~oumal
ofAdolescence
1990, 13, 3-16
Social skills training in schools: an evaluation study C.
M.
VERDUYN*,
W.
LORD?
AND
G.
C.
FORREST7
A study evaluating the effectiveness of a school-based social skills programme is described. All children in three year bands of an Oxford middle school were screened for behaviour problems. Subjects selected were allocated at random to eight sessions of social skills training with four booster sessions later or to a no treatment control group. Change was assessed by teacher, parent and selfreport measures. Results suggested a significant improvement in social activity, parental report of social behaviour and self-esteem in the treatment as compared to the control group, which persisted at 6 month follow-up. Self-esteem changes were age and gender related. Implications for school-based social skills programmes are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Social skill has been defined as “the ability to interact with others in a given social context in specific ways that are socially accepted or valid . . .” (Combs and Slaby, 1977). The ability develops through the acquisition of a repertoire of behaviours which affect the responses of other people in such a way that desirable outcomes are attained and undesirable outcomes avoided without inflicting pain on others (Rinn and Markle, 1979). Several authors have highlighted the importance of these skills in childhood. Cowen, Pederson, Babigiani, Izzo and Trost (1983) found popularity at school as indicated by peer ratings to be a better predictor of mental health than any other measure. Van Hasselt, Hersen, Whitehill and Bellak (1979) cite over 20 studies relating poor social functioning in childhood to later psychological disturbance. Problems reported to be associated with childhood social deficits include delinquency (Roff, Sells and Golden, 1972), impaired cognitive and academic performance (Cartledge and Milburn, 1978), dropping out of school (Ullman, 1957) and in adulthood, alcoholism, antisocial behaviour and psychotic disorder (Lovaas, Freitas and Whelan, 1972; Morris, 1956). *Reprint requests to C. M. Verduyn, Principal Clinical Psychologist General Hospital, Farnworth, Bolton, BL4 OJR, U.K. t Park Hospital for Children, Oxford, U.K. 014~1971/90/010003
+ 14 $03.00/O
0
1990 The
Associatmn
(Children’s
for the Psychiatric
Services),
Study
Bolton
of Adolescents
4
C. M. VEROUYN
ET AL.
The reported link between social skills and mental health need not imply causality. Peer problems are not the only cause of wider social difficulties and social skills deficits are not the only reason for interpersonal problems (Frosh, 1983). As Putallaz and Gottman (1983) comment, “it is impossible to determine whether early peer relationships determine risk or whether the risk variable of interest caused the earlier social status”. Research on children’s social relationships has indicated that factors such as competence in physical race, parental behaviour and other personal and activities, intelligence, situational characteristics affect a child’s popularity (Miller and Gentry, 1980). However the child’s ability to make use of his personal environment is of importance. Cognitive-behavioural methods have been applied to the remediation of social skill deficits (Spence, 1983). Children are helped to acquire a repertoire of behaviours for coping with everyday situations of varying difficulty, from asking for help from an adult to dealing with bullies. Several techniques are used including group discussion, modelling, rehearsal, role play and feedback on performance. The positive effects of therapy observed clinically have proved difficult to establish under research conditions. Also outcome studies vary in sampling and assessment procedures, training elements and sample size. The results of replication have been inconsistent. For example, an investigation by Oden and Asher (1977) showed an increase in peer popularity post-intervention but a replication (Hymel and Asher, 1977) f ound no difference between treatment and control groups. The children in the later study were slightly older, suggesting that age may be an important factor in determining response to treatment. Despite the inconclusive nature of research findings, the emergence of some positive effects suggests that social skills training is potentially useful and justifies further research into ways of improving treatment methods (Van Hasselt et al., 1979). A major problem with social skills training is the difficulty of obtaining generalization of treatment effects to situations outside the group setting (Marzillier and Winter, 1978). To promote generalization the training context should be as close as possible to everyday life. The hospital is not ideal in this respect. For children a more appropriate setting would be school. Whitehill (1978; reported by Spence 1983) found that improvements in conversation skills of four socially isolated children generalized from schoolbased sessions to real-life interactions. This study also demonstrated another major problem, that of persistence of treatment effects. This might be promoted if the teacher, an influential person in the child’s environment, took the therapist’s role. Allen, Heaton and Barrel1 (1977) using trained teachers as therapists found an increase in the frequency of observed social interactions
SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING
5
but no difference in teacher’s reports of problem behaviour, peer sociometric ratings, self ratings or level of aspiration. In designing the present study, an evaluation of social skills training in lO13 year olds, particular attention was paid to issues of generalization and maintenance of newly acquired skills. In addition to teaching specific verbal and non-verbal behaviours, a problem-solving approach was used in the groups to encourage the children to identify potentially difficult situations and plan strategies which are likely to lead to a successful outcome (Spivack and Shure, 1976). A school base and minimum technical equipment aimed to ensure that the package could be used by teachers after training.
