to be valid and reliable for estimating Hbmass, with a typical error of 1.7% and a coefficient of variation of È2.2% (7,31). Flow-mediated dilatation. Endothelial function was measured as flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) of the brachial artery, using high-resolution vascular ultrasound (a 14-MHz Doppler probe; Vivid 7 and Vivid I; GE Vingmed Ultrasound AS, Horten, Norway) according to current guidelines (5,25). The measurements were conducted in a quiet and temperature-stable room (22-C–24-C) after 10 min of rest in supine position. Baseline images had been taken before we made an occlusion on the forearm’s distal part by inflating a

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pneumatic cuff (SC10; D.E. Hokanson Inc., Bellevue, WA, USA) to 250 mm Hg for 5 min. The cuff was then deflated to create a high-flow state and increased shear stress in the artery. A longitudinal image of brachial artery internal diameter was recorded continuously for 3 min following cuff release. An integrated ECG was used to secure assessment of the diameter according to the cardiac cycle. Diameter was calculated as an average of three measures synchronized with the R-wave peak and was measured from intima to intima. Mean flow velocity was measured at baseline and 15 s after cuff release (9,35). FMD was calculated as a percentage increase in arterial diameter at 30, 60, and 90 s after deflation from baseline vessel size. Peak shear rate was calculated as the difference between mean flow velocity at baseline and mean flow velocity 15 s after cuff release, divided by baseline diameter. FMD was normalized by dividing FMD by peak shear rate, multiplied by 1000 (35). Ultrasound images were analyzed using EchoPACtm (GE Vingmed Ultrasound AS). Blood samples. Blood samples were collected by venous puncture in fasting state (Q12 h), and EDTA and serum Vacutainers were collected. Hematocrit, hemoglobin, mean cell volume, mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), MCH concentration (MCHC), leucocytes, erythrocytes, and thrombocytes were analyzed in plasma by the Sysmex XE-2100 analyzer (Sysmex Co., Kobe, Japan). Furthermore, EDTA and serum were frozen (j80-C) for later biochemical analysis. Albumin, iron, total iron binding capacity, and transferrin were analyzed in serum by the Roche Modular P analyzer (Roche Diagnostics, Basel, Switzerland). Ferritin, folate, and cobalamin were analyzed by the Roche Modular E analyzer (Roche Diagnostics). Erythropoietin was analyzed by the Siemens DPC Immulite 2000 (DPC-Siemens, La GarenneColombes, France). All analyses were conducted according to standard procedures at the Department of Medical Biochemistry, St. Olavs University Hospital (Trondheim, Norway). Oxidized LDL was measured in plasma with Mercodia oxidized LDL ELISA (Mercodia, Uppsala, Sweden). Plasma nitrite and nitrate were analyzed in plasma/serum according to the procedures previously described in detail by Peacock et al. (23). Anthropometric measurements. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (InBody 720; Biospace Co. Ltd., Seoul, Korea) was used to assess body mass and body composition. Distribution of training intensity. Training history over the 6-month period before measurements was recorded based on athletes’ training diaries and classified into intensity zones according to the session goal method, as previously employed by Sandbakk et al. (30). Endurance training was registered by an HR monitor and categorized into three intensity zones using the Norwegian Olympic System’s intensity scale: low-intensity endurance training (LIT; 60%– 81% of HRmax), moderate-intensity endurance training (MIT; 82%–87% of HRmax), and high-intensity endurance training (HIT) (988% of HRmax). Speed/resilience and strength training were also recorded in time from the first session to the last

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session and includes recovery periods. Speed/resilience training was sport-specific, with sessions shorter than 30 s and long recovery periods in all sports. Because laboratory measurements were performed right after each discipline’s competition phase, training hours were recorded during a period with relatively low training volume during the competitive season. Sample size. With a mean difference in total BV of 0.7 L and an SD of 0.4 L between expected values in the disciplines of XC skiing versus orienteering and kayaking (10), it was estimated that 12 subjects were needed for each group (80% power and > level set to 5%). Statistical analysis. Variables are presented as mean with 95% confidence interval (CI). Histograms with normality curves, error bars, and Q–Q plots were used to explore assumptions of normality. Homogeneity of variances was checked with Levene’s test. One-way ANOVA was used for comparisons between the three groups. Welch and Brown– Forsythe robust tests of equality of means were used if the assumption of the homogeneity of variance was violated. Post hoc comparisons were made using Tukey HSD. Independent-samples t-test was used to look at differences in training volumes between subjects age e20 yr and subjects age Q21 yr. Level of significance was set to > G 0.05. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics software program version 20 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). GraphPad Prism version 6 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) was used for graphic illustrations.

