PsychologicalReports, 1992, 71, 1123-1128. O Psychological Reports 1992
SOCIAL SUPPORT AND SUICIDAL IDEATION IN COLLEGE STUDENTS ' SHERRY L. WHATLEY AND JAMES R. CLOPTON Terns Tech University Summary.-The present study examined the Link between social support and suicidal ideation among 305 university students (90 men and 215 women) whose ages ranged from 18 to 24 years. Social support was significantly correlated with suicidal ideation (r = -.38), but social support did not contribute to the variation in suicidal ideation scores beyond the joint contribution of scores on the Beck Depression Inventory and scores on the Hopelessness Scale. A stronger relationship between social support and suicidal ideation might be found if investigators assessed different aspects of social support and if they examined the interaction of social support and level of reported stress.
During recent years there has been a dramatic increase in suicides among adolescents and young adults (Stafford & Weisheit, 1988). Suicide is now the second leading cause of death among young adults and might well be the leading cause of death if d suicides were accurately reported (Holinger, 1979; Rudd, 1989; Smith & Crawford, 1986). To account for suicides among adolescents and young adults, researchers have examined the relationship of various psychological variables and suicidal behavior. Depression and hopelessness have been two of the best predictors of suicide attempts and completions (Beck, Steer, Kovacs, & Garrison, 1985; Bedrosian & Beck, 1979; Minkoff, Bergman, Beck, & Beck, 1973; Petrie & Chamberlain, 1983; Wetzel, Margulies, Davis, & Karam, 1980). Young adult men and women who attend college have higher suicide rates than young adults who do not attend college (Bernard & Bernard, 1982). One possible explanation for the higher suicide rates among college students is a lack of social support resulting both from weakened social ties with longtime friends and from decreased accessibility to family members. This explanation is supported by research that has repeatedly shown that social support promotes mental health and buffers psychological stress (Froland, Brodsky, Olson, & Stewart, 1979; Mitchell & Trickett, 1980; Pattison, Llamas, & Hurd, 1979). In addition, compared to other people, individuals with mental disorders (particularly depression) have smaller social networks and less interpersonal contact and satisfaction, especially with friends (Billings & Moos, 1984; Brim, Witcoff, & Wetzel, 1982; Pattison, et al., 1979; Silberfeld, 1978). Given the strong association between social support and
'Address correspondence to James R. Clopton, Department of Psychology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-2051.
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mental health, social support may reduce the likelihood or magnitude of suicidal thoughts (cf. Beck, Kovacs, & Weissman, 1979). The possibility of a direct link between social support and suicidal behavior has rarely been examined. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship of social support and suicidal ideation among college students. It was hypothesized that college students who have more social support will have less suicidal ideation and conversely that students with less social support will have more suicidal ideation. A second purpose of this study was to examine the interaction of social support, depression, hopelessness, and demographic variables as predictors of suicidal ideation among college students. Understanding the variables that affect suicidal ideation is important because college students who frequently think about suicide are more likely to attempt suicide (Beck, et al., 1979; Schotte & Clum, 1982). Subjects The subjects were 305 university students (90 men and 215 women) enrolled in an introductory psychology course. Students who volunteered to participate in the study received credit toward a course requirement. Students' ages ranged from 18 to 24 years. Measures The students answered a brief questionnaire that asked for demographic information, then completed the following measures: the Scale for Suicide Ideators, the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Hopelessness Scale, and the Hollingshead Index of Social Status. Scale for Suicide Ideaton.-This scale was developed to quantify the strength of suicide intent among those individuals who are thinking about suicide. Psychometric data include an internal consistency reliability of .89 and a correlation of .41 with the self-harm items of the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, et al., 1979; Schotte & Clum, 1982). The self-report form of the scale was used in this study. Interpersonal Support Evaluation List.-This scale assesses the perceived availability of potential social resources (material aid, someone to talk to about problems, people to do things with, and a positive comparison of oneself with others). For the college students' version used in this study, the internal consistency reliability ranged from .77 to .86, and the test-retest reliability was .87 (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983). Beck Depression Inventory.-For this widely used measure of depression, in an adult population, the test-retest reliabhty of the Beck Depression Inventory was .78, and inventory scores were correlated (.58) with diagnoses of affective disorders (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961).
1125
SOCIAL SUPPORT AND SUICIDAL IDEATION
Hopelessness Scale.-This scale assesses the affective, motivational, and cognitive components of hopelessness. Psychometric data include a n internal consistency reliability of .93 and correlations ranging from .49 to .74 with other measures of hopelessness, such as clinical ratings (Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974). Hollingshead Index of Social Status.-This index is a composite score based on the three factors of occupation, education, and marital status, and it is a highly reliable and vahd measure of socioeconomic differentiation in the United States (Holtingshead, 1975). -
~
Procedure Packets containing the measures were given to groups of 20 to 40 students. The packets required about 30 to 45 minutes to complete. After cornpletion of the packets, students were informed of available counseling if they or someone they knew had frequent and significant thoughts of suicide.
