Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 2015, 23, 286-297 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/japa.2014-0004 © 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of ICAPA www.JAPA-Journal.com ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Spatial Measurement of Mobility Barriers: Improving the Environment of Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Taiwan Yen-Jong Chen, Rodney H. Matsuoka, and Kun-Cheng Tsai Mobility barriers can impede physical activity, increase the fear of falling, and pose a threat to the ability of older adults to live independently. This study investigated outdoor mobility barriers within a nonretirement public housing community located in Tainan, Taiwan. Site observations and interviews with older adult residents determined that parked motor scooters, potted plants, the rubber tiles of play areas, and a set of steps were the most important barriers. In addition, the space syntax parameters of control value and mean depth were effectively able to quantitatively measure improvements in walkability resulting from the hypothesized removal of these four barriers. These measures of improved walkability can be included in a cost-benefit analysis of spatial improvement factors to help policymakers address the mobility and accessibility needs of older adults.

Older people make up a rapidly increasing proportion of the global population, and this number continues to grow due to increasing life expectancy and declining birth rates (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging, 2011; United Nations, 2011). Taiwan is currently one of the most rapidly aging countries in the world. Approximately 10.9% of this country’s population were older adults aged 65 and above at the end of the year 2010, and this percentage is projected to reach 13.6% by the year 2017 (Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, 2010; Sung, 2012; Tsai, 2011). At the same time, the number of Taiwanese older adults living on their own is gradually increasing. The percentage of older adults residing with their children decreased from 70% in 1990 to less than 60% in 2005 (Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, 2010; Wang, 2011). These social changes have resulted in problems concerning the suitability of existing types of housing. Housing must be renovated or built with environmental features that assist community-dwelling older adults to live independently and productively. An important issue concerns environmental factors in outdoor spaces that encourage active behaviors. Research conducted worldwide has revealed that a more active lifestyle delays cognitive (Buchman et al., 2012; De Bruijn et al., 2013; Heesch, Burton, & Brown, 2011; Middleton, Barnes, Lui, & Yaffe, 2010; Winchester et al., 2013) and physical limitations and disabilities (Balfour & Kaplan, 2002; Buman et al., 2010; Kerr, Rosenberg, & Frank, 2012; Liu & Fielding, 2011; Santos et al., 2012; Simonsick, Guralnik, Volpato, Balfour, & Fried, 2005; Tak, Kuiper, Chorus, & Hopman-Rock, 2013), allowing older adults to live longer independently (Clarke & George, 2005; Fraga, Cader, Ferreira, Giani, & Dantas, 2011; Lee & Park, 2006; Paterson & Warburton, 2010; Tak et al., 2013). However, approximately one-third of all community-dwelling older adults fall Chen and Matsuoka are with the Department of Urban Planning, Research Center for Energy Technology and Strategy, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan. Tsai is with the Department of Urban Planning, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan. Address author correspondence to Yen-Jong Chen at [email protected].