RESULTS Subject characteristics. Anthropometric characteristics and body composition (Table 1) demonstrate È8% higher body mass index and fat-free mass (FFM) in kayakers compared to orienteers (P G 0.05). Upper-body FFM was È17% and È11% higher in kayakers compared to orienteers and skiers, respectively (both P G 0.01), with the corresponding ratio of upper-body to total-body FFM being È8% and È4% higher, respectively (both P G 0.01; Table 1). In the latter case, XC skiers showed a ratio È4% higher than that of orienteers (P G 0.01). The ratio of leg to total-body FFM was È9% and È6% higher in orienteers compared to kayakers and skiers, respectively (both P G 0.01; Table 1). Maximal oxygen uptake. XC skiers demonstrated ˙ O2max (mLIminj1Ikgj1) compared to ori9.9% higher V ˙ O2max enteers (P G 0.01), with the corresponding V j1 j1 (mLImin Ikg FFM ) being 12.5% higher than that in kayakers (P G 0.05; all values are presented in Fig. 1). ˙ O2max (LIminj1) was 11.3% and 10.3% lower in orienteers V compared to XC skiers and kayakers, respectively (both P G 0.01; Fig. 1). Peak oxygen pulse (mL per beat) was 11.9% higher in XC skiers than in orienteers (P G 0.05; Table 1). BV and total Hbmass. As shown in the overview of BV variables in Table 2, there were no differences in total BV between the three groups, but XC skiers and orienteers had 10.4% and 9.9% higher BV than kayakers when normalized for total body mass (both P G 0.05). When normalized for

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TABLE 1. Age, anthropometric characteristics, body composition, and blood variables for XC skiers, orienteers and kayakers involved in this study. Subjects

XC Skiers

Age (yr) Anthropometric variables Body height (cm) Body mass (kg) Body mass index (kgImj2) Body composition Fat mass (%) Fat mass (kg) FFM total body (kg) FFM upper body (kg) FFM upper body (%) FFM legs (kg) FFM legs (%) Blood variables Albumin (gILj1) Ferritin (KgILj1) Folate (nmolILj1) Iron (KmolILj1) Cobalamin (KmolILj1) Total iron binding capacity (KmolILj1) Transferrin (gILj1) Erythropoietin (mUImLj1) Oxidized LDL (UIdLj1) Nitrite (nmolILj1) Nitrate (KmolILj1) Peak oxygen pulse (mL O2Ibeatj1Ikgj1)  100

Orienteers

Kayakers

22.7 (20.7–24.6)*

22.5 (21.3–23.6)

19.6 (18.0–21.2)

181.1 (178.6–183.5) 74.9 (70.7–79.1) 22.8 (21.9–23.7)

184.4 (181.0–187.8) 74.0 (70.5–77.4) 21.7 (20.9–22.5)

183.2 (181.1–185.3) 78.4 (75.1–81.7) 23.4 (22.6–24.1)**

9.7 (7.6–11.8) 7.4 (5.5–9.3) 67.0 (63.3–70.6) 36.6 (34.8–38.4) 54.8 (53.7–55.8) 20.5 (19.4–21.6) 30.6 (30.0–31.2)

10.1 (8.7–11.4) 7.4 (6.3–8.5) 66.3 (62.9–69.6) 34.9 (32.9–36.8) 52.6 (51.8–53.4)**** 21.6 (20.4–22.7) 32.5 (31.8–33.3)***

8.7 (7.4–10.1) 6.9 (5.7–8.1) 71.8 (68.7–74.9)** 40.7 (38.7–42.7)*** 56.7 (55.8–57.5)*** 21.4 (20.4–22.5) 29.9 (29.3–30.5)

