Psychological Reports, 1992, 71, 227-231.
O Psychological Reports
1992
SPECIFIC A N D DIVERSIVE CURIOSITY A N D DEPRESSION IN JUNIOR H I G H S C H O O L STUDENTS O F DIVORCED A N D NONDIVORCED PARENTS ' JEREMY KERR AND JOHN BEER
North Central Special Education Cooperative Summary.-124 junior high school students (Grades 5 to 8) from a small school district in north central Kansas completed the Beck Depression Scale, the Maze test, and the Which-to-Discuss test. Background information, such as age, sex, grade, and marital status of parents, were also collected. There were no significant differences between boys and girls of divorced and nondivorced parents or across grades for scores on the Which-to-Discuss (specific curiosity) and depression, but boys scored significantly higher on the Maze test (diversive curiosity). No differences were noted between the students of divorced and nondivorced parents or across grades. Scores on Which-to-Discuss test and Maze test were not significantly correlated, but scores on one Maze test and depression correlated positively and significantly. When these students scored as more depressed, although in the normal range, they tended to score higher on diversive curiosity.
Silverstein, Pearson, Dunnick, and Ford (1981) concluded that the Maze test is a measure of diversive curiosity which is aroused by conditions of changelessness, repetition, or monotony, while the Which-to-Discuss test is a measure of specific curiosity aroused by conditions of complexity, incongruency, or novelty. These tests are simple pencil-and-paper tasks and are useful with nonverbal people. Silverstein, et al. (1981) reported that the two measures had different construct validity with adolescent educable mentally handicapped students. Different and distinct traits are expected for individuals who show a tendency to one or the other type of curiosity (Berlyne, 1971). In a study of special education students (Beer, 1986) a gifted group performed significantly higher on the Which-to-Discuss test (specific curiosity) than students with problems in learning, personal and social adjustment, and mental handicaps. The mentally handicapped group performed significantly lower on the Maze test (diversive curiosity) than the other three groups. A study of mentally handicapped adults (educable and trainable mentally handicapped) indicated no difference on the Maze test and the Which-to-Discuss test, while men selected significantly more unbalanced figures than women (Beer & Beer, 1986). Scores on the two instruments did not correlate significantly, suggesting the constructs are different. The Maze test (Howard, 1961; Howard & Diesenhaus, 1965) is an
'Request reprints from Mr. John Beer, 909 5th, Natoma, KS 67651.
228
J. KERR
& J.
BEER
open-ended maze presented a number of times. Finding a way through the maze is not the task, but rather, the testee is to take different paths than taken on the previous maze. The Which-to-Discuss test (Maw & Maw, 1961, 1962) gives 20 pairs of figures and symbols, with one of the pair more balanced than the other. The subjects were asked, if they could hear a story about only one figure, w h c h would they select. Divorce of parents generally produces negative stresses for both the children and the parents. Depression may be one reaction of children whose parents have divorced. The characteristics of depression include self dislike, social withdrawal, pessimism, sense of failure, and complaints about bodily function (Beck & Beamesderfer, 1974). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (American Psycluatric Association, 1980) describes essential features of depression as feelings of worthlessness and loss of interest. "The sense of worthlessness varies from feelings of inadequacy to completely unrealistic negative evaluations of one's worth. The individual may reproach himself or herself for minor failings and search the environment for cues confirming the negative self-evaluation. . . . Loss of interest or pleasure is probably always present . . . but the individual may not complain of this or be aware of the loss. Withdrawal from friends and family and neglect of avocations that were previously a source of pleasure are common" (pp. 210-211). The present study investigated the relationships among depression, specific and diversive curiosity with junior high school students of divorced and