Analytical Biochemistry 468 (2015) 22–27
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Specific calpain activity evaluation in Plasmodium parasites Mayrim M. Gomes a,c, Alexandre Budu b, Priscilla D.S. Ventura c, Piero Bagnaresi b, Simone S. Cotrin b, Rodrigo L.O.R. Cunha d, Adriana K. Carmona b, Luiz Juliano b, Marcos L. Gazarini c,⇑ a
Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, UNIFESP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil c Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Santos, SP, Brazil d Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 1 July 2014 Received in revised form 13 August 2014 Accepted 6 September 2014 Available online 2 October 2014 Keywords: Plasmodium Proteases Calpain Calcium signaling Calmodulin
a b s t r a c t In the intraerythrocytic trophozoite stages of Plasmodium falciparum, the calcium-dependent cysteine protease calpain (Pf-calpain) has an important role in the parasite calcium modulation and cell development. We established specific conditions to follow by confocal microscopy and spectrofluorimetry measurements the intracellular activity of Pf-calpain in live cells. The catalytic activity was measured using the fluorogenic Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (where Z is carbobenzoxy and MCA is 4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide). The calmodulin inhibitor calmidazolium and the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin were used for modifications in the cytosolic calcium concentrations that persisted in the absence of extracellular calcium. The observed calcium-dependent peptidase activity was greatly inhibited by specific cysteine protease inhibitor E-64 and by the selective calpain inhibitor ALLN (N-acetyl-L-leucylL-leucyl-L-norleucinal). Taken together, we observed that intracellular Pf-calpain can be selectively detected and is the main calcium-dependent protease in the intraerythrocytic stages of the parasite. The method described here can be helpful in cell metabolism studies and antimalarial drug screening. Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Malaria is an aggressive disease that is responsible for millions of deaths annually [1]; therefore, it is urgent to identify new drug targets and develop new treatment strategies. Plasmodium proteases participate in essential events for parasite life, including the invasion of and egress from erythrocytes and hemoglobin degradation for the acquisition of amino acids [2–4]. Malaria parasite proteases, such as aspartic, cysteine, and serine proteases and metalloproteases, have been considered potential therapeutic targets [5–7]. Falcipain-2 and falcipain-3, which are the best-studied members of this class, are located in the parasite’s food vacuole and are essential for the hydrolysis of hemoglobin [8] and development [9]. In addition, part of Plasmodium protease activities are regulated by cellular events with release calcium [10], which is an important second messenger that regulates various functions in eukaryotic cells such as protein secretion, gene expression, and cellular development [11,12]. Calpain, a calcium-dependent cysteine protease expressed in mammals and other organisms, has an ortholog identified in P. falciparum that has been associated with the development and invasion and egress of the parasite from ⇑ Corresponding author. Fax: +55 13 32218058. E-mail addresses: (M.L. Gazarini).
[email protected],
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ab.2014.09.005 0003-2697/Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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the host cell [7,13–18]. The Plasmodium genome encodes a unique calpain [15,19] that is expressed during all intraerythrocytic stages and possesses high sequence similarity to Caenorhabditis elegans calpain, which is classified as an atypical calpain [19]. However, there is a lack of biochemical data related to this enzyme, most likely due to the unusual gene size (6.147 bp) [15]. Studies performed on rodent malaria parasite species (Plasmodium chabaudi) and parasites responsible for human malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) have shown that both maintain nanomolar levels of cytosolic calcium during maturation [20] with spontaneous oscillations [21,22] and use specific organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, acidic compartments, and mitochondria) to store this ion [23,24]. In the erythrocyte egress step, the increase in the parasite’s cytoplasmic calcium is essential and most likely is related to calpain activation and erythrocyte cytoskeleton destabilization [25]. The growth of Plasmodium parasites is inhibited by a variety of Ca2+ ionophores, Ca2+ channel blockers, calcium chelators, and calmodulin inhibitors [26–28], showing the importance of this ion to parasite survival and development. Here, we report a selective measurement method to evaluate intracellular calpain activity in Plasmodium parasites and the influence of calcium homeostasis disruption by inhibiting calmodulin or endoplasmic calcium pump.
Specific calpain activity in Plasmodium / M.M. Gomes et al. / Anal. Biochem. 468 (2015) 22–27
Materials and methods Materials The substrate Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (where Z is carbobenzoxy and MCA is 4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide)1 and the inhibitors phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), pepstatin, ortho-phenanthroline, E64 , N-acetyl-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-norleucinal (ALLN), thapsigargin (THG), and calmidazolium (CZ) were purchased form Sigma (St. Louis, MO, USA) The peptide Bz-LR-MCA was purchased from AminoTech (São Paulo, Brazil). Mice and P. chabaudi infection P. chabaudi parasites (clone AS) were maintained by weekly infection of male Balb/C mice (20–40 g initial body weight, 12 weeks initial age). The animals were housed in a temperaturecontrolled room (22 °C) with a 12-h dark–light cycle and infected intraperitoneally by injecting 105 infected erythrocytes. At the peak of parasitemia, animal euthanasia was performed by cervical dislocation followed by leukocyte/platelet removal with filtration through a powdered cellulose column (Whatman CF11) [29]. The isolation of parasites was performed as described elsewhere [30].