METHOD The subjects were children in the second, third and fourth years at an Oxford middle school (age 10 to 13 years).
Selection
of sample
After parental consent had been obtained, the children (n = 365) were screened to identify those who were observed to have behaviour problems and/or experience difficulties in social interactions, by teacher or peer report.
I) Screening
measures
(i) Teachers were asked to complete the Rutter B2 Scale (Rutter, 1967), which assesses the frequency of specific emotional and antisocial behaviours, giving scores for these categories and an overall score. The scale consists of a series of descriptions of behaviour such as “tends to do things on his ownrather solitary ” , “bullies other children”. The teacher rates the behaviour as non-applicable (0 points) somewhat applicable (1 point) or certainly applicable (2 points). (ii) All children completed a standardized sociometric questionnaire designed to produce peer preference ratings for each child in a class (MacMillan et al., 1980). Each child was required to nominate the three children in his class with whom he would most like and the three with whom he would least like to share each of the following activities:play with, sit next to, work with. This method identifies both isolated (few positive and few negative nominations) and rejected (many negative and few positive nominations) children.
6
C. M. VERDUYN
E?‘:U.
2) Criteria for selection Cut-offs
were established
cut-off of 4 on the Rutter 2 positive nominations
to identify
extreme
population. With the Rutter B2 scale, a cut-off discriminator between normal children clinics (Rutter,
1967).
Newcastle-on-Tyne sample
was considered
presence
was used in the screening
too high,
The
identifying
an index
control
treatment on three
procedure for the
only two children.
of problem
behaviour
of the present
Using rather
the than
were allocated
at random
to treatment
(n = 17) and no
(n = 17) groups.
and control occasions:-
using a placebo
control
groups before
to control
design
were compared
Pre-intervention
for non-specific
Period 1 (4 wks)
Assessment
8 Group
Sessions
2
Assessment
No Intervention
2
No Intervention
Assessment
Period 3 (2 wks)
No Intervention
4 Booster
No Intervention
Assessment
Assessment
No Intervention
to school staff.
Period 2 (4 wks)
Follow-up
Assessment
and 6
ciesijy
Period 4 (6 mths)
1
adminis-
sessions
effects of extra attention
group as this was unaceptable
1
Post-intervention
on measures
and after the treatment
Table 1. b’xpet~wzentul
Group
but
disorder.
months later. It did not prove possible
Group
1980)
et al.,
Experimental tered
A
to groups
34 subjects
treatment
on both measures.
of 9 has been regarded as the best and those attending child guidance
(MacMillan
as providing
of psychiatric
3) Allocatiolz The
This cut-off study
scale was justified
scores
B2 scale, and either 14 or more rejections or less than from sociometry identified 9.3 per cent of the
Sessions
7
SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING
Assessment
procedures
and measures
Assessments were completed by each child’s teacher information on a range of situations.
and parents
to provide
Pre- and post-intervention i) Social behaviour checklist Both parents and teachers completed a social behaviour checklist. This consisted of 27 problem behaviours compiled during piloting from various standardized checklists (Michelson, Foster and Ritchey, 1978; Spence, 1980). Frequency of each behaviour was rated on a 4 point scale. A space for comments was provided after each item. A final question invited comment on the child’s main social skill problem. ii) Children’s social situation checklist The children completed a Social Situation Checklist (Spence, 1980) comprising 37 questions about social situations such as “Do you take friends home often?“, “Do you feel awkward with new people?“, “Do you tease others?“. All questions required a “yes” or “no” answer. A space for comment was placed after each item. The child was asked to indicate any situation he found particularly worrying. iii) Self-esteem inventory Each child completed statements to which the statements made up a Lie
(Coopersmith, 1967) the Self-esteem Inventory which comprised 58 child replied “Like me” or “Unlike me”. Eight Scale.
iv)
Weekly diary of social activities Each morning for a week the children the night before : (a) Last night I spent the evening (b) I was with . . . (c) It was good because . . . (d) It wasn’t good because . . . The total number
of peer group
4 sentences
concerning
. . .
activities
Post-intervention Ratings of change In addition, teachers
completed
in the week were calculated.
only
were asked to say whether
each child had 1) improved
C. M. VERDUYN
8 2) become usefulness school.
K:‘7‘ .U,.
worse or 3) not changed. They were also asked to comment on the of the project and the relevance to the function of the middle
At follow-up,
screening
and pre-intervention
measures
were repeated.