nondivorced parents. METHOD From a small north central Kansas school district with approval from the administration 124 subjects were recruited from regular classrooms. Table 1 shows the number of boys and girls by Grades 5 to 8. Eighteen percent or 22 of the students had divorced parents; approximately 5 or 6 in each grade had divorced parents. See Table 1. Each subject completed the Beck Depression Scale, the Maze test, and the Which-to-Discuss test and gave background information (age, grade, marital status of parents, and sex). Teachers administered the pencil-and-paper questionnaires in their classes. The open-ended Maze Test with no correct path was drawn five times. The score was the number of changed paths minus the number on the preceding trial. O n the Which-to-Discuss test in each 40 pairs of geometric figures one was balanced, familiar, or symmetrical while the other was unbalanced, unfamiliar, or unsymmetrical. Subjects were asked to indicate which figure of the pairs they would choose if they could hear a story about only one of them. The number of unbalanced, unfamiliar, and unsymmetrical figures selected was the score. The Beck Depression Inventory has 21 multiple-choice questions on
229
POSTDIVORCE: CHILDREN'S CURIOSITY, DEPRESSION TABLE 1 Ns, TOTALS,AND PERCENTS BY GRADES 5, 6, 7, A N D 8 FORGIRLS A N D BOYSOF DNORCED AND NONDNORCED PARENTS Grade 5 6 7 8
Total
Nondivorced Parents Boys Girls E % 19 10 15 14 58
13 9 14 8 44
32 19 29 22 102
86 76 83 81 82
Boys 2 3 3 3 11
Divorced Parents Girls Z 3 3 3 2 11
5 6 6 5 22
Total %
14 24 17 19 18
37 25 35 27 124
which adults and adolescents rate depression. The numeral 0, 1, 2, or 3 for each question may be marked, zero being the least severe, three being the most severe. The total score is the sum of all of the circled numbers and can range from 0 to 63. The guidelines suggested by Beck (1978) to interpret the scale are O to 9 normal range, 10 to 15 mild depression, 16 to 19 mild to moderate depression, 20 to 29 moderate to severe depression, and 30 to 63 severe depression. Descriptive statistics for age, depression, specific and diversive curiosity according to sex and grade are summarized in Table 2, and Table 3 provides means and standard deviations by sex and marital status of parents. Analysis of variance (2 by 4) was performed on each score (depression, Maze, and Which-to-Discuss) by sex and grade. There were no significant TABLE 2 MEANS,STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND RANGESON THREETESTSA N D AGE BY GRADES FORJUNIOR HIGHSCHOOL STUDENTS Beck Depression
Group
All Girls All Boys Fifth Grade Girls Boys Sixth Grade Girls Boys Seventh Grade Girls Boys Eighth Grade Girls Boys
n
M
SD
55 67 36 16 20 24 12 12 35 17 18 27 10 17
10.64 8.18 10.89 11.75 10.20 9.63 9.25 10.20 10.49 13.00 8.11 5.30 6.50 4.59
9.84 9.76 12.39 13.34 11.88 9.36 5.69 11.88 9.55 9.45 9.28 4.91 7.17 2.98
Maze Test Range
n
M
SD
0-48 0-44 0-48 0-48 0-43 0-44 1-20 0-44 0-37 1-28 0-37 0-19 0-19 0-10
55 69 37 16 21 25 12 13 35 17 18 27 10 17
11.55 17.51 14.59 10.44 17.76 18.48 13.08 23.46 14.23 12.35 16.00 12.70 10.10 14.24
7.35 21.56 18.78 4.55 24.39 23.57 10.84 30.78 10.40 6.18 13.17 14.47 8.29 17.18
(continued on next page)
Range 0-43 0-116 0-113 3-22 0-113 0-116 3-43 0-116 0-48 0-22 0-48 0-62 4-42 0-62
230
J. KERR & J. BEER TABLE 2 (CONT'D) MEANS,STANDARD DEVIATIONS, A N D RANGES ON THREETESTSAND AGE BY GRADES FORJUNIOR HIGHSCHOOL STUDENTS Group
Beck Depression
AU Girls All Boys Fifth Grade Girls Boys Sixth Grade Girls Boys Seventh Grade Girls Boys Eighth Grade Girls Boys
n
M
SD
54 68 37 16 21 25 12 13 35 17 18 25 9 16
29.02 27.66 29.70 30.50 29.10 26.60 27.75 25.54 27.66 26.35 28.89 28.64 33.11 26.13
10.40 10.84 7.62 7.54 7.80 11.77 9.23 14.02 12.39 13.13 11.11 10.91 10.33 10.72
Maze Test Range
n
M
SD
Ranee
2-39 1-39 3-39 6-39 3-38 1-39 10-37 1-39 2-38 2-37 2-38 4-39 6-39 4-37
55 68 37 16 21 25 12 13 34 17 17 27 10 17
11.9 12.1 10.7 10.6 10.8 11.7 11.7 11.7 12.5 12.4 12.7 13.5 13.4 136
1.2 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6
10-14 10-15 10-12 10-12 10-12 11-13 11-12 11-13 12-14 12-13 12-14 13-15 13-14 13-15