45.8 (45.2–46.4) 114.2 (88.9–139.6) 19.2 (16.0–22.5) 20.6 (17.8–23.3) 419.2 (335.5–502.9) 60.6 (57.7–63.5) 2.4 (2.3–2.5) 8.5 (6.5–10.5) 45.5 (42.2–48.9) 131.8 (109.2–154.4) 19.8 (17.4–22.3)

46.0 (45.0–47.0) 70.9 (47.8–94.1) 18.7 (16.2–21.1) 19.6 (15.6–23.6) 376.4 (341.4–411.4) 66.4 (62.2–70.7) 2.7 (2.5–2.8) 7.9 (6.4–9.4) 41.8 (38.0–45.7) 196.7 (154.0–239.5)***** 23.9 (18.8–29.0)

46.9 (45.9–47.9) 109.5 (59.9–159.0) 21.6 (15.2–27.9) 23.4 (17.5–29.3) 440.2 (354.1–526.3) 64.7 (58.7–70.8) 2.6 (2.4–2.8) 7.6 (6.1–9.1) 40.5 (34.2–46.8) 154.3 (127.8–180.8) 22.5 (14.3–30.7)

30.12 (28.20–32.04)**

26.91 (25.25–28.57)

29.79 (27.04–32.53)

Data are presented as mean (95% CI). *Significantly higher than kayakers (P G 0.05). **Significantly higher than orienteers (P G 0.05). ***Significantly higher than all other groups (P G 0.01). ****Significantly lower than all other groups (P G 0.01). *****Significantly higher than XC skiers (P G 0.01).

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speed/resilience, and threefold more strength training compared to the two other groups (all P G 0.01). Due to significant group differences in mean age, an analysis of total training hours was also conducted, separating

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FFM, orienteers and XC skiers demonstrated 11.8% and 10.6% higher BV, respectively, than kayakers (both P G 0.01). XC skiers had 9.2% higher Hbmass relative to body mass compared to kayakers, whereas the corresponding values normalized for FFM were 10.6% and 9.9% higher for XC skiers compared to orienteers and kayakers, respectively (all P G 0.05; Table 2). Hematological variables are presented in Table 3. There were no differences in hematological values between groups, except for MCHC, where XC skiers had 2.3% and 3.0% higher values than orienteers and kayakers, respectively (both P G 0.01). Flow-mediated dilatation. Brachial artery diameter and flow are presented in Table 4. Kayakers had 15.0% greater arterial diameter than orienteers at baseline, 13.5% greater arterial diameter after 30 s, and È12% greater arterial diameter at 60 and 90 s (all P G 0.05). XC skiers had 11.8%, 13.5%, 10.8%, and 12.0% greater arterial diameter than orienteers at baseline, 30 s, 60 s, and 90 s, respectively (all P G 0.05). There were no significant differences in FMD, even after normalizing FMD for shear rate. Distribution of training intensity. The training distribution shown in Table 5 demonstrates that kayakers performed 29% and 73% more total training volume than XC skiers and orienteers, respectively, whereas skiers demonstrated a 34% higher training volume than orienteers (all P G 0.01). Correspondingly, XC skiers and kayakers had 42% and 39% more LIT than orienteers, whereas kayakers had almost twice as much MIT and HIT, threefold higher

˙ O2max for elite XC skiers, orienteers, and kayakers inFIGURE 1—V volved in this study. Data are presented as mean (95% CI).

