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Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uawm16

Solid Waste, Air Pollution and Health a

George J. Kupchik & Gerald J. Franz a

b

Hunter College

b

New York City Department of Planning Published online: 13 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: George J. Kupchik & Gerald J. Franz (1976) Solid Waste, Air Pollution and Health, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 26:2, 116-118, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1976.10470229 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1976.10470229

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solid waste, air pollution and health

George J. Kupchik

Hunter College Gerald J. Franz

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New York City Department of Planning

While much has been written on each individual subject, very little has been published that attempts to clarify the direct and indirect associations among the incidence of air pollutant related disease, the emission of air pollutants, and their relation to solid waste generation and disposal. This study attempts to clarify these relationships. After the appropriate literature is surveyed, clarification of the total mass of air pollutants emitted by solid wastes disposal is presented. Most important, the misrepresentation of this air pollutant source, as presented in the most widely published data, is reinterpreted and clarified. The revised data show that solid waste disposal contributes more than twice as much (9.7% of total) as presented in widely published data. A development and tabulation of the relative health effects of the most prevalent air pollutants follows. Walther's "tolerance factors" and "health effect factors" for these pollutants are presented and corrected with the use of the clarified source data presently devised. The revised data show that the contribution of solid waste disposal to the total air pollutant health effect is 9.9%, as compared to 4.5% originally reported by Walther. Comparisons are made with the major air pollutant sources. A brief analysis of the value of new resource recovery—solid waste disposal technologies in diminishing the adverse impact of disposal concludes the study.

The association between public health and improper disposal of solid waste has long been recognized. A literature review by the Public Health Service1 indicated an association between mismanagement of solid wastes and 22 human diseases. Simply stated, solid waste can cause human disease or disability through six pathways: biologic vectors, physical and mechanical hazards, airborne contaminants, water supply, food supply, and socio-economic burdens.2 None of these has been effectively researched. Although attempts to set standards for air and water quality associated with solid waste disposal have been made and are continuing, in many cases harmful levels of individual contaminants and their synergistic effects are just not known. The aim of this paper is to clarify some of the relationships between solid waste disposal, air pollution, and human disease. The literature dealing with solid waste disposal and its associated air pollution is quite modest in extent. Most of the papers describe emissions from incinerators and means for their abatement.3"7 A few published works 116

deal with other solid waste sources (open dumps, agricultural burning, etc.)8"11 and fewer still discuss the relationship between air contaminants generated by solid waste and disease.12" 14 Although the literature deals mainly with incineration, this process accounts for only about 8% of all solid waste disposal and whereas open dump, open agricultural, and open mine refuse burning account for about 85% of solid waste disposal, there is relatively little literature on these activities. The generation of air pollution with its associated health effects from these sources is scarcely mentioned. Contribution of Solid Waste to Air Pollution

An accurate representation of the total mass of air pollutants emitted by solid waste is very difficult to ascertain. The published tabulated federal data15"17 for annual pollutant emissions apparently misrepresents the actual contribution from solid waste to air pollution. In one of the most recent tabulations, there appears a "solid waste disposal" category and a sepa-

rate "miscellaneous" category which includes forest fires, agricultural burning, and coal waste fires. Only the urban solid waste disposal contribution from inefficient incineration and open dump burning is reported under the category "solid waste disposal" while the agricultural and mining solid waste contribution, which respectively constitute 58% and 31% of the total waste, are reported as part of the "miscellaneous" category. As can be seen from Table I, these misclassifications are significant; agricultural burning and coal refuse burning account for 41% of the total "miscellaneous" category emissions. Clearly these latter sources must be considered solid waste disposal contributions. We have, therefore, added these contributions to recently published data and the resulting data (Table II) present a revised, clarified view of the solid waste contribution to air contamination. The revised data presentation indicates that solid waste disposal contributes by mass an estimated 9.7% of the total air pollution burden rather than the 4.2% presented in previously published tabulations.

Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

Table I. Individual sources of "miscellaneous" category by mass (106 tons).a

Health Effects

%of

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The above discussion focused on the mass emissions from various sources without regard to the health effects of the pollutants. An innovative system for rating the sources and pollutants on a mass and health effects basis was recently developed by Eric Walther18 of the Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, State University of New York at Albany. An excerpt from Walther's abstract follows: "The available national annual air pollution emissions are based on mass. Different air pollutants have greatly different toxicities per unit mass, hence the emissions should be rated by effect, not by mass, so that more sensible priorities can be set in control, research and regulation. Effect factors are derived from health effect literature indirectly by using the national ambient air quality standards." Walther derived a tolerance factor for each pollutant based on a one day standard exposure either stated or extrapolated from the established Federal primary and secondary ambient air quality standards. The one day standard exists for oxides of sulfur (SOX) and particulates (Walther uses the term aerosol); there is a one day recommended standard for oxides of nitrogen (NO*) while a one day standard for carbon monoxide (CO) was extrapolated from the 8 hr standard, i.e., 10 mg/m3 for 8 hr was equated to 5.6 mg/m3 for 24 hr. These one day standards, expressed as ixg/va3, are Walther's "tolerance factors." In order to translate these tolerance factors into relative health effects, Walther simply assigned to the least hazardous pollutant, i.e., the one with the highest tolerance factor (CO at 5600), a "health effect factor" of unity. In turn, the health effect factor for any other pollutant is equal to the ratio of the tolerance factor of the reference pollutant (CO) to the tolerance factor of the other pollutant. For example, for hydrocarbons (HC) the ratio is 5600/ 45 and its health effect factor is 125. The primary ambient air quality standards, the tolerance factors and the health effect factors derived by Walther for each pollutant are shown in Table III. Since Walther used the previously published data his work, unfortunately, incorporates the misclassification and consequent underestimation of the solid waste contribution to the air pollution burden at 4.5%. Therefore, in Table IV, we have revised Walther's tabulations to express the more probable health effects associated with solid waste disposal. This revised tabulation shows that the February 1976

Volume 26, No. 2

Source/Pollutant

CO

HC

Particulates

1. Forest fires 2. Coal refuse burning 3. Agricultural burning 4. Gas marketing 5. Organic solvent evaporation Total Percentage of total contribution by sources 2 & 3

7.4 1.2 8.3

2.3 0.2 1.7 1.2 3.1

6.8 0.4 2.4

8.5 23

9.6 30

a

16.9 56

SOX 0.6

NO X

Total

total

1.2 0.2 0.3

17.7

47 7 34 3 9

2.6

12.7 1.2 3.1

0.6 100

1.7 30

100 41

37.3

Compiled from "Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollution Emissions. " I£

contribution of the disposal of these wastes to the total health effect is 9.9% which is substantially different from the 4.5% reported originally by Walther. These tabulations do not include the burning of other mining wastes or the air contamination contributed by the disposal of industrial solid wastes. It is safe to say that with these additions, the estimated health effect of air pollutants from solid waste disposal would easily exceed 10% which approaches the magnitude of the health effects which Walther calculated for the other major stationary sources namely, industry 17.0% and stationary fuel combustion 13.1%; transportation, of course exceeds all others at 43.3%. Air Pollution and Disease

A most comprehensive attempt to assess the relationship between air pollution and specific diseases was reported by Lave and Seskin.19 They found a statistically significant association between several air pollutants and the incidence of bronchitis, emphysema, pneumonia, lung cancer, and other respiratory diseases as well as stomach cancer, fetal and infant death rate, and total death rate. Lave and Seskin also computed the cost of air pollution on human health in dollars. After statistically relating the incidence of a given disease to air pollutant levels, they estimated the effect of lowered pollutant levels on

medical and indirect costs (days lost from work) associated with that disease; no dollar allowance can ever be made for the related pain and suffering. For example, they estimated that between 25% and 50% of bronchitis cases could be eliminated annually by a 50% reduction in air pollutant levels. Since medical and indirect costs for bronchitis amount to $900 million each year (1970 dollars), a 50% reduction in pollutant levels could result in savings of $235 to $420 million a year. Using similar calculations for all the diseases noted, the total savings resulting from a 50% reduction in pollutant levels approximate $2 billion a year. Based on these calculations, if air pollution from solid waste disposal could be cut in half, approximately $200 million could be saved and a significant health improvement effected. The authors strongly urge that further research be conducted to determine the relationship between these costs and the data revealed in this paper. Solid Waste Disposal Methodology