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measured using a Hitachi F-7000 spectrofluorimeter by continuous measurement of the fluorescence variation at kex = 505 nm and kem = 530 nm. Maximal fluorescence (Fmax) was determined after the lysis of parasites with digitonin (33.3 lM), and minimal fluorescence (Fmin) was determined after adding ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid (EGTA, 100 lM). The cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) was calculated using Kd = 345 nM: [Ca2+]cyt = 345 [(F Fmin)/Fmax F)] [32]. Confocal microscopy Dynamic imaging was performed using an LSM 510 META laser scanning microscope (Carl Zeiss, Germany) equipped with a 63 water immersion objective. The parasites were added to microscope cover slips (MatTek, USA) pretreated for 1 h with L-polylysine solution and excited at 365 nm. The emitted light was collected through a bandpass filter at 387 to 470 nm. Transmitted light observations were performed during the experiments to assess the integrity of the cells. The measure expressed in AFU was acquired from an average of selected whole-parasite areas. The isolated parasites were resuspended in Mops buffer (pH 7.2), and the catalytic activity was measured using 10 lM Z-Phe-ArgMCA as the substrate. The results are representative of at least three experiments.
P. falciparum Results and discussion P. falciparum (3D7 strain) was cultured as described previously [31]. The parasites were isolated from red blood cells when cultures reached approximately 10% parasitemia using a procedure described elsewhere [30]. Spectrofluorimetric assay to assess the proteolytic activity and calcium concentration of isolated parasites Isolated parasites in suspension (106 cells/ml) were transferred to a quartz cuvette or 96-well plate containing Mops buffer and were maintained at 37 °C in a Hitachi F-7000 spectrofluorimeter (Tokyo, Japan). Proteolytic activity was monitored measuring the hydrolysis of the substrate Z-Phe-Arg-MCA. The wavelengths of the fluorimeter were set to kex = 380 nm and kem = 460 nm with a slit of 10/10 nm. The activity observed corresponded to arbitrary fluorescence units (AFU) measured after 10 min of incubation in the presence or absence of the following drugs: endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase inhibitor THG (10 lM), calmodulin inhibitor CZ (5 lM), calpain inhibitor ALLN (0.05–0.5 lM), reducing agent dithiothreitol (DTT, 2 mM), aspartyl protease inhibitor pepstatin A (1 lM), serine protease inhibitor PMSF (10 lM), metalloprotease inhibitor ortho-phenanthroline (1 mM), divalent cation chelator ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA, 5 mM), and cysteine protease inhibitor E-64 (10 lM). As a control, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was added in the same volume as the drugs to test the parasite’s viability and the proteolytic activity. Z-Phe-Arg-MCA and THG (10 lM) in a Mops buffer suspension without parasites was also tested. For calcium measurements, parasites were incubated for 50 min at 37 °C in Mops buffer supplemented with 5 lM of the calcium indicator Fluo-4 AM (Molecular Probes) and 1 mM probenecid, which minimizes indicator extrusion and compartmentalization. Subsequently, the cells were washed twice with the same buffer and transferred to a quartz cuvette. Intracellular calcium was 1 Abbreviations used: Z, is carbobenzoxy; MCA, 4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide; PMSF, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride; ALLN, N-acetyl-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-norleucinal; THG, thapsigargin; CZ, calmidazolium; AFU, arbitrary fluorescence units; DTT, dithiothreitol; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; EGTA, ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid; ER, endoplasmic reticulum.
Modulation of proteolytic activity by calcium in P. falciparum and P. chabaudi Fig. 1 shows our refined cell assay that allowed exclusive measurements of calcium-dependent peptidase activity by exploring the difference in the activation mechanisms of calpain versus calcium-independent cysteine proteases. The latter enzymes can be fully activated by DTT, whereas calpain requires becoming activated by both DTT and calcium. Furthermore, the specific cysteine
Fig.1. Live cell measurement of calcium-dependent thiol proteolysis (calpain) of P. chabaudi parasites using Z-Phe-Arg-MCA as substrate. Isolated P. chabaudi trophozoite cells were preincubated with DTT (2 mM, 2 min), followed by inhibition with E-64 (10 lM, 5 min) and by two washes with Mops buffer (pH 6.5) for the removal of free inhibitor. The samples were then transferred to a cuvette. Each addition step was also performed using confocal microscopy and is represented by fluorescence images, as indicated. Additions where performed sequentially on the same preparation as in the order indicated. The data were compared with a one-way analysis of variance and a Newman–Keuls posttest. ⁄⁄P < 0.001 (n = 3).