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each year, with more than 10% of these incidences requiring medical attention (Gillespie et al., 2003; World Health Organization, 2007). Among older adults who are in better health, falls occur more often outdoors than indoors (Bath & Morgan, 1999; Bergland, Jarnlo, & Laake, 2003; Bergland, Pettersen, & Laake, 1998; Li et al., 2006; Weinberg & Strain, 1995). Falling, whether outdoors or indoors, can lead to less active lifestyles (Howland et al., 1998; Wijlhuizen, de Jong, & Hopman-Rock, 2007), the loss of independence (World Health Organization, 2007), disabilities (Hartholt et al., 2011), and even premature mortalities (Sylliaas, Idland, Sandvik, Forsen, & Bergland, 2009). This study investigated how outdoor environmental factors at the site scale of a nonretirement housing community can affect the mobility of older adult residents. Researchers investigating barriers to mobility and falling have concentrated primarily on environmental factors either inside the home (e.g., Huang, 2005a; Lök & Akin, 2013; Tanner, 2003) or at the larger neighborhood scale (e.g., Borst et al., 2009; Chaudhury, Mahmood, Michael, Campo, & Hay, 2012; Gallagher et al., 2010; Gómez et al., 2010; Vine, Buys, & Aird, 2012). Only a handful of studies have examined the role of outdoor site-level features within a residential community on the active behaviors of older adults (Joseph & Zimring, 2007; Nathan, Wood, & Giles-Corti, 2013; Wang & Lee, 2010; Wang & Shepley, 2008). In addition, this study used space syntax theory to analyze hypothesized changes in mobility through community outdoor spaces. This theory posits that spaces can be broken down into components, analyzed as a network of choices, and graphically represented to better understand how spatial layouts affect human functioning (Hillier, 1996; Hillier & Hanson, 1984). Researchers have applied space syntax theory in recent years to examine the walking behaviors of residents in retirement communities (Joseph & Zimring, 2007), adults within different neighborhood configurations (Baran, Rodríguez, & Khattak, 2008), and pedestrians of all ages along city streets (Raford & Ragland, 2004) and within different town configurations (Nophaket & Fujii, 2004). However, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to use space syntax theory to analyze the outdoor mobility of older adults at the site scale of a nonretirement community, specifically a public housing community inhabited by residents of all ages.

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Background

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Neighborhood Environmental Factors There is consistent evidence that walking, the most common physical activity of older adults, is influenced by features of the outdoor physical environment. Research has focused primarily on environmental factors at the larger neighborhood scale. Retired older adults, who likely spend much of their day within their neighborhoods (Chen, 1998; Shigematsu et al., 2009), may be more affected by these factors than other segments of the population. These factors can be categorized as involving infrastructure, land use, or traffic safety factors. Infrastructure factors involve sidewalk features and other elements found along streets and walking paths. Sidewalk features that can discourage walking by older adults include the presence of slopes or steps (Borst et al., 2009; Lu, 2010; Mahmood et al., 2012; Vine et al., 2012), uneven pavement or any other obstacles that are tripping hazards (Chaudhury et al., 2012; Mahmood et al., 2012; Stathi et al., 2012; Strath, Isaacs, & Greenwald, 2007), cars parked on sidewalks (Sie, 2007; Stathi et al., 2012), and poor maintenance (e.g., ice, snow, overgrown weeds, litter on street) (Borst et al., 2009; Gallagher et al., 2010; Mahmood et al., 2012). On the other hand, walking can be promoted by the presence of sidewalks with continuity (Gallagher et al., 2010; Hall & McAuley, 2010; Wang & Lee, 2010), street seating, railings, handrails, ramps, safe stairs, drinking fountains (Chaudhury et al., 2012; Lu, 2010; Mahmood et al., 2012; Vine et al., 2012; Wang & Lee, 2010), good street lighting (Chaudhury et al., 2012; Mahmood et al., 2012; Wang & Lee, 2010), and aesthetically pleasing qualities (Gallagher et al., 2010; Inoue et al., 2011). Land use factors, such as the presence of neighborhood facilities and amenities and higher land use density, can promote walking by older adults. For example, the presence of nearby shops, services, recreation facilities (Borst et al., 2009; Chaudhury et al., 2012; Gallagher et al., 2010; Satariano et al., 2010; Shigematsu et al., 2009; Stathi et al., 2012; Strath et al., 2007; Vine et al., 2012; Wang & Lee, 2010), and open green spaces (Booth, Owen, Bauman, Clavisi, & Leslie, 2000; Gallagher et al., 2010; Sugiyama, Thompson, & Alves, 2009; Vine et al., 2012), as well as higher residential density (i.e., more dwelling units per land area devoted to residential use) (Adams et al., 2012; Berke, Koepsell, Moudon, Hoskins, & Larson, 2007; Gebel, Bauman, Sugiyama, & Owen, 2011; King et al., 2011), has been linked with greater physical activity among older adults. Lastly, traffic safety factors can have an effect on walking by older adults. Researchers have consistently noted that unsafe intersections and crosswalks (Chaudhury et al., 2012; Gómez et al., 2010; Mahmood et al., 2012; Sie, 2007; Strath et al., 2007; Vine et al., 2012), sidewalks in close proximity to busy streets (Strath et al., 2007; Vine et al., 2012), and lower perceived safety from traffic (Adams et al., 2012; Hall & McAuley, 2010; Inoue et al., 2011; Lu, 2010; Mahmood et al., 2012; Strath et al., 2007) can act as mobility barriers.