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TABLE 2. BV variables for XC skiers, orienteers, and kayakers involved in this study. Subjects

XC Skiing

BV (mL) BV (mLIkgj1) BV (mLIkg FFMj1) Hbmass (g) Hbmass (gIkgj1) Hbmass (gIkg FFMj1) RCV (mL) RCV (mLIkgj1) RCV (mLIkg FFMj1) PV (mL) PV (mLIkgj1) PV (mLIkg FFMj1)

7984 105.3 115.2 1079 14.2 15.7 3103 40.9 45.3 4882 64.4 70.0

Orienteering

(7360–8608) (100.5–110.0) (108.5–122.0) (992–1166) (13.5–15.0)** (14.6–16.8) (2848–3357) (38.8–42.9) (42.2–48.3) (4490–5273) (61.2–67.5) (65.7–74.3)

7733 (7166–8300) 104.8 (100.4–109.2) 116.5 (112.1–120.9) 1034 (968–1100) 14.0 (13.6–14.5) 15.6 (15.1–16.1) 3039 (2828–3251) 41.2 (39.7–42.8) 45.8 (44.2–47.4) 4694 (4317–5070) 63.6 (60.3–66.9) 70.7 (67.3–74.1)

Kayaking 7482 95.4 104.2 1022 13.0 14.2 3019 38.4 42.0 4462 56.9 62.2

(6833–8132) (89.1–101.6)* (97.1–111.2)*** (947–1096) (12.5–13.5) (13.6–14.9)* (2782–3257) (36.7–40.2) (39.8–44.2)**** (4003–4922) (51.9–61.9)* (56.7–67.6)***

Data are presented as mean (95% CI). *Significantly lower than other groups (P G 0.05). **Significantly higher than the kayak group (P G 0.01). ***Significantly lower than other groups (P G 0.01. ****Significantly lower than the orienteering group (P G 0.05).

the total sample size into two different age groups (e20 and Q21 yr). This showed no significant difference between the two groups.

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DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to compare sport-specific physiological adaptations in highly trained endurance athletes primarily using whole-body, lower-body, or upper˙ O2max values body exercise. Here, we showed higher V (mLIminj1Ikgj1 and mLIminj1Ikg FFMj1) in XC skiers and greater arterial diameters in the arms of skiers and kayakers as sport-specific physiological adaptations to chronic endurance training in these exercise modes. This is further supported by the sport-specific diversity in body composition between groups, where kayakers and orienteers differed in the relative distribution of upper-body and lower-body FFM. However, variations in none of these variables were related to differences in BV or Hbmass. ˙ O2max values for XC skiers were È78 mLI The mean V j1 j1 min Ikg and 5.8 LIminj1, in line with previous studies of international-level male XC skiers (12,15,28,30). As hypothesized, skiers showed significantly higher values than orienteers in absolute values and when normalized for total body mass or FFM. This corresponds well with the findings of Saltin and Astrand (28) in the mid-1960s and might be a specific physiological adaptation to whole-body exercise employed in XC skiing compared to lower-limb exercise in ˙ O2max did not significantly differ orienteering. In contrast, V ˙ O2max between XC skiers and kayakers. The high absolute V

values of kayakers were expected due to their high body ˙ O2max values, especially normalized for mass, but their V body mass, were surprisingly high compared to those reported in previous literature (28,36). To further understand these findings, we analyzed how blood variables, vascular function, body composition, and training differed between the three sports. ˙ O2max values found in In correspondence with the high V XC skiers, we expected higher BV among skiers than in the ˙ O2max has previously been positively other groups because V associated with BV (4,10,17,32). However, our data showed no difference in BV between XC skiers and orienteers, with both groups having significantly higher body-massnormalized values than kayakers. The same general pattern of lower values for kayakers was also seen for Hbmass, RCV, and PV normalized for total body mass and FFM, whereas XC skiers and orienteers did not differ in any case. Overall, our data show BV and Hbmass values in XC skiers and orienteers that are 20%–35% and 20%–30% higher than those in untrained individuals and are in line with previous findings in elite endurance athletes (10,32). The similar BV variables ˙ O2max values in in orienteers and XC skiers, but the higher V the latter, imply that other explanatory mechanisms are as˙ O2max values (e.g., enhanced cardiac sociated with higher V chamber compliance) (19,20). This is likely because oxygen pulse, which is considered to be an indicator of stroke volume (39), was significantly higher in XC skiers than in orienteers. Still, the significant difference in BV and Hbmass between XC skiers and kayakers indicates that physiological adaptations concerning blood constituents may differ between