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Specific calpain activity in Plasmodium / M.M. Gomes et al. / Anal. Biochem. 468 (2015) 22–27
protease inhibitor E-64 can access the calpain active site exclusively when the enzyme is activated. Thus, we incubated isolated P. chabaudi parasites with DTT and inhibited the activated proteases with E-64 (Fig. 1). After removing the free E-64 by washing the parasites with buffer, the cells were incubated again with DTT; no increase in proteolysis was observed (Fig. 1), confirming that the calcium-independent cysteine proteases were inhibited. However, the subsequent addition of THG to the parasites induced a significant rise in proteolysis, which was due solely to calciumdependent proteases (Pc-calpain) (Fig. 1). THG is an effective inhibitor of the Ca2+ ion pump proteins of intracellular membranes located in endoplasmic reticulum (ER), resulting in Ca2+ release to the cytosol. The activity of these calcium-activated proteases was abrogated by the addition of E-64 after THG, indicating that we were solely evaluating cysteine proteases (Fig. 1). Calpains can be identified by the calcium levels required for their activation (lM or mM range) [33]. To observe the direct correlation between cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) and hydrolytic activity, we performed measurements of calcium levels (assessed with Fluo-4 AM) and proteolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA by P. falciparum cells (Fig. 2). The addition of CZ disrupts calcium homeostasis by inhibiting calmodulin, a protein that, in addition to being directly involved in calcium signaling events, is also a calcium buffer capable of promoting a transient [Ca2+]cyt increase in calcium buffer (Fig. 2A). CZ relies on calcium release from the intracellular milieu, as verified in an assay performed in buffer without calcium and in the presence of 100 lM EGTA (Fig. 2B). The intracellular proteolytic activity of the same preparation was followed in a different cuvette and responded directly to the [Ca2+]cyt rise, being inhibited by 0.5 lM of the calpain inhibitor ALLN (Fig. 2A and B). Similar assays were performed inducing calcium mobilization from parasite intracellular stores (ER) using the ER Ca2+ ATPase inhibitor THG [34] (Fig. 2C and D). The calcium released from the ER showed different kinetics depending on the availability of calcium in the buffer; that is, it was sustained in
calcium buffer (Fig. 2C) and transient in calcium-free buffer in the presence of EGTA (Fig. 2D). We quantified the [Ca2+]cyt increase evoked by THG and CZ and observed that the compounds released calcium from the nanomolar to micromolar range (Fig. 2E). Peptidase activity was found to be directly related to calcium increase; that is, it was higher in the calcium buffer than in the calcium-free buffer for THG and CZ, although it did not display a significant difference for THG (Fig. 2F). Moreover, the proteolytic activity induced by THG and CZ was abrogated by ALLN (0.5 lM) under both conditions (Fig. 2F). The assay depicted in Fig. 2 allows the analysis of the source of the calcium able to activate P. falciparum calpain. This methodology is relevant to broaden studies seeking to correlate calcium signaling and specific calpain-triggered proteolysis in different eukaryotic cells. Potentially, the method used can be employed with other proteases besides calpain. In addition, the correlation of calcium-dependent protease activity with cellular development, such as in cell cycle control and apoptosis events, can be an important tool for cell metabolism characterization in different models. It is important to stress, however, that for the discrimination of the different proteases involved in calcium signaling, it is essential to have a specific inhibitor. That is the case of the specific calpain inhibitor ALLN and intracellular calcium mobilization agonists (CZ and THG) that were employed in the study. The involvement of falcipains in the measurement of calciumdependent proteolysis was discarded by determining recombinant falcipain-2 and falcipain-3 catalytic activity toward Bz-LR-MCA in the presence of different CaCl2 concentrations (0.2–1.0 M) (see Fig. S1 in online supplementary material). The results indicated that both enzymes are not activated by free calcium, reinforcing the selective involvement of Pf-calpain in the intracellular measurement and inhibition obtained using isolated parasites. The use of the organic solvent DMSO in the same volume as the drugs did not alter the peptidase activity or parasite viability (data not shown). Moreover, the addition of 10 lM Z-Phe-Arg-MCA and
Fig.2. Simultaneous measurement of [Ca2+]cyt rise in P. falciparum with Fluo-4 AM (continuous line) and proteolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA in response to THG (10 lM), CZ (5 lM), and ALLN (0.5 lM) (discontinuous line) in buffer containing either 2 mM CaCl2 (A, C) or 100 lM EGTA (calcium free) (B, D). The same parasite preparation was used for both experiments. Quantification of [Ca2+]cyt (E) and proteolysis (F) were performed, and the data were analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance with a Newman–Keuls posttest (E) and paired t test (F). ⁄⁄P < 0.001 (n = 3).
Specific calpain activity in Plasmodium / M.M. Gomes et al. / Anal. Biochem. 468 (2015) 22–27
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Fig.3. Intracellular measurement of P. falciparum Pf-calpain. (A) Inhibition of proteolysis by increasing concentrations of ALLN. (B) ALLN (0.5 lM) inhibits calcium-dependent proteolysis induced by THG (10 lM). (C) Parasite cells were either pretreated or not pretreated with E-64. The cells were first incubated with DTT (1 mM, 2 min) followed by inhibition with E-64 (10 lM, 10 min) and two washes with Mops buffer (pH 7.2) for free inhibitor removal. Subsequently, the cell suspension was transferred to a cuvette, and for each situation different drugs were added (CZ, 10 lM; DTT, 1 mM; THG, 10 lM; E-64, 10 lM; ALLN, 0.5 lM). The data were compared with a paired one-way analysis of variance and a Newman–Keuls posttest. ⁄⁄⁄P < 0.0001 (n = 3).