Residential Site Environmental Factors A handful of studies have examined the links between outdoor site-level environmental factors and the physical activity of older adults. These studies have all been conducted within retirement communities or assisted living facilities. The factors that were

found to encourage walking at this smaller scale are similar to both the infrastructure and land use factors at the larger neighborhood scale. As to infrastructure factors, outdoor walkways that were more likely to be selected for walking did not have steps (Joseph & Zimring, 2007) or uneven pavement (Nathan et al., 2013), were well maintained (e.g., sand or other obstacles removed) (Nathan et al., 2013), were well connected within the site (Joseph & Zimring, 2007; Nathan et al., 2013), or provided pleasant views (e.g., attractive landscaping) (Joseph & Zimring, 2007; Wang & Lee, 2010). Relating to land use factors, outdoor walkways that were used more often had specific destinations along them within the site (e.g., activity related, administrative, residences) (Joseph & Zimring, 2007) or led to facilities in the surrounding neighborhood (Nathan et al., 2013).

Focus of this Study This study concentrated on outdoor infrastructure factors within a nonretirement residential community that can act as mobility barriers for older adult residents. These barriers involved characteristics of the outdoor walkways and spaces, as well as the presence of temporary obstructions (e.g., motor vehicles, food vendors).

Method Research Context This study investigated the outdoor spaces of the Dalin Public Housing Community, located in the Southern District of the city of Tainan. This community was built in 1999 and is made up of 1,832 households and 130 shops. In 2013, there were 3,391 total residents, of whom 774, or 22.8%, were older adults (Department of Health, Tainan City Government, 2013). The entire complex covers 7.1 hectares (approximately 17.5 acres) of land, with a building coverage ratio of 60% and a floor area ratio of 220% (Department of Urban Development, Tainan City Government, 2013). The community is located on Da Tong Road, one of the main roads of the city. There are nearby facilities for shopping, entertainment, and leisure. In addition, a neighborhood park, a sports park, and Tainan Municipal Stadium can be found on the east side of this community.

Participants and Behavior The participants in this study consisted of 100 older adult residents of this housing community who were 65–90 years of age, in good physical and mental health, and able to walk without assistance. This sample represented 12.9% of the older adult residents and 2.9% of the total number of residents. The average age of these participants was 78.9 years, 40% were male, and most had lived in the community for six to 10 years. The activities of the participants and the manner in which they moved within the outdoor spaces of the community were observed on a daily basis from March 1–20, 2013. These observations were conducted during random time periods between 6 a.m. to 8 p.m. Due to the tropical climate, the outdoor activities of the older adults were found to peak during the early morning (from 6 to 8 a.m.) or late afternoon to early evening hours (from 4 to 7 p.m.). In addition, interviews were conducted using opportunity sampling, and the participants were questioned about the outdoor elements that acted as mobility barriers or might cause them to fall.

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Space Syntax Theory Space syntax theory encompasses a set of techniques that help designers and researchers interpret the likely social effects of different spatial configurations (Hillier, 1996; Hillier & Hanson, 1984). In this theory, a space system is divided up into spaces on the basis of a variety of methods, including axiality (e.g., Baran et al., 2008; Hillier & Hanson, 1984; Nophaket & Fujii, 2004), convexity (e.g., Hillier & Hanson, 1984), permeability (e.g., Hillier & Hanson, 1984), network pattern (e.g., Nophaket & Fujii, 2004), street intersections (Raford & Ragland, 2004), and path segment intersections (Joseph & Zimring, 2007).