RESULTS As predicted, there was a significant negative correlation between scores on the Scale for Suicide Ideators and the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List. Social support was also significantly correlated with scores on the Beck Depression Inventory and the Hopelessness Scale. The correlations are presented in Table 1. Significant correlations between suicidal ideation and hopelessness and between suicidal ideation and depression replicated the results of previous TABLE 1 PE~RSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRE.LATIONS, MEANS,ANO STANDARD DEVIATIONSFORMEASURES Correlations
Variable 2
3
M
SD
2.69 194.02 2.09 5.53
3.89 20.41 2.41 5.56
3.16 199.78 2.74 7.22
4.76 22.70 3.22 7.62
3.02 198.08 2.55 6.72
4.52 22.17 3.01 7.11
4
Men (n = 90) 1. Suicidal Ideation -.36 .30 .50 2. Social Support -.30 -.53 .40 3. Hopelessness 4. Depression Women (n = 215) 1. Suicidal Ideation -.40 .49 .61 -.60 -.46 2. Social Support .56 3. Hopelessness 4. Depression All Subjects (N = 305) -.38 .46 .59 1. Suicidal Ideation -.51 -.46 2. Social Support .53 3. Hopelessness 4. Depression Note.-All correlations are statistically significant ( p < ,005).
1126
S. L. WHATLEY
& J. R.
CLOPTON
studies. As shown in Table 2, a stepwise regression analysis found that depression and hopelessness accounted for most of the variation in suicidal ideation. Social support scores, when combined with hopelessness and depression scores and six demographic variables (gender, age, year in school, race, religion, and socioeconomic status), accounted for only slightly more variation in suicidal ideation scores (R2= 3 9 ) than hopelessness and depression (R2= .37). TABLE 2 PREDICTORS OF SUICIDAL IDEATION: STEPWISE MULTIPLEREGKESSION Variable
R~
B
F to enter
.34 .37 Depression 159.19t Hopelessness .37 .29 13.29t Race .39 .79 8.37* Note.-Gender, age, year i n school, religion, socioeconomic status, and social support accounted for little additional variance i n suicidal ideation scores. *p< .01. t p < ,001. --
--
A series of analyses of variance indicated no significant difference in the scores of men and women for suicidal ideation, depression, or hopelessness. However, women reported significantly more social support than men (F,,,,, = 4.32, p < .05), and there was a significantly greater negative correlation between social support and hopelessness for women than for men ( z = 3.02, p < .005). An unexpected significant difference in the mean suicidal ideation scores of different ethnic groups (F,,,,, = 6.99, p < .001) was the only other significant relationshp found among variables in this study. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey method indicated that the mean suicidal ideation score of Asian students (M = 14.36) was significantly higher (p
SOCIAL SUPPORT AND SUICIDAL IDEATION IN COLLEGE STUDENTS ' SHERRY L. WHATLEY AND JAMES R. CLOPTON Terns Tech University Summary.-The present study examined the Link between social support and suicidal ideation among 305 university students (90 men and 215 women) whose ages ranged from 18 to 24 years. Social support was significantly correlated with suicidal ideation (r = -.38), but social support did not contribute to the variation in suicidal ideation scores beyond the joint contribution of scores on the Beck Depression Inventory and scores on the Hopelessness Scale. A stronger relationship between social support and suicidal ideation might be found if investigators assessed different aspects of social support and if they examined the interaction of social support and level of reported stress.
During recent years there has been a dramatic increase in suicides among adolescents and young adults (Stafford & Weisheit, 1988). Suicide is now the second leading cause of death among young adults and might well be the leading cause of death if d suicides were accurately reported (Holinger, 1979; Rudd, 1989; Smith & Crawford, 1986). To account for suicides among adolescents and young adults, researchers have examined the relationship of various psychological variables and suicidal behavior. Depression and hopelessness have been two of the best predictors of suicide attempts and completions (Beck, Steer, Kovacs, & Garrison, 1985; Bedrosian & Beck, 1979; Minkoff, Bergman, Beck, & Beck, 1973; Petrie & Chamberlain, 1983; Wetzel, Margulies, Davis, & Karam, 1980). Young adult men and women who attend college have higher suicide rates than young adults who do not attend college (Bernard & Bernard, 1982). One possible explanation for the higher suicide rates among college students is a lack of social support resulting both from weakened social ties with longtime friends and from decreased accessibility to family members. This explanation is supported by research that has repeatedly shown that social support promotes mental health and buffers psychological stress (Froland, Brodsky, Olson, & Stewart, 1979; Mitchell & Trickett, 1980; Pattison, Llamas, & Hurd, 1979). In addition, compared to other people, individuals with mental disorders (particularly depression) have smaller social networks and less interpersonal contact and satisfaction, especially with friends (Billings & Moos, 1984; Brim, Witcoff, & Wetzel, 1982; Pattison, et al., 1979; Silberfeld, 1978). Given the strong association between social support and
'Address correspondence to James R. Clopton, Department of Psychology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-2051.