Fig.4. Selective measurement of intracellular catalytic activity of P. falciparum using Z-Phe-Arg-MCA as substrate in the presence of inhibitors for each class of protease and Pf-calpain. (A) Effect of different inhibitors on the intracellular hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (10 lM). (B) Inhibition of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA hydrolysis by ALLN (0.5 lM) in combination with inhibitors for each class of protease. (C) Selective measurement of P. falciparum protease activity with the specific inhibition of cysteine, aspartyl, and serine proteases and metalloproteases, with the further addition of ALLN, E-64, and THG for the induction of calcium-dependent proteolysis. o-phe, ortho-phenanthroline. The data were compared with a one-way analysis of variance and a Newman–Keuls posttest. ⁄⁄P < 0.001; ⁄⁄⁄P < 0.0001 (n = 3).
THG in a Mops buffer suspension without parasites also did not change the proteolytic activity (data not shown). The inhibition of Pf-calpain activity was evaluated using different concentrations of ALLN (0.05–0.5 lM) that lead to an inhibition of 90% of the basal peptidase activity (Fig. 3A). The observed peptidase activity due to calcium release from the ER by THG was blocked by incubation with ALLN (0.5 lM) (Fig. 3B). The selective measurement of Pf-calpain activity was performed with parasites preincubated with E-64 (10 lM) to inhibit active cysteine proteases. After washing the cells to remove free E-64 from the supernatant, the activity was followed by the addition of the sub-
strate Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (10 lM) and calcium signaling reagents (Fig. 3C). The addition of THG (10 lM) led to a significant rise in peptidase activity (6 times) compared with the Z-Phe-ArgMCA + E-64 condition, which could be inhibited by further E-64 (10 lM) addition or by the specific calpain inhibitor ALLN (0.5 lM) (Fig. 3C). Interestingly, the THG-triggered increase in peptidase activity was significantly inhibited by ALLN (0.5 lM), indicating that cytosolic calcium increase from intracellular stores activated mainly ALLN-sensitive proteases (Fig. 3C). Because ALLN is a calpain-specific inhibitor, we can postulate that calcium activates Pf-calpain (Fig. 3C).
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Specific calpain activity in Plasmodium / M.M. Gomes et al. / Anal. Biochem. 468 (2015) 22–27
Effects of protease inhibitors on P. falciparum proteolysis To identify the class of P. falciparum parasite proteases responsible for the hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA, protease inhibitors (described in Materials and Methods) were preincubated for 10 min with cell suspensions before the addition of the substrate at 37 °C in Mops buffer (pH 7.2). The results indicated that, except for the cysteine protease inhibitor (E-64), the other inhibitors tested did not affect the hydrolytic activity, which was significantly inhibited by the further addition of ALLN (Fig. 4). The intracellular activity observed clearly demonstrated the predominance of cysteine proteases in P. falciparum. Concluding remarks ALLN, a specific calpain inhibitor, can decrease the maturation and survival of P. falciparum in culture and calpain expression [35]. Moreover, it has been shown that ALLN [35] and derivatives [36] present low toxicity to HeLa cells but high toxicity to P. falciparum. In agreement with the results from Jung and coworkers [35], we also observed a significant decrease in parasitemia on ALLN treatment (see Fig. S2 in supplementary material). Pf-calpain is a cysteine protease of P. falciparum, which is believed to be an essential central mediator for parasite development because it cannot be knocked out from the parasite genome [15]. Accordingly, calpain is believed to act as a maturase for the hemoglobin-digesting enzymes plasmepsin II and IV, stressing its importance in parasite intraerythrocytic development [37,38]. Moreover, it has unique characteristics (amino acid sequence and enzymatic regulation) compared with the host enzyme [19]. Taken together, the data support Pf-calpain as a potential antimalarial target in P. falciparum. The fact that the full-length Pf-calpain is difficult to express and purify from heterologous systems [17] highlights the importance of the method described in the current work to support the Plasmodium proteolysis studies and screening of novel drugs targeting Pf-calpain. In conclusion, we have developed a method to isolate and assess calpain activity in Plasmodium parasites that allows the screening of calpain-targeted drugs under physiological conditions.
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Acknowledgments
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The enzymes were kindly provided by Phillip J. Rosenthal (Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco). We also thank Marcia R. Nagaoka (Federal University of São Paulo) for comments on the manuscript. This work was funded by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq). Funding for this study was provided by FAPESP (09/54598-9, 09/53840-0, 12/50475-2, and CNPq 473.226/2010-3). M.M.G. was funded by FAPESP (10/09264-2 and 11/15287-8) and A.B. was funded by FAPESP (13/12913-0). We thank the Multiuser Multiphoton Confocal Microscopy Laboratory (INFAR)–UNIFESP for fluorescence images.