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Study #1: Mobility Barriers in the Entire Community In the first study, the space system encompassed the outdoor open spaces of the entire housing community. This system was divided up based on the following eight categories of usage: (1) open plazas—outdoor spaces not used by the older adult residents; (2) ramps—existing ramps located at the connections between walkways and public roads and at the entrance area of one of the buildings; (3) walkways—community walkways connecting the buildings; (4) entrance areas—outdoor spaces just outside the main entrances to the residential buildings; (5) public roads—municipal roads that pass through the community; (6) play areas—areas with soft surfacing (i.e., rubber tiles) and play equipment for children; (7) common spaces—outdoor spaces used by older adult residents for their activities, including socializing, leisure, recreation, and meetings; and (8) steps—one of the eight buildings had a set of steps outside the main entrance. The locations of these different types of spaces are shown in Figure 1.

Study #2: Mobility Barrier Involving Steps The second study concentrated on the part or subspace system of the community designated in Figure 2, where a set of steps impeded the mobility of the older adult residents. The eight categories used in study #1 to classify the outdoor open spaces were used. Along

with the set of steps, this part of the community contained three open plazas, two ramps, an entrance area, a play area, and a common space (see Figure 1). In addition, the space classified as an entrance area was further divided into path segments to better represent the movement pattern of the older adult residents. These path segments are labeled 2 and 4–7 in Figure 2. A path segment is defined as a portion of the route through the entrance area that is located either between a neighboring outdoor space and a decision point, or between two decision points. A decision point is a location along the route where a decision needs to be made concerning the path of travel, because alternative routes are available leading to the same destination. For example, after entering path segment 2 from the steps (space A), a decision needs to be made whether to continue walking through the play area (space 3) or around the play area using path segment 4 or 5. This path segment decision-making criteria is similar to that used by Joseph and Zimring (2007) in their study of path choices for walking among older adults in retirement community campuses.

Space Syntax Calculations for Both Studies In studies #1 and #2, the following space syntax parameters were calculated for selected spaces in their respective systems: connectivity, control value, and mean depth. The formulas and definitions of these parameters are given in Table 1. In these two studies, the parameters of control value and mean depth were used to quantitatively measure changes in the spatial configuration of the corresponding outdoor spaces of this housing community. Both parameters were calculated for outdoor spaces that contained mobility barriers, which impeded the movement of older adult residents. In these calculations, the outdoor spaces containing a mobility barrier were considered to be disconnected from one or more of the neighboring outdoor spaces. The control and mean depth values were then recalculated with the mobility barrier being hypothetically removed and with the connections between affected neighboring spaces being reestablished. The Axwoman software program (Jiang, Claramunt, & Batty, 1999) developed for ArcView GIS was used to calculate these parameters.

Figure 1 — Locations of the outdoor open spaces in the Dalin Public Housing community that were classified into eight different usage categories.

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Figure 2 — Top: The subspace system of the outdoor open spaces in the housing community through which access was impeded by a set of steps (space S). Bottom left: Figure showing the set of steps and the 12 nearby outdoor spaces making up a part of the housing community. These 12 spaces are composed of an entrance area divided into path segments 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7, open plazas (spaces 1, 11, 12), a play area (space 3), ramps (spaces 8, 9), and a common space (space 10). Bottom right: A photo of the existing set of steps with the play area in the background.

Table 1  Mathematical Formulas and Definitions of Connectivity, Control Value, and Mean Depth (Bafna, 2003; Baran et al., 2008; Hillier & Hanson, 1984) Parameter

Formula

Definition

Connectivity (C)

None

The number of immediate neighbors (k) directly connected to a given space (i).