differences on depression by sex (F,,,,, = 1.91, p>0.05), grade (F,,,,, = 2.01, p> 0.05), or on Which-to-Discuss by sex (F,,,,, = 0.48, p>0.05) or grade (F,,,,, = 0.47, p > 0.05). O n the Maze, scores for sex ( F,,,,,= 3.74, p < 0.05) were significant (boys had higher scores than girls) but not for grade (F,,,,, = 0.54, p>O.O5). Analysis of variance (2 by 2 ) ~erformedon each score by sex and grade for students of divorced and nondivorced parents gave no significant differTABLE 3 MEANS,STANDARD DEVIATIONS, A N D RANGES ON THREETESTSAND AGE AND NONDNORCED PARENTS FORGIRLSA N D BOYSOF DNORCED Group
Beck Depression n
M
SD
Divorced Parents Girls Boys Nondivorced Parents Girls Boys
22 11 11 100 44 56
12.41 18.36 6.45 8.60 8.70 8.52
11.95 13.60 6.09 9.23 7.71 10.33
Divorced Parents Girls Boys Nondivorced Parents Girls Boys
22 11 11 100 43 57
Maze Test n
M
SD
Range
0-48 4-48 0-18 0-44 0-28 0-44
22 11 11 102 44 58
12.23 8.91 15.55 15.43 12.20 17.88
11.55 8.65 13.45 17.98 6.94 22.85
0-51 3-22 0-113 0-116 4-43 0-116
1-39 4-37 1-39 2-39 2-39 2-38
22 11
12.2 12.1 12.4 12.0 11.8 12.1
Range
Which To Discuss 27.45 26.55 28.36 28.44 29.65 27.53
12.47 13.55 11.89 10.23 9.52 10.73
Age, Yr.
11
101 44 57
1.2 1.1 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.3
10-14 10-14 10-14 10-15 10-14 10-15
POSTDIVORCE: CHILDREN'S CURIOSITY, DEPRESSION
23 1
ences on depression by sex (F,,,,, = 2.02, p > 0.05) or marital status of parents (F,,,,, = 2.70, p>0.05) and none on Which-to-Discuss scores by sex ( F,,,,, = 0.48, p > 0.05) or marital status of parents (F,,,,, = 0.15, p > 0.05). There was a significant effect on Maze scores by sex (F,,,,, = 3.83, p < 0.05) but not by marital status of parents (F,,,,, = 0.65, p>0.05). Boys scored higher than girls. Pearson correlations among test scores were low, -0.02 for the Maze and Which-to-Discuss scores, -0.07 for Which-to-Discuss and depression scores, but for the Maze and depression scores r = .20 (p
O Psychological Reports
1992
SPECIFIC A N D DIVERSIVE CURIOSITY A N D DEPRESSION IN JUNIOR H I G H S C H O O L STUDENTS O F DIVORCED A N D NONDIVORCED PARENTS ' JEREMY KERR AND JOHN BEER
North Central Special Education Cooperative Summary.-124 junior high school students (Grades 5 to 8) from a small school district in north central Kansas completed the Beck Depression Scale, the Maze test, and the Which-to-Discuss test. Background information, such as age, sex, grade, and marital status of parents, were also collected. There were no significant differences between boys and girls of divorced and nondivorced parents or across grades for scores on the Which-to-Discuss (specific curiosity) and depression, but boys scored significantly higher on the Maze test (diversive curiosity). No differences were noted between the students of divorced and nondivorced parents or across grades. Scores on Which-to-Discuss test and Maze test were not significantly correlated, but scores on one Maze test and depression correlated positively and significantly. When these students scored as more depressed, although in the normal range, they tended to score higher on diversive curiosity.
Silverstein, Pearson, Dunnick, and Ford (1981) concluded that the Maze test is a measure of diversive curiosity which is aroused by conditions of changelessness, repetition, or monotony, while the Which-to-Discuss test is a measure of specific curiosity aroused by conditions of complexity, incongruency, or novelty. These tests are simple pencil-and-paper tasks and are useful with nonverbal people. Silverstein, et al. (1981) reported that the two measures had different construct validity with adolescent educable mentally handicapped students. Different and distinct traits are expected for individuals who show a tendency to one or the other type of curiosity (Berlyne, 1971). In a study of special education students (Beer, 1986) a gifted group performed significantly higher on the Which-to-Discuss test (specific curiosity) than students with problems in learning, personal and social adjustment, and mental handicaps. The mentally handicapped group performed significantly lower on the Maze test (diversive curiosity) than the other three groups. A study of mentally handicapped adults (educable and trainable mentally handicapped) indicated no difference on the Maze test and the Which-to-Discuss test, while men selected significantly more unbalanced figures than women (Beer & Beer, 1986). Scores on the two instruments did not correlate significantly, suggesting the constructs are different. The Maze test (Howard, 1961; Howard & Diesenhaus, 1965) is an
'Request reprints from Mr. John Beer, 909 5th, Natoma, KS 67651.