What position can an environmentalist, scientist, or policy maker take with respect to the data presented? Fundamentally, one that incorporates the now clearer roles of air pollution, solid wastes, and health into a control and regulatory strategy. Priorities must be established that accomplish maximum disposal and resource re-

Table II. Air pollution contributions from solid waste disposal and other sources by mass (106 tons). 3

Total solid 1 "Miscellaneous" waste conSolid waste solid waste tribution disposala (Table I) (1+2)

5

2

Pollutant source

9.5 1.9 2.8 0.6 0.5

17.4

SOX NO X

7.9 2.0 1.4 0.2 0.4

Total

11.9

15.3

27.2

CO HC

Particulates

a

3.9 4.2 0.8 0.9

4

Total all sourcesa 151.4 37.4 35.2 33.4 23.8 281.2

Solid waste percent of total (revised) 11.5 10.4 11.9 2.4 3.8 9.7

Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollutant Emissions, 1968.1 117

Table III. Ambient air quality primary standards, tolerance factors and health effect factors.8

Primary standards

Tolerance factors (Mg/m3, 1 day) Health effect factors

CO

HC

SO X

NO X

Particulates

10 mg/m3 (8 hr)b 40 mg/m3 (lhr)b

160 Mg/m3 (3 hr)b

80 Mg/m3 (iyr) 365 Mg/m3 (1 day)

75 Mg/m3 (Iyr) 260 Mg/m3 (1 day)b

5600

45

102Mg/m3 (Iyr) 250 Mg/m3 (1 day recommended) 250

1

125

365 15.3

22.4

3.

4. 5.

260 21.5

6.

Adapted from Walther's18 Table III, p. 353. b Maximum concentration not to be exceeded more than once a year.

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a

covery while minimizing environmental impact. Pending a significant impact of large-scale recycling, that may or may not materialize within the next 10 to 15 years,20 we must rely on the technologies shown to be functionally specific and socially responsible. Of the older, more traditional technologies the sanitary landfill, when maintained and operated within the established guidelines, can achieve this status. Of the many possible solid waste disposal-recovery methodologies available the more advanced pyrolysis systems appear to be the methods of choice.21 The implementation of these technologies along with source reduction and government aided recycling strategies can all lead toward much improved air quality and in turn improved health. As shown by the data presented, the air pollution health effects associated with the current disposal of solid wastes intensifies the need for adequate regulation and abatement of agricultural and mine waste open burning. Priorities for the installation and extensive utilization of state of the art, relatively pollution-free solid waste/ resource recovery technologies are demanded by the facts presented. As the relationship between solid waste, air pollution and health becomes further clarified, we expect these demands to intensify.

7.

Conclusions

1. There is a lack of sufficient knowledge concerning the relationship between solid waste, air pollution and human disease. 2. On a mass basis, solid waste disposal contributes much more than the 4.2% of the total air pollution as reported in EPA emission totals. A more accurate estimate is 9.7%. 3. Air pollutants contributed by solid waste disposal are calculated at 9.9% of the total air pollution health effect. 4. Several advanced disposal-resource recovery technologies have demonstrated they can meet air quality standards and provide effective service. As these newer technologies are further refined and evaluated these methods should be given the most serious consideration as vital components in formulating solid waste management plans.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

References 1. T. G. Hanks, "Solid Waste/Disease Relationship: A Literature Survey," U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, PHS Publ. No. 999-XXX-6, 1967. p. 11. 2. Solid Waste Management: A Comprehensive Assessment of Solid Waste Problems, Practices and Needs, Report of the Ad Hoc Group for the Office of Science and Technology, U. S.