Control value (CV)

1 j =1 C j k

CVi = ∑

Mean depth (MD)

n

MDi =

∑ dij j =1

n −1

The degree to which a given space (i) controls access to, or is important for accessing, the immediate neighboring spaces. This parameter is defined as the sum of the values 1/C of all k of the immediate neighboring spaces of this given space. The control value, therefore, takes into account the number of alternative connections that each of these immediate neighboring spaces has. Spaces with a control value greater than 1 are strong control spaces and represent important links for neighboring spaces. On the other hand, spaces with a control value below 1 are weak control spaces. The average depth of a given space (i) from all the other spaces in the system. Depth is defined as the intervening number of spaces between any two spaces. Mean depth is calculated by first determining the depth (d) of each space (j) in the system from this given space. These values are then summed and divided by total number (n) of spaces in the system less one (the given space). Lower values of this parameter indicate that a given space has less depth on average from all other spaces and is more integrated into the system.

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Results

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Mobility Barriers in Outdoor Spaces The interviews with the participants revealed that they were concerned about their ability to move without difficulty through the open spaces of this housing community. By observing the movements of the older adult residents, the following four elements were identified to be the most important mobility barriers: (1) parked motor scooters that blocked walkways and access to open plazas, entrance areas, and common spaces; (2) potted plants that blocked passage through open plazas; (3) rubber tiles of the play areas, considered too soft and unstable to walk on safely, that impeded access through entrance areas and common spaces; and (4) a set of steps, without a ramp and handrail alternative, that connected an open plaza to the entrance area in front of one of the buildings. The locations of these barriers are depicted in Figure 3. Three additional mobility barriers were also observed to impede the movements of the older adult residents. These included uneven walking surfaces in some of the open spaces, walkways used by

both pedestrians and motor scooters, and obstacles at the entrances to the community shops, such as parked motor scooters, potted plants, and food vendors. During the data collection time period, four falling incidents involving older adult residents were observed. These falls resulted in minor injuries. Two of the incidents involved two of the four more important mobility barriers, specifically, parked motor scooters and the set of steps. The locations of these falls are noted in Figure 3.

Study #1: Mobility Barriers in the Entire Community The seven outdoor spaces affected by the parked motor scooters (involving open plazas and walkways), the three outdoor spaces through which mobility was impeded by potted plants (involving open plazas), and the eight play areas through which mobility was impeded by the rubber tiles are depicted in Figure 4. The calculated control and mean depth values for both the original condition of these spaces and after the hypothesized separate removal of these three mobility barriers are listed in Table 2. Concerning

Figure 3 — Top: Photographs of mobility barriers that impede walking and increase the fear of falling in the outdoor open spaces in this community. Bottom: The four most important mobility barriers and their locations, as revealed by observing and interviewing senior residents of this housing community. In addition, the locations of four observed falling incidents are shown.

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Figure 4 — (a) The walkways (A, B, F, G) and open plazas (C, D, E) through which access was impeded by parked motor scooters. (b) The open plazas (H, I, J) through which access was impeded by potted plants. (c) The play areas (K to R) with impeded access due to the rubber tiles that interfered with mobility through neighboring entrance areas and a neighboring common space.

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Table 2  Control and Mean Depth Values for Outdoor Spaces With Impeded Access Due to Four Mobility Barriers, Both Before and After the Hypothesized Removal of the Four Mobility Barriers Outdoor Spaces With Impeded Access