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Appendix A. Supplementary data [27]
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Analytical Biochemistry journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/yabio
Specific calpain activity evaluation in Plasmodium parasites Mayrim M. Gomes a,c, Alexandre Budu b, Priscilla D.S. Ventura c, Piero Bagnaresi b, Simone S. Cotrin b, Rodrigo L.O.R. Cunha d, Adriana K. Carmona b, Luiz Juliano b, Marcos L. Gazarini c,⇑ a
Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, UNIFESP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil c Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Santos, SP, Brazil d Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil b
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Article history: Received 1 July 2014 Received in revised form 13 August 2014 Accepted 6 September 2014 Available online 2 October 2014 Keywords: Plasmodium Proteases Calpain Calcium signaling Calmodulin
a b s t r a c t In the intraerythrocytic trophozoite stages of Plasmodium falciparum, the calcium-dependent cysteine protease calpain (Pf-calpain) has an important role in the parasite calcium modulation and cell development. We established specific conditions to follow by confocal microscopy and spectrofluorimetry measurements the intracellular activity of Pf-calpain in live cells. The catalytic activity was measured using the fluorogenic Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (where Z is carbobenzoxy and MCA is 4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide). The calmodulin inhibitor calmidazolium and the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin were used for modifications in the cytosolic calcium concentrations that persisted in the absence of extracellular calcium. The observed calcium-dependent peptidase activity was greatly inhibited by specific cysteine protease inhibitor E-64 and by the selective calpain inhibitor ALLN (N-acetyl-L-leucylL-leucyl-L-norleucinal). Taken together, we observed that intracellular Pf-calpain can be selectively detected and is the main calcium-dependent protease in the intraerythrocytic stages of the parasite. The method described here can be helpful in cell metabolism studies and antimalarial drug screening. Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Malaria is an aggressive disease that is responsible for millions of deaths annually [1]; therefore, it is urgent to identify new drug targets and develop new treatment strategies. Plasmodium proteases participate in essential events for parasite life, including the invasion of and egress from erythrocytes and hemoglobin degradation for the acquisition of amino acids [2–4]. Malaria parasite proteases, such as aspartic, cysteine, and serine proteases and metalloproteases, have been considered potential therapeutic targets [5–7]. Falcipain-2 and falcipain-3, which are the best-studied members of this class, are located in the parasite’s food vacuole and are essential for the hydrolysis of hemoglobin [8] and development [9]. In addition, part of Plasmodium protease activities are regulated by cellular events with release calcium [10], which is an important second messenger that regulates various functions in eukaryotic cells such as protein secretion, gene expression, and cellular development [11,12]. Calpain, a calcium-dependent cysteine protease expressed in mammals and other organisms, has an ortholog identified in P. falciparum that has been associated with the development and invasion and egress of the parasite from ⇑ Corresponding author. Fax: +55 13 32218058. E-mail addresses: (M.L. Gazarini).
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ab.2014.09.005 0003-2697/Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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the host cell [7,13–18]. The Plasmodium genome encodes a unique calpain [15,19] that is expressed during all intraerythrocytic stages and possesses high sequence similarity to Caenorhabditis elegans calpain, which is classified as an atypical calpain [19]. However, there is a lack of biochemical data related to this enzyme, most likely due to the unusual gene size (6.147 bp) [15]. Studies performed on rodent malaria parasite species (Plasmodium chabaudi) and parasites responsible for human malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) have shown that both maintain nanomolar levels of cytosolic calcium during maturation [20] with spontaneous oscillations [21,22] and use specific organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, acidic compartments, and mitochondria) to store this ion [23,24]. In the erythrocyte egress step, the increase in the parasite’s cytoplasmic calcium is essential and most likely is related to calpain activation and erythrocyte cytoskeleton destabilization [25]. The growth of Plasmodium parasites is inhibited by a variety of Ca2+ ionophores, Ca2+ channel blockers, calcium chelators, and calmodulin inhibitors [26–28], showing the importance of this ion to parasite survival and development. Here, we report a selective measurement method to evaluate intracellular calpain activity in Plasmodium parasites and the influence of calcium homeostasis disruption by inhibiting calmodulin or endoplasmic calcium pump.
Specific calpain activity in Plasmodium / M.M. Gomes et al. / Anal. Biochem. 468 (2015) 22–27
Materials and methods Materials The substrate Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (where Z is carbobenzoxy and MCA is 4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide)1 and the inhibitors phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), pepstatin, ortho-phenanthroline, E64 , N-acetyl-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-norleucinal (ALLN), thapsigargin (THG), and calmidazolium (CZ) were purchased form Sigma (St. Louis, MO, USA) The peptide Bz-LR-MCA was purchased from AminoTech (São Paulo, Brazil). Mice and P. chabaudi infection P. chabaudi parasites (clone AS) were maintained by weekly infection of male Balb/C mice (20–40 g initial body weight, 12 weeks initial age). The animals were housed in a temperaturecontrolled room (22 °C) with a 12-h dark–light cycle and infected intraperitoneally by injecting 105 infected erythrocytes. At the peak of parasitemia, animal euthanasia was performed by cervical dislocation followed by leukocyte/platelet removal with filtration through a powdered cellulose column (Whatman CF11) [29]. The isolation of parasites was performed as described elsewhere [30].