228
J. KERR
& J.
BEER
open-ended maze presented a number of times. Finding a way through the maze is not the task, but rather, the testee is to take different paths than taken on the previous maze. The Which-to-Discuss test (Maw & Maw, 1961, 1962) gives 20 pairs of figures and symbols, with one of the pair more balanced than the other. The subjects were asked, if they could hear a story about only one figure, w h c h would they select. Divorce of parents generally produces negative stresses for both the children and the parents. Depression may be one reaction of children whose parents have divorced. The characteristics of depression include self dislike, social withdrawal, pessimism, sense of failure, and complaints about bodily function (Beck & Beamesderfer, 1974). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (American Psycluatric Association, 1980) describes essential features of depression as feelings of worthlessness and loss of interest. "The sense of worthlessness varies from feelings of inadequacy to completely unrealistic negative evaluations of one's worth. The individual may reproach himself or herself for minor failings and search the environment for cues confirming the negative self-evaluation. . . . Loss of interest or pleasure is probably always present . . . but the individual may not complain of this or be aware of the loss. Withdrawal from friends and family and neglect of avocations that were previously a source of pleasure are common" (pp. 210-211). The present study investigated the relationships among depression, specific and diversive curiosity with junior high school students of divorced and nondivorced parents. METHOD From a small north central Kansas school district with approval from the administration 124 subjects were recruited from regular classrooms. Table 1 shows the number of boys and girls by Grades 5 to 8. Eighteen percent or 22 of the students had divorced parents; approximately 5 or 6 in each grade had divorced parents. See Table 1. Each subject completed the Beck Depression Scale, the Maze test, and the Which-to-Discuss test and gave background information (age, grade, marital status of parents, and sex). Teachers administered the pencil-and-paper questionnaires in their classes. The open-ended Maze Test with no correct path was drawn five times. The score was the number of changed paths minus the number on the preceding trial. O n the Which-to-Discuss test in each 40 pairs of geometric figures one was balanced, familiar, or symmetrical while the other was unbalanced, unfamiliar, or unsymmetrical. Subjects were asked to indicate which figure of the pairs they would choose if they could hear a story about only one of them. The number of unbalanced, unfamiliar, and unsymmetrical figures selected was the score. The Beck Depression Inventory has 21 multiple-choice questions on
229
POSTDIVORCE: CHILDREN'S CURIOSITY, DEPRESSION TABLE 1 Ns, TOTALS,AND PERCENTS BY GRADES 5, 6, 7, A N D 8 FORGIRLS A N D BOYSOF DNORCED AND NONDNORCED PARENTS Grade 5 6 7 8
Total
Nondivorced Parents Boys Girls E % 19 10 15 14 58
13 9 14 8 44
32 19 29 22 102
86 76 83 81 82
Boys 2 3 3 3 11
Divorced Parents Girls Z 3 3 3 2 11
5 6 6 5 22
Total %
14 24 17 19 18
37 25 35 27 124
which adults and adolescents rate depression. The numeral 0, 1, 2, or 3 for each question may be marked, zero being the least severe, three being the most severe. The total score is the sum of all of the circled numbers and can range from 0 to 63. The guidelines suggested by Beck (1978) to interpret the scale are O to 9 normal range, 10 to 15 mild depression, 16 to 19 mild to moderate depression, 20 to 29 moderate to severe depression, and 30 to 63 severe depression. Descriptive statistics for age, depression, specific and diversive curiosity according to sex and grade are summarized in Table 2, and Table 3 provides means and standard deviations by sex and marital status of parents. Analysis of variance (2 by 4) was performed on each score (depression, Maze, and Which-to-Discuss) by sex and grade. There were no significant TABLE 2 MEANS,STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND RANGESON THREETESTSA N D AGE BY GRADES FORJUNIOR HIGHSCHOOL STUDENTS Beck Depression