Original Condition Control Value

After Hypothesized Improvements

Mean Depth

Control Value

Mean Depth

0.34

13.46*

0.43*

13.98

B

0.34

14.46

0.43*

13.98*

C

0.49

12.29

0.49

10.20*

D

0.49

16.11

0.49

13.89*

Study #1: Mobility barriers in the entire community

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Parked motor scooters A

E

0.99

13.92

2.26*

6.90*

F

1.20

10.29

1.20

6.80*

G

1.03

10.43

1.03

10.36*

Potted plants H

0.54

7.85

0.54

7.07*

I

0.54

9.78

0.54

7.09*

J

1.07*

7.63*

0.67

8.01

Play areas with rubber tiles K

1.09*

12.77*

0.83

12.99

L

1.41

9.20

3.00*

7.67*

M

1.10

8.10

2.42*

8.01*

N

1.03*

8.99

1.00

8.03*

O

1.42

7.55

2.83*

6.80*

P

1.07

8.62

2.83*

8.65*

Q

1.07*

8.62

1.00

6.80*

R

1.80

11.28

3.07*

8.01*

4.17

0.58*

2.50*

Study #2: Mobility barrier involving steps Set of steps and play area with rubber tiles S 0.33

*Denotes the larger control value or smaller mean depth value between the original and improved conditions of each outdoor space.

the play areas, the hypothesized removal of this barrier involved relocation, with the pavement of these former play areas being replaced with a surface that is safe for the older adult residents to walk on. The control values increased for eight of the 18 total outdoor spaces, and the mean depth decreased for seven of these 18 outdoor spaces.

Study #2: Mobility Barrier Involving Steps Figure 5a displays the observed route used by many older adult residents to avoid using the set of steps and walking through the play area in the subspace system of the community designated in Figure 2, along with the corresponding justified gamma map (Hillier & Hanson, 1984). This map reveals that path segment 2 of the entrance area, which is just beyond the set of steps, is at depth 7 (i.e., seven intervening number of spaces) from the set of steps. The control and mean depth values were calculated for this subspace consisting of the set of steps (space S) and 12 nearby outdoor spaces that made up the outdoor courtyard for this particular residential building.

Figure 5b depicts the hypothesized addition of a ramp with handrails and the relocation of the play area as in study #1, along with the more direct route that will subsequently become available for the older adult residents. The corresponding justified gamma map shows that path segment 2 of the entrance area is now at depth 1 from the steps, indicating that this path segment and the other path segments adjacent to it are more accessible from the set of steps. After these hypothesized changes, the control value increased and the mean depth decreased for this space (see Table 2).

Summary of Changes in Control and Mean Depth Values The hypothesized changes to the four mobility barriers involving parked motor scooters, potted plants, and the rubber tiles of the play areas in the overall community, and the set of steps and the rubber tiles of a play area in a subspace of the community resulted in increased control values for nine of the corresponding 19 impeded outdoor spaces (47.4%), with

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Spatial Measurement of Mobility Barriers   293

Figure 5 — (a) Left: The arrows designate a route used by older adult residents to detour around the set of steps (space S) in front of their building. This route begins at the open plaza (space 1), continues through an adjoining open plaza (space 12), up a ramp (space 9), into a path segment of the entrance area (segment 7), and ends in the common space (space 10). Note: The play area (space 3) was also found to be a mobility barrier. Right: The justified gamma map for this subspace system. Take note of the extreme depth of path segment 2 from the set of steps. (b) Left: The arrow designates the hypothesized route that the older adult residents will take after a ramp with handrails is installed on the set of steps and the play area is relocated. This more direct route begins at the open plaza, continues up the proposed ramp and through path segment 2, the resurfaced former play area, and path segments 6 and 7, and ends in the common space. Right: The justified gamma map for this subspace system. Take note of the large reduction in the depths of path segments 2, 4, 5, and 6 from the set of steps as compared with those corresponding to the existing conditions.

another six remaining unchanged (31.6%). These larger control values indicated that these spaces are now more important links for neighboring outdoor spaces. In addition, the mean depth values decreased for 16 of these 19 (84.2%) outdoor spaces. These smaller values indicate that these spaces are now more integrated into the system or subsystem of the outdoor spaces in this housing community.