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measured using a Hitachi F-7000 spectrofluorimeter by continuous measurement of the fluorescence variation at kex = 505 nm and kem = 530 nm. Maximal fluorescence (Fmax) was determined after the lysis of parasites with digitonin (33.3 lM), and minimal fluorescence (Fmin) was determined after adding ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid (EGTA, 100 lM). The cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) was calculated using Kd = 345 nM: [Ca2+]cyt = 345 [(F Fmin)/Fmax F)] [32]. Confocal microscopy Dynamic imaging was performed using an LSM 510 META laser scanning microscope (Carl Zeiss, Germany) equipped with a 63 water immersion objective. The parasites were added to microscope cover slips (MatTek, USA) pretreated for 1 h with L-polylysine solution and excited at 365 nm. The emitted light was collected through a bandpass filter at 387 to 470 nm. Transmitted light observations were performed during the experiments to assess the integrity of the cells. The measure expressed in AFU was acquired from an average of selected whole-parasite areas. The isolated parasites were resuspended in Mops buffer (pH 7.2), and the catalytic activity was measured using 10 lM Z-Phe-ArgMCA as the substrate. The results are representative of at least three experiments.
P. falciparum Results and discussion P. falciparum (3D7 strain) was cultured as described previously [31]. The parasites were isolated from red blood cells when cultures reached approximately 10% parasitemia using a procedure described elsewhere [30]. Spectrofluorimetric assay to assess the proteolytic activity and calcium concentration of isolated parasites Isolated parasites in suspension (106 cells/ml) were transferred to a quartz cuvette or 96-well plate containing Mops buffer and were maintained at 37 °C in a Hitachi F-7000 spectrofluorimeter (Tokyo, Japan). Proteolytic activity was monitored measuring the hydrolysis of the substrate Z-Phe-Arg-MCA. The wavelengths of the fluorimeter were set to kex = 380 nm and kem = 460 nm with a slit of 10/10 nm. The activity observed corresponded to arbitrary fluorescence units (AFU) measured after 10 min of incubation in the presence or absence of the following drugs: endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase inhibitor THG (10 lM), calmodulin inhibitor CZ (5 lM), calpain inhibitor ALLN (0.05–0.5 lM), reducing agent dithiothreitol (DTT, 2 mM), aspartyl protease inhibitor pepstatin A (1 lM), serine protease inhibitor PMSF (10 lM), metalloprotease inhibitor ortho-phenanthroline (1 mM), divalent cation chelator ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA, 5 mM), and cysteine protease inhibitor E-64 (10 lM). As a control, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was added in the same volume as the drugs to test the parasite’s viability and the proteolytic activity. Z-Phe-Arg-MCA and THG (10 lM) in a Mops buffer suspension without parasites was also tested. For calcium measurements, parasites were incubated for 50 min at 37 °C in Mops buffer supplemented with 5 lM of the calcium indicator Fluo-4 AM (Molecular Probes) and 1 mM probenecid, which minimizes indicator extrusion and compartmentalization. Subsequently, the cells were washed twice with the same buffer and transferred to a quartz cuvette. Intracellular calcium was 1 Abbreviations used: Z, is carbobenzoxy; MCA, 4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide; PMSF, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride; ALLN, N-acetyl-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-norleucinal; THG, thapsigargin; CZ, calmidazolium; AFU, arbitrary fluorescence units; DTT, dithiothreitol; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; EGTA, ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid; ER, endoplasmic reticulum.
Modulation of proteolytic activity by calcium in P. falciparum and P. chabaudi Fig. 1 shows our refined cell assay that allowed exclusive measurements of calcium-dependent peptidase activity by exploring the difference in the activation mechanisms of calpain versus calcium-independent cysteine proteases. The latter enzymes can be fully activated by DTT, whereas calpain requires becoming activated by both DTT and calcium. Furthermore, the specific cysteine
Fig.1. Live cell measurement of calcium-dependent thiol proteolysis (calpain) of P. chabaudi parasites using Z-Phe-Arg-MCA as substrate. Isolated P. chabaudi trophozoite cells were preincubated with DTT (2 mM, 2 min), followed by inhibition with E-64 (10 lM, 5 min) and by two washes with Mops buffer (pH 6.5) for the removal of free inhibitor. The samples were then transferred to a cuvette. Each addition step was also performed using confocal microscopy and is represented by fluorescence images, as indicated. Additions where performed sequentially on the same preparation as in the order indicated. The data were compared with a one-way analysis of variance and a Newman–Keuls posttest. ⁄⁄P < 0.001 (n = 3).