16.

17. 18.

19. Table IV. Contribution of.solid waste to air pollution health effects. 20.

Pollutant/ category HC Particulates NO X CO

sox

Total

3 2 1 Health effect Total health Health effect solid waste effect solid "solid waste disposal from waste disposal"a miscellaneousb (1 + 2) 250.0 30.1 9.0 7.9 3.1 300.1

253.0 73.5 13.5 9.3 3.1 352.4

503.0 103.6 22.5 17.2 6.2 655.5

5 % of solid 4 waste contriTotal health bution to total health effect all sourcesb effect (revised) 4680.5 757.3 533.3 151.4 510.7 6633.2

10.7 13.7 4.2 11.3 1.0 9.9

a From Walther's Table IV, page 354.18 b Figures derived by taking the % of each pollutant contributed by solid wastes disposal in the miscellaneous source category (Table I) and Using it to compute the health effects as indicated. Total miscellaneous health effect for CO 18.2, Particulates: 245, HC: 1150, NO^: 44.8, SO^: 3.1. See Walther p. 354, Tables III, V.18

118

21.

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1969. p. 2. W. R. Niessen 'and A. P. Sarofin, "Incinerator Air Pollution: Facts and Speculation," in Proc. 1970 National Incinerator Conference, ASME, 1970. pp. 167-181. J. W. Stephenson, "Incineration today and tomorrow," Waste Age 2: 2 (May 1970). J. J. Sableski and W. A. Cote, "Air pollutant emissions from apartment house incinerators," J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 22: 230 (1972). A. A. Carotti and E. R. Kaiser, "Concentrations of 20 gaseous chemical species in the flue gas of a municipal incinerator," J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 22: 243 (1972). C. F. Kelly, "Yes—incinerators can comply," Amer. City 87(8): 50 (Aug. 1972). M. Feldstein, "The contribution of the open burning of land clearing debris to air pollution," J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 13: 542 (1963). V. P. Osterli, "Air Pollution Caused by Agricultural, Forestry and Forest Products Combustion," in Project Clean Air^ California Univ. Berkeley, Task Force 5, Volume 1, Sect. 5,1970. J. J. Malroy, "Relationships of agriculture burning and air pollution studied in preliminary experiments," Calif. Agriculture 14(9): 3 (1960). R. W. Gerstle and D. A. Kemnitz, "Atmospheric emissions from open burning," J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 17: 324 (1967). G. Burger, "The effects of uncontrolled dumping of refuse in the environment," Z. Geo. Hyg. Genzgebiete IB (3): 161 (Mar 1970). M. E. Jacobs, "Health Aspects of Air Pollution from Incineration," National Incinerator Conference, New York, 1964. pp. 128-131. B. Linsky, "Health Effects of Air Pollution Related to Solid Wastes: A Preliminary Report," U. S. Pub. Health Service 1966. pp. 1-21. "The Sources of Air Pollution and Their Control," U. S. Pub. Health Service Publ. No. 1548, 1966. "Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollutant Emissions, 1968," U. S. Pub. Health Service NAPCA Publ. No. AP73,1970. A Citizen's Guide to Clean Air, The Conservation Foundation, 1972.14 pp. E. G. Walther, "A rating of the major air pollutants and their sources by effect," J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 22: 352 (1972). L. B. Lave and E. P. Seskin, "Air pollution and health," Science 169: 723 (1970) G. J. Kupchik, "Recycling and reclamation," Amer. J. Public Health 62: 1146 (1972). G. J. Franz, "A Comparative Evaluation of Selected Emerging Solid Waste Resource Recovery Technologies," M. Sc. Thesis, City University of New York, Hunter, May 1974.

Dr. Kupchik is Professor and Program Director, Environmental Health Science, School of Health Sciences, Hunter College, 105 East 106th St., New York, NY 10029. Mr. Franz is an Environmental Planner, New York City Department of City Planning. This paper was presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Lung Association, New York, in May 1973.

Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

Solid waste, air pollution and health.

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