Discussion This study used space syntax parameters to quantitatively examine how the removal of mobility barriers within a nonretirement public housing community could improve the walkability of outdoor spaces for the older adult residents. The interviews with these residents revealed that their ability to walk comfortably and without fear

294  Chen, Matsuoka, and Tsai

of falling within this community was one of their most important concerns. The four mobility barriers that most impeded their movement included parked motor scooters, potted plants, the rubber tiles of the play areas, and a set of steps in one area of the community. The space syntax computations revealed that the parameters of both control and mean depth values can be used to quantitatively assess improvements in walkability resulting from the hypothesized removal of these mobility barriers. The control values of almost half (47.4%) of the formerly impeded outdoor spaces increased, signifying that these spaces now play a more important role as a connector to adjacent outdoor spaces. The mean depth values of most (84.2%) of these same formerly impeded outdoor spaces decreased, indicating that these spaces are now more accessible and can be reached from all other spaces in the community by passing through, on average, fewer intervening spaces.

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More Important Walking Links The hypothetical removal of the four mobility barriers examined in this study should lead to the increased usage of the affected outdoor spaces and adjoining spaces for walking by the older adult residents of this community. This potential usage is reflected by greater corresponding control values, indicating that these spaces are now more important for accessing adjacent outdoor spaces in this community. These results are supported by the findings of Baran et al. (2008), who found positive relationships between control values and walking by adult residents at the larger neighborhood scale. Streets designed with higher control values in both New Urbanist and conventional suburban neighborhoods were found to be associated with a greater number of both leisure trips and utilitarian walking.

More Accessible Walking Links The hypothetical removal of the four mobility barriers resulted in decreased mean depth values for most of the corresponding outdoor spaces, signifying that these spaces are also more integrated or accessible on average from other outdoor spaces in the community. These findings support those of other studies conducted at both the site and larger neighborhood scales. For example, at the site scale, Joseph and Zimring (2007) found that the more integrated path segments within a retirement community were more likely to be used for instrumental walking (i.e., nonrecreational walking). At the neighborhood scale, where a greater number of studies have been conducted, Hillier (1996) reviewed studies showing that integration values within a pedestrian network were also positively associated with levels of street usage. Likewise, Raford and Ragland (2004) used integration to successfully estimate pedestrian volume on city streets, and Baran et al. (2008) found that within New Urbanist and conventional suburban neighborhoods, higher integration was related to a greater number of both leisure and utilitarian walking trips by the adult residents. The results of this study, therefore, support the notion that the space syntax parameters of control and mean depth values can help determine whether the removal of mobility barriers will have the intended positive impact on walking behaviors. This is particularly true for the mean depth parameter, which seemed more sensitive to the changes that hypothetical improvements can have on the walkability of outdoor spaces in this housing community.

Overlooked Mobility Barriers Features of the outdoor physical environment may have a greater influence on older adults due to an increase in functional limitations and greater difficulties in overcoming mobility barriers (Forsyth,

Oakes, Lee, & Schmitz, 2009; Rantakokko et al., 2010; Rasinaho, Hirvensalo, Leinonen, Lintunen, & Rantanen, 2007). The participants in this study live in a housing community inhabited with people of all ages. As a result, the special needs of the older adults with regard to outdoor mobility may have been overlooked by the local policymakers and managers. Almost all of the site-level mobility barriers uncovered in this study are identical to those found by research conducted at the neighborhood scale concerning physical activity among older adults (e.g., Borst et al., 2009; Stathi et al., 2012). However, two of the mobility barriers revealed in this study, namely parked motor scooters rather than cars and the rubber tiles of play areas, have not been reported in past studies. The parked motor scooter problem may be an issue of particular importance for Taiwan. Taiwan boosts the highest level of motor scooter ownership of any country in the world, with an ownership ratio of 676 motor scooters for every 1,000 people in the year 2013 (Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, 2006; The China Post, 2013). One possible solution for this problem would entail designating additional areas of the basement garage for all motor scooter parking. This would eliminate the mobility barriers involving both the parked motor scooters and the conflicting use of outdoor walkways by people both walking and driving. The mobility barrier created by the rubber tiles of the play areas may be the result of improper placement. The older adult residents avoided walking on these tiles, perhaps viewing these surfaces as being too soft and unstable to safely walk on. These play areas are currently located in the center of the entrance areas to seven of the eight buildings in this community, forcing these residents to walk around them (see Figure 3). One solution would involve relocating these play areas to less centralized positions in these entrance areas. The older adults will then have more direct walking routes throughout the outdoor spaces of this community. Furthermore, although the mobility barriers that exist at the larger neighborhood scale have been studied more frequently than those at the site scale (Joseph & Zimring, 2007; Wang & Lee, 2010; Wang & Shepley, 2008), one can argue that the mobility barriers at the site scale are just as important as those in the surrounding neighborhood. The older adult residents must have the ability to comfortably and confidently walk through the outdoor spaces of their community site to reach the nearby facilities and amenities that meet their daily needs.