TABLE 3. Hematological variables for XC skiers, orienteers, and kayakers involved in this study. XC Skiing Hemoglobin (gIdLj1) Hematocrit (%) Leukocytes (109 Lj1) Erythrocytes (1012 Lj1) Mean cell volume (fL) MCH (pg) MCHC (gIdLj1) Thrombocytes (gILj1)

14.9 (14.5–15.3) 42.7 (41.6–43.8) 4.9 (4.5–5.3) 4.8 (4.7–5.0) 88.4 (87.3–89.6) 30.8 (30.5–31.2) 348.4 (345.2–351.6)* 215.6 (188.6–242.6)

Orienteering 14.7 43.3 5.5 4.9 89.2 30.4 340.6 206.8

(14.3–15.2) (42.1–44.4) (4.8–6.1) (4.7–5.0) (87.9–90.5) (29.8–30.9) (336.0–345.3) (189.3–224.3)

Kayaking 15.1 44.5 4.5 4.9 90.5 30.5 338.3 211.9

(14.4–15.7) (42.6–46.3) (3.7–5.4) (4.7–5.2) (88.1–92.8) (29.7–31.3) (335.2–341.3) (193.7–230.1)

Data are presented as mean (95% CI). *Significantly higher than other groups (P G 0.01).

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TABLE 4. Arterial diameter and arterial flow for XC skiers, orienteers, and kayakers involved in this study. XC Skiing Diameter baseline (mm) Diameter at 30 s (mm) Diameter at 60 s (mm) Diameter at 90 s (mm) Baseline flow (cmIsj1) Postdeflation flow (cmIsj1)

Orienteering

4.22 (4.03–4.40) 4.54 (4.36–4.72) 4.53 (4.35–4.71) 4.48 (4.29–4.66) 96.17 (84.65) 115.58 (104.91–126.25)

3.81 4.00 4.09 4.00 100.11 112.70

Kayaking

(3.64–3.99)* (3.82–4.18)** (3.90–4.27)* (3.80–4.19)* (87.82–112.39) (101.66–123.74)

4.38 4.54 4.58 4.47 97.09 109.82

(3.96–4.80) (4.15–4.93) (4.22–4.93) (4.11–4.83) (85.35–108.84) (100.82–118.82)

Data are presented as mean (95% CI). *Significantly lower than other groups (P G 0.05). **Significantly lower than other groups (P G 0.01).

participating subjects’ training were optimized for specific de˙ O2max mands in their sports. This means that the higher V values in XC skiers, the differences in BV variables, the larger arterial diameters in skiers and kayakers, and the differences in body composition between sports are likely related to chronic exposure to the main exercise modes used in their training and the corresponding intensity distribution. Although the muscle mass employed in running should be sufficient to stimulate ˙ O2max values in cardiac output maximally (13), the higher V XC skiers may be an effect of higher training volume and greater amount at high intensity. Although kayakers’ lower BV may be an effect of the lower muscle mass employed in upperbody exercise, their training must have stimulated other factors ˙ O2max effectively. Kayakers had significantly that enhance V more total training hours than the two other groups during this time of the season, mainly due to higher amounts of MIT, HIT, and strength training. Still, the annual training volume of XC skiers may be similar to that of kayakers because skiers compete more frequently and perform much of their training volume in the 6 months following the period in which this study was performed. Still, the high training volumes in kayakers compared to orienteers may be explained by the fact that kayaking is a non-weight-bearing activity, which is different from running. The lower muscle mass activated during upperbody exercise may also allow for faster recovery and, thereby, higher training volumes. This interaction between training mode and optimal intensity distribution is of high interest for future examination. In this context, one interesting aspect that may have influenced the higher training volumes of kayakers is that the upper body does not profit from lifestyle activities to the same extent as the lower body (i.e., we constantly use the legs to move). Hence, kayakers might require more training hours and tolerate them better compared to athletes participating in weight-bearing activities. However, note that the training distribution for all three sports is taken from the competition

TABLE 5. Total self-reported training performed 6 months before testing. XC Skiing Subjects LIT MIT HIT Speed/resilience Strength Total

Orienteering

Kayaking

Hours

% of Total

Hours

% of Total

216 (188–244) 17 (11–22) 26 (20–32) 5 (3–8) 20 (14–26) 282 (251–313)**

76.6 6.0 9.2 1.8 7.1 100.0

152 (119–186)* 18 (12–24) 25 (19–31) 1 (0–3) 12 (7–16) 210 (177–243)*

72.4 8.6 11.9 0.5 5.7 100.0

Hours 212 34 49 19 61 364

(191–233) (26–42)** (24–73)** (2–35)** (46–77)** (325–404)**

% of Total 58.2 9.3 13.5 5.2 16.8 100.0

Data are presented as mean (95% CI). *Significantly lower than other groups (P G 0.01). **Significantly higher than other groups (P G 0.01).