1124
S. L. WHATLEY & J. R. CLOPTON
mental health, social support may reduce the likelihood or magnitude of suicidal thoughts (cf. Beck, Kovacs, & Weissman, 1979). The possibility of a direct link between social support and suicidal behavior has rarely been examined. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship of social support and suicidal ideation among college students. It was hypothesized that college students who have more social support will have less suicidal ideation and conversely that students with less social support will have more suicidal ideation. A second purpose of this study was to examine the interaction of social support, depression, hopelessness, and demographic variables as predictors of suicidal ideation among college students. Understanding the variables that affect suicidal ideation is important because college students who frequently think about suicide are more likely to attempt suicide (Beck, et al., 1979; Schotte & Clum, 1982). Subjects The subjects were 305 university students (90 men and 215 women) enrolled in an introductory psychology course. Students who volunteered to participate in the study received credit toward a course requirement. Students' ages ranged from 18 to 24 years. Measures The students answered a brief questionnaire that asked for demographic information, then completed the following measures: the Scale for Suicide Ideators, the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Hopelessness Scale, and the Hollingshead Index of Social Status. Scale for Suicide Ideaton.-This scale was developed to quantify the strength of suicide intent among those individuals who are thinking about suicide. Psychometric data include an internal consistency reliability of .89 and a correlation of .41 with the self-harm items of the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, et al., 1979; Schotte & Clum, 1982). The self-report form of the scale was used in this study. Interpersonal Support Evaluation List.-This scale assesses the perceived availability of potential social resources (material aid, someone to talk to about problems, people to do things with, and a positive comparison of oneself with others). For the college students' version used in this study, the internal consistency reliability ranged from .77 to .86, and the test-retest reliability was .87 (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983). Beck Depression Inventory.-For this widely used measure of depression, in an adult population, the test-retest reliabhty of the Beck Depression Inventory was .78, and inventory scores were correlated (.58) with diagnoses of affective disorders (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961).
1125
SOCIAL SUPPORT AND SUICIDAL IDEATION
Hopelessness Scale.-This scale assesses the affective, motivational, and cognitive components of hopelessness. Psychometric data include a n internal consistency reliability of .93 and correlations ranging from .49 to .74 with other measures of hopelessness, such as clinical ratings (Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974). Hollingshead Index of Social Status.-This index is a composite score based on the three factors of occupation, education, and marital status, and it is a highly reliable and vahd measure of socioeconomic differentiation in the United States (Holtingshead, 1975). -
~
Procedure Packets containing the measures were given to groups of 20 to 40 students. The packets required about 30 to 45 minutes to complete. After cornpletion of the packets, students were informed of available counseling if they or someone they knew had frequent and significant thoughts of suicide.
RESULTS As predicted, there was a significant negative correlation between scores on the Scale for Suicide Ideators and the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List. Social support was also significantly correlated with scores on the Beck Depression Inventory and the Hopelessness Scale. The correlations are presented in Table 1. Significant correlations between suicidal ideation and hopelessness and between suicidal ideation and depression replicated the results of previous TABLE 1 PE~RSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRE.LATIONS, MEANS,ANO STANDARD DEVIATIONSFORMEASURES Correlations
Variable 2
3
M
SD
2.69 194.02 2.09 5.53
3.89 20.41 2.41 5.56
3.16 199.78 2.74 7.22
4.76 22.70 3.22 7.62
3.02 198.08 2.55 6.72
4.52 22.17 3.01 7.11
4
Men (n = 90) 1. Suicidal Ideation -.36 .30 .50 2. Social Support -.30 -.53 .40 3. Hopelessness 4. Depression Women (n = 215) 1. Suicidal Ideation -.40 .49 .61 -.60 -.46 2. Social Support .56 3. Hopelessness 4. Depression All Subjects (N = 305) -.38 .46 .59 1. Suicidal Ideation -.51 -.46 2. Social Support .53 3. Hopelessness 4. Depression Note.-All correlations are statistically significant ( p < ,005).
1126
S. L. WHATLEY
& J. R.
CLOPTON
studies. As shown in Table 2, a stepwise regression analysis found that depression and hopelessness accounted for most of the variation in suicidal ideation. Social support scores, when combined with hopelessness and depression scores and six demographic variables (gender, age, year in school, race, religion, and socioeconomic status), accounted for only slightly more variation in suicidal ideation scores (R2= 3 9 ) than hopelessness and depression (R2= .37). TABLE 2 PREDICTORS OF SUICIDAL IDEATION: STEPWISE MULTIPLEREGKESSION Variable
R~
B
F to enter
.34 .37 Depression 159.19t Hopelessness .37 .29 13.29t Race .39 .79 8.37* Note.-Gender, age, year i n school, religion, socioeconomic status, and social support accounted for little additional variance i n suicidal ideation scores. *p< .01. t p < ,001. --
--
A series of analyses of variance indicated no significant difference in the scores of men and women for suicidal ideation, depression, or hopelessness. However, women reported significantly more social support than men (F,,,,, = 4.32, p < .05), and there was a significantly greater negative correlation between social support and hopelessness for women than for men ( z = 3.02, p < .005). An unexpected significant difference in the mean suicidal ideation scores of different ethnic groups (F,,,,, = 6.99, p < .001) was the only other significant relationshp found among variables in this study. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey method indicated that the mean suicidal ideation score of Asian students (M = 14.36) was significantly higher (p