Policy Implications As the populations of many countries continue to age, urban planners and designers throughout the world will increasingly be required to address the special needs of older adults. The results of this study indicate that space syntax techniques can provide an effective tool to quantitatively evaluate improvements in the outdoor walkability of a given site. This technique of measuring benefits to walkability can be incorporated in a cost-benefit analysis of spatial improvement factors. Such an analysis may be useful during the planning stage to help produce a design that better addresses the mobility and accessibility needs of older adults. In addition, these measures could be used during a postoccupancy evaluation, during which both qualitative and quantitative measures are used to systematically and objectively assess the performance of a built site that has been occupied for some time (Mallory-Hill, Preiser, & Watson, 2012; Preiser, Rabinowitz, & White, 1988). Such evaluations may be used to obtain the funding required to renovate existing residential communities and the

Spatial Measurement of Mobility Barriers   295

support needed to revise and enforce existing pedestrian accessibility laws and regulations. Mobility barriers may also be idiosyncratic to a specific site and nonpermanent, such as the parked motor scooters and potted plants uncovered in this study. Policymakers, therefore, will need to recognize that on-site evaluations must be conducted and that mobility barriers within residential communities must be reevaluated on a continual basis as conditions change.

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Limitations This study only investigated the mobility needs of the older adult residents in a single public housing community, and closely examined the changes in space syntax parameters for a single outdoor configuration. Additional studies will need to be conducted in not only public, but also private housing communities of many different sizes and configurations to better understand how space syntax theory can be best applied to achieve a better design.

Conclusions Mobility barriers that impede physical activity and increase the fear of falling can be a major threat to the independence of older adults (Hartholt et al., 2011; Huang, 2005b; World Health Organization, 2007). The need to address these features of the outdoor physical environment will increase greatly in the coming years. Taiwan has one of the most rapidly aging populations in the world (Sung, 2012; Tsai, 2011) and the current trend is for greater percentages of older adults to no longer live with their children (Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, 2010; T. Wang, 2011). The existing conditions of many public and private housing communities may not meet the mobility and independent living needs of this aging population. The findings of this study have demonstrated that space syntax parameters can provide valuable insights into the walkability of the outdoor spaces within a housing community. In addition, this study provides additional information about an overlooked issue, namely how outdoor physical features at the site scale can influence the mobility and fear of falling of older adult residents. The most important mobility barriers for the older adults in this community involved parked motor scooters, potted plants, the rubber tiles of play areas, and a set of steps. Hopefully, the findings of this study can be used by policymakers, designers, and researchers to provide better living conditions for older adults. The independence and quality of life of a rapidly growing segment of the world’s population is at stake. Acknowledgments This study was supported by funding from both the Research Center for Energy Technology and Strategy (RCETS) and the Department of Urban Planning at the National Cheng Kung University.

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Spatial measurement of mobility barriers: improving the environment of community-dwelling older adults in Taiwan.

Mobility barriers can impede physical activity, increase the fear of falling, and pose a threat to the ability of older adults to live independently. ...
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