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sports consisting of whole-body or upper-body exercise. Whether the more significant anaerobic contribution to kayak performance (3,21,36) (compared to XC skiing) or other factors related to upper-body exercise are responsible for these diversities requires further elucidation. XC skiers and kayakers were found to have significantly larger brachial artery diameters compared to orienteers. This difference in brachial artery diameter found between different sport disciplines is the direct effect of sport-specific adaptation. It has previously been shown that arterial diameter is induced through training (8,27). Thus, XC skiers and kayakers who train their upper limbs substantially more than orienteers display larger brachial artery diameters. Furthermore, our study showed enhanced FMD in XC skiers and orienteers when we compared them with values found in the general population (33). However, kayakers—who had the largest arterial diameters among our examined groups—had FMD lower than normal values. This finding is in accordance with previous studies suggesting an inverse correlation between arterial diameter and FMD in athletes (8,27). Why this same phenomenon was not present in XC skiers is unclear because this group also presented enlarged arterial diameters compared to orienteers. A possible explanation might be that kayakers’ brachial arteries are even more exposed to shear stress through their more predominant use of upper-body exercise than XC skiers, who use their whole bodies. The expected associations between FMD and nitrite content as indicators of nitric oxide availability (18,37,38) were not found here, indicating that differences in vascular resistance and blood flow were caused by other factors. With the current design, we assumed that the physiological diversities between sports were mainly associated with differences in chronic exposure to training. Because XC skiers, orienteers, and flatwater kayakers were matched at comparable international performance levels, we suggest that the

phase, which is characterized by high amounts of movementspecific training but relatively low training volumes (i.e., one third of the total annual training volume).

CONCLUSIONS The current study demonstrates specific physiological adaptations to chronic endurance training in sports with a predominance of upper-body, lower-body, and/or whole-body exercise modes among performance-matched international˙ O2max value was found in XC skiers level athletes. A higher V compared to orienteers, which may be linked to the greater muscle mass and greater training volumes employed in this ˙ O2max values in kayakers did not differ from sport. The V those in the other groups, although kayakers had lower BV and Hbmass than XC skiers. The latter may be linked to lower exercising muscle mass, whereas kayakers compensate with other factors that are possibly associated with their high total training volume and high-intensity training volume. The significantly greater arterial diameters in kayakers and XC skiers may reflect their adaptations to chronic upper-body endurance exercise, which is further supported by the sport-specific

diversity in the relative distribution of upper-body and lowerbody mass between these groups of athletes. Exploring other ˙ O2max (e.g., heart possible mechanisms related to higher V size, cardiac chamber compliance, and peripheral muscle factors) in athletes specially trained for upper-body, lower-body, or whole-body exercise may provide further insight into the upper limits of humans’ ability to adapt to such training.

The authors would like to thank the athletes and their coaches for their cooperation and participation in this study; Professor Jostein Halle´n and Hege Wilson Landgraff, Ph.D. (Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Science, Oslo, Norway), for assistance during data collection in Oslo; and Ingerid Arbo and Atefe Tari (K.G. Jebsen Center for Exercise in Medicine, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway) for help in the laboratory. This study was financially supported by the Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. All authors assisted in the writing of the manuscript and were involved in study design and/or data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation. The results of the present study do not constitute endorsement by the American College of Sports Medicine.

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Sport-Specific Physiological Adaptations in Highly Trained Endurance Athletes.

This study aims to compare maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max), blood volume (BV), hemoglobin mass (Hbmass), and brachial endothelial function, measured a...
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