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Specific calpain activity in Plasmodium / M.M. Gomes et al. / Anal. Biochem. 468 (2015) 22–27
protease inhibitor E-64 can access the calpain active site exclusively when the enzyme is activated. Thus, we incubated isolated P. chabaudi parasites with DTT and inhibited the activated proteases with E-64 (Fig. 1). After removing the free E-64 by washing the parasites with buffer, the cells were incubated again with DTT; no increase in proteolysis was observed (Fig. 1), confirming that the calcium-independent cysteine proteases were inhibited. However, the subsequent addition of THG to the parasites induced a significant rise in proteolysis, which was due solely to calciumdependent proteases (Pc-calpain) (Fig. 1). THG is an effective inhibitor of the Ca2+ ion pump proteins of intracellular membranes located in endoplasmic reticulum (ER), resulting in Ca2+ release to the cytosol. The activity of these calcium-activated proteases was abrogated by the addition of E-64 after THG, indicating that we were solely evaluating cysteine proteases (Fig. 1). Calpains can be identified by the calcium levels required for their activation (lM or mM range) [33]. To observe the direct correlation between cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) and hydrolytic activity, we performed measurements of calcium levels (assessed with Fluo-4 AM) and proteolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA by P. falciparum cells (Fig. 2). The addition of CZ disrupts calcium homeostasis by inhibiting calmodulin, a protein that, in addition to being directly involved in calcium signaling events, is also a calcium buffer capable of promoting a transient [Ca2+]cyt increase in calcium buffer (Fig. 2A). CZ relies on calcium release from the intracellular milieu, as verified in an assay performed in buffer without calcium and in the presence of 100 lM EGTA (Fig. 2B). The intracellular proteolytic activity of the same preparation was followed in a different cuvette and responded directly to the [Ca2+]cyt rise, being inhibited by 0.5 lM of the calpain inhibitor ALLN (Fig. 2A and B). Similar assays were performed inducing calcium mobilization from parasite intracellular stores (ER) using the ER Ca2+ ATPase inhibitor THG [34] (Fig. 2C and D). The calcium released from the ER showed different kinetics depending on the availability of calcium in the buffer; that is, it was sustained in
calcium buffer (Fig. 2C) and transient in calcium-free buffer in the presence of EGTA (Fig. 2D). We quantified the [Ca2+]cyt increase evoked by THG and CZ and observed that the compounds released calcium from the nanomolar to micromolar range (Fig. 2E). Peptidase activity was found to be directly related to calcium increase; that is, it was higher in the calcium buffer than in the calcium-free buffer for THG and CZ, although it did not display a significant difference for THG (Fig. 2F). Moreover, the proteolytic activity induced by THG and CZ was abrogated by ALLN (0.5 lM) under both conditions (Fig. 2F). The assay depicted in Fig. 2 allows the analysis of the source of the calcium able to activate P. falciparum calpain. This methodology is relevant to broaden studies seeking to correlate calcium signaling and specific calpain-triggered proteolysis in different eukaryotic cells. Potentially, the method used can be employed with other proteases besides calpain. In addition, the correlation of calcium-dependent protease activity with cellular development, such as in cell cycle control and apoptosis events, can be an important tool for cell metabolism characterization in different models. It is important to stress, however, that for the discrimination of the different proteases involved in calcium signaling, it is essential to have a specific inhibitor. That is the case of the specific calpain inhibitor ALLN and intracellular calcium mobilization agonists (CZ and THG) that were employed in the study. The involvement of falcipains in the measurement of calciumdependent proteolysis was discarded by determining recombinant falcipain-2 and falcipain-3 catalytic activity toward Bz-LR-MCA in the presence of different CaCl2 concentrations (0.2–1.0 M) (see Fig. S1 in online supplementary material). The results indicated that both enzymes are not activated by free calcium, reinforcing the selective involvement of Pf-calpain in the intracellular measurement and inhibition obtained using isolated parasites. The use of the organic solvent DMSO in the same volume as the drugs did not alter the peptidase activity or parasite viability (data not shown). Moreover, the addition of 10 lM Z-Phe-Arg-MCA and
Fig.2. Simultaneous measurement of [Ca2+]cyt rise in P. falciparum with Fluo-4 AM (continuous line) and proteolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA in response to THG (10 lM), CZ (5 lM), and ALLN (0.5 lM) (discontinuous line) in buffer containing either 2 mM CaCl2 (A, C) or 100 lM EGTA (calcium free) (B, D). The same parasite preparation was used for both experiments. Quantification of [Ca2+]cyt (E) and proteolysis (F) were performed, and the data were analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance with a Newman–Keuls posttest (E) and paired t test (F). ⁄⁄P < 0.001 (n = 3).
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Fig.3. Intracellular measurement of P. falciparum Pf-calpain. (A) Inhibition of proteolysis by increasing concentrations of ALLN. (B) ALLN (0.5 lM) inhibits calcium-dependent proteolysis induced by THG (10 lM). (C) Parasite cells were either pretreated or not pretreated with E-64. The cells were first incubated with DTT (1 mM, 2 min) followed by inhibition with E-64 (10 lM, 10 min) and two washes with Mops buffer (pH 7.2) for free inhibitor removal. Subsequently, the cell suspension was transferred to a cuvette, and for each situation different drugs were added (CZ, 10 lM; DTT, 1 mM; THG, 10 lM; E-64, 10 lM; ALLN, 0.5 lM). The data were compared with a paired one-way analysis of variance and a Newman–Keuls posttest. ⁄⁄⁄P < 0.0001 (n = 3).