Group
All Girls All Boys Fifth Grade Girls Boys Sixth Grade Girls Boys Seventh Grade Girls Boys Eighth Grade Girls Boys
n
M
SD
55 67 36 16 20 24 12 12 35 17 18 27 10 17
10.64 8.18 10.89 11.75 10.20 9.63 9.25 10.20 10.49 13.00 8.11 5.30 6.50 4.59
9.84 9.76 12.39 13.34 11.88 9.36 5.69 11.88 9.55 9.45 9.28 4.91 7.17 2.98
Maze Test Range
n
M
SD
0-48 0-44 0-48 0-48 0-43 0-44 1-20 0-44 0-37 1-28 0-37 0-19 0-19 0-10
55 69 37 16 21 25 12 13 35 17 18 27 10 17
11.55 17.51 14.59 10.44 17.76 18.48 13.08 23.46 14.23 12.35 16.00 12.70 10.10 14.24
7.35 21.56 18.78 4.55 24.39 23.57 10.84 30.78 10.40 6.18 13.17 14.47 8.29 17.18
(continued on next page)
Range 0-43 0-116 0-113 3-22 0-113 0-116 3-43 0-116 0-48 0-22 0-48 0-62 4-42 0-62
230
J. KERR & J. BEER TABLE 2 (CONT'D) MEANS,STANDARD DEVIATIONS, A N D RANGES ON THREETESTSAND AGE BY GRADES FORJUNIOR HIGHSCHOOL STUDENTS Group
Beck Depression
AU Girls All Boys Fifth Grade Girls Boys Sixth Grade Girls Boys Seventh Grade Girls Boys Eighth Grade Girls Boys
n
M
SD
54 68 37 16 21 25 12 13 35 17 18 25 9 16
29.02 27.66 29.70 30.50 29.10 26.60 27.75 25.54 27.66 26.35 28.89 28.64 33.11 26.13
10.40 10.84 7.62 7.54 7.80 11.77 9.23 14.02 12.39 13.13 11.11 10.91 10.33 10.72
Maze Test Range
n
M
SD
Ranee
2-39 1-39 3-39 6-39 3-38 1-39 10-37 1-39 2-38 2-37 2-38 4-39 6-39 4-37
55 68 37 16 21 25 12 13 34 17 17 27 10 17
11.9 12.1 10.7 10.6 10.8 11.7 11.7 11.7 12.5 12.4 12.7 13.5 13.4 136
1.2 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6
10-14 10-15 10-12 10-12 10-12 11-13 11-12 11-13 12-14 12-13 12-14 13-15 13-14 13-15
differences on depression by sex (F,,,,, = 1.91, p>0.05), grade (F,,,,, = 2.01, p> 0.05), or on Which-to-Discuss by sex (F,,,,, = 0.48, p>0.05) or grade (F,,,,, = 0.47, p > 0.05). O n the Maze, scores for sex ( F,,,,,= 3.74, p < 0.05) were significant (boys had higher scores than girls) but not for grade (F,,,,, = 0.54, p>O.O5). Analysis of variance (2 by 2 ) ~erformedon each score by sex and grade for students of divorced and nondivorced parents gave no significant differTABLE 3 MEANS,STANDARD DEVIATIONS, A N D RANGES ON THREETESTSAND AGE AND NONDNORCED PARENTS FORGIRLSA N D BOYSOF DNORCED Group
Beck Depression n
M
SD
Divorced Parents Girls Boys Nondivorced Parents Girls Boys
22 11 11 100 44 56
12.41 18.36 6.45 8.60 8.70 8.52
11.95 13.60 6.09 9.23 7.71 10.33
Divorced Parents Girls Boys Nondivorced Parents Girls Boys
22 11 11 100 43 57
Maze Test n
M
SD
Range
0-48 4-48 0-18 0-44 0-28 0-44
22 11 11 102 44 58
12.23 8.91 15.55 15.43 12.20 17.88
11.55 8.65 13.45 17.98 6.94 22.85
0-51 3-22 0-113 0-116 4-43 0-116
1-39 4-37 1-39 2-39 2-39 2-38
22 11
12.2 12.1 12.4 12.0 11.8 12.1
Range
Which To Discuss 27.45 26.55 28.36 28.44 29.65 27.53
12.47 13.55 11.89 10.23 9.52 10.73
Age, Yr.
11
101 44 57
1.2 1.1 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.3
10-14 10-14 10-14 10-15 10-14 10-15
POSTDIVORCE: CHILDREN'S CURIOSITY, DEPRESSION
23 1
ences on depression by sex (F,,,,, = 2.02, p > 0.05) or marital status of parents (F,,,,, = 2.70, p>0.05) and none on Which-to-Discuss scores by sex ( F,,,,, = 0.48, p > 0.05) or marital status of parents (F,,,,, = 0.15, p > 0.05). There was a significant effect on Maze scores by sex (F,,,,, = 3.83, p < 0.05) but not by marital status of parents (F,,,,, = 0.65, p>0.05). Boys scored higher than girls. Pearson correlations among test scores were low, -0.02 for the Maze and Which-to-Discuss scores, -0.07 for Which-to-Discuss and depression scores, but for the Maze and depression scores r = .20 (p