Fig.4. Selective measurement of intracellular catalytic activity of P. falciparum using Z-Phe-Arg-MCA as substrate in the presence of inhibitors for each class of protease and Pf-calpain. (A) Effect of different inhibitors on the intracellular hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (10 lM). (B) Inhibition of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA hydrolysis by ALLN (0.5 lM) in combination with inhibitors for each class of protease. (C) Selective measurement of P. falciparum protease activity with the specific inhibition of cysteine, aspartyl, and serine proteases and metalloproteases, with the further addition of ALLN, E-64, and THG for the induction of calcium-dependent proteolysis. o-phe, ortho-phenanthroline. The data were compared with a one-way analysis of variance and a Newman–Keuls posttest. ⁄⁄P < 0.001; ⁄⁄⁄P < 0.0001 (n = 3).
THG in a Mops buffer suspension without parasites also did not change the proteolytic activity (data not shown). The inhibition of Pf-calpain activity was evaluated using different concentrations of ALLN (0.05–0.5 lM) that lead to an inhibition of 90% of the basal peptidase activity (Fig. 3A). The observed peptidase activity due to calcium release from the ER by THG was blocked by incubation with ALLN (0.5 lM) (Fig. 3B). The selective measurement of Pf-calpain activity was performed with parasites preincubated with E-64 (10 lM) to inhibit active cysteine proteases. After washing the cells to remove free E-64 from the supernatant, the activity was followed by the addition of the sub-
strate Z-Phe-Arg-MCA (10 lM) and calcium signaling reagents (Fig. 3C). The addition of THG (10 lM) led to a significant rise in peptidase activity (6 times) compared with the Z-Phe-ArgMCA + E-64 condition, which could be inhibited by further E-64 (10 lM) addition or by the specific calpain inhibitor ALLN (0.5 lM) (Fig. 3C). Interestingly, the THG-triggered increase in peptidase activity was significantly inhibited by ALLN (0.5 lM), indicating that cytosolic calcium increase from intracellular stores activated mainly ALLN-sensitive proteases (Fig. 3C). Because ALLN is a calpain-specific inhibitor, we can postulate that calcium activates Pf-calpain (Fig. 3C).
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Specific calpain activity in Plasmodium / M.M. Gomes et al. / Anal. Biochem. 468 (2015) 22–27
Effects of protease inhibitors on P. falciparum proteolysis To identify the class of P. falciparum parasite proteases responsible for the hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-MCA, protease inhibitors (described in Materials and Methods) were preincubated for 10 min with cell suspensions before the addition of the substrate at 37 °C in Mops buffer (pH 7.2). The results indicated that, except for the cysteine protease inhibitor (E-64), the other inhibitors tested did not affect the hydrolytic activity, which was significantly inhibited by the further addition of ALLN (Fig. 4). The intracellular activity observed clearly demonstrated the predominance of cysteine proteases in P. falciparum. Concluding remarks ALLN, a specific calpain inhibitor, can decrease the maturation and survival of P. falciparum in culture and calpain expression [35]. Moreover, it has been shown that ALLN [35] and derivatives [36] present low toxicity to HeLa cells but high toxicity to P. falciparum. In agreement with the results from Jung and coworkers [35], we also observed a significant decrease in parasitemia on ALLN treatment (see Fig. S2 in supplementary material). Pf-calpain is a cysteine protease of P. falciparum, which is believed to be an essential central mediator for parasite development because it cannot be knocked out from the parasite genome [15]. Accordingly, calpain is believed to act as a maturase for the hemoglobin-digesting enzymes plasmepsin II and IV, stressing its importance in parasite intraerythrocytic development [37,38]. Moreover, it has unique characteristics (amino acid sequence and enzymatic regulation) compared with the host enzyme [19]. Taken together, the data support Pf-calpain as a potential antimalarial target in P. falciparum. The fact that the full-length Pf-calpain is difficult to express and purify from heterologous systems [17] highlights the importance of the method described in the current work to support the Plasmodium proteolysis studies and screening of novel drugs targeting Pf-calpain. In conclusion, we have developed a method to isolate and assess calpain activity in Plasmodium parasites that allows the screening of calpain-targeted drugs under physiological conditions.
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Acknowledgments
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The enzymes were kindly provided by Phillip J. Rosenthal (Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco). We also thank Marcia R. Nagaoka (Federal University of São Paulo) for comments on the manuscript. This work was funded by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq). Funding for this study was provided by FAPESP (09/54598-9, 09/53840-0, 12/50475-2, and CNPq 473.226/2010-3). M.M.G. was funded by FAPESP (10/09264-2 and 11/15287-8) and A.B. was funded by FAPESP (13/12913-0). We thank the Multiuser Multiphoton Confocal Microscopy Laboratory (INFAR)–UNIFESP for fluorescence images.
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Appendix A. Supplementary data [27]
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