Intementim
Before
the programme
began the 17 children
in the treatment
group were
given an explanation of its purpose with opportunity to discuss any feelings they had about participating. They were subdivided into four groups for training
sessions,
children
were withdrawn
which
were twice
weekly
from timetabled
for 1 hour over 4 weeks.
activities
and a separate
The
classroom
was used for the session. At each session
a specific discussion,
aspect of social interaction
teaching,
group
modelling
cognitive structure
as well as behavioural comprising:-
was considered
and role play. .\ttention
aspects.
Each
session
using
was paid to
followed
a formal
i) ii)
Brief discussion of homework from previous session. Warm-up exercise related to the week’s theme.
iii)
Introduction to the theme of the session. Themes included coping with bullying, responding to criticism, asking for help, making friends, giving compliments.
vi) Brief didactic period. v) Behavioural rehearsal
of a situation
with feedback and discussion vi) Summing up and homework. book.
Tasks
were related
from a group
member’s
experience
and further role play if appropriate. Homework was recorded by each child in a
to the session’s
theme
and were practical
in
nature. When the task was completed a star was awarded and if the task had been particularly difficult a prize from a special “goody” box was given. Booster sessions followed the same format as the earlier sessions and similar strategies were employed. The working focus was provided bv the children’s experiences of difficulties and solutions since the previous sessions and aimed to reinforce their use of strategies developed then. The children were encouraged to provide their own examples of problem situations. There was one therapist for all treatment groups, a graduate psychologist
SOCIAL
SKILLS
9
TRAINING
who was also a qualified teacher, with previous experience skills groups.
of running social
RESULTS 1, Sample Gender and age characteristics shown in Table 2.
characteristics of treatment
2. Analysis
and control groups were as
of results
Mean scores on all measures at pre- and post-treatment and follow-up were examined by two-way analyses of variance. The effects of gender and school year were examined as covariables. Significant effects were further examined using paired ‘t’ tests.
3. Screening
measures
Treatment and control groups did not differ significantly on scores on Rutter B2 or sociometry at baseline or follow-up. There were no significant interactions with age or gender. Means and standard deviations of screening measures are shown in Table 3. 4. Comparison
of measures
pre- and post-intervention
and at follow-up
i) Parent’s behaviour checklist Table 4 shows mean scores on the parent checklist of the child’s problem behaviours. Pre-treatment, the treatment group had significantly more problem behaviours than controls (t = 2.06, df = 32, p < 0.05). The mean number of problems for the treatment group decreased significantly resulting in no Table 2. Gender and age characteristics
of treatment
and control groups
n
Mean age
Range
Treatment
Boys Girls
7 10
11.4 11.8
(lo%-13.1) (10.5-13.0)
Control
Boys Girls
8 9
11.7 11.5
(10.5-12.6) (10.5-12.9)
10
C. M. VERDUYN
1:7’ ,U..
Table 3. Mean scores on screening measures Screening Measure
Group
Sociometrv -choices (% of max’,mum)
mean
Treatment
7.4
Rutter
B2
(sd.)
mean
(sd.)
(6.2)
6.7
(5.X)
5.6
(2.8)
5.7
(1.7)
Treatment
34.7
(10.X)
31.2
(15.1)
Control
28.4
(14.6)
27.7
(12.2)
6.2 5.2
(3.9) (5.6)
6.X 4.8
(3.9) (2.8)
Control - rejections (% of maximum)
Follow-up
Treatment Control
significant difference between treatment and control groups post-treatment. Analysis of covariance indicated that the reduction in problem behaviours in the treatment group was due to treatment Within group analysis showed a significant post-treatment
(t = 3.885,
df = 16,~
(F = 5.054, df = 1, p = 0.03). reduction in problem behaviours
< O-01).
There was no significant difference between the groups at follow-up, suggesting that gains post-treatment had persisted. The treatment group’s follow-up
scores were significantly
lower than pre-treatment
(t = 4.524,
df =
16, p < 0.01).
ii) Teachers checklist
social
beharioul-
checklist
cd
childt-m’s
There were no significant differences between the groups treatment or follow-up nor significant interactions.
Table 4. Meun Scot-eson
situatiotr
at pre- or post-
the pat-erzt checklist
Treatment
Pm-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up
social
Control
mean
(sd.)
mean
(sd.)
26.6 18.3 17.2
(14.3) (10.6) (11.8)
17.5 18.4 16.9
(11.0) (16.2) (13.1)
SOCIAL
SKILLS
TRAINING
11
Table 5. Mean scores on teachers’ and children’s social behaviour checklists Mean scores (s.d.) Teacher Treatment 24.9 15.3 11.2
Pre-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up
(24.6) (10.4) (5.5)
Child Control
23.2 IO-8 12.5
(30.3) (11.0) (15.3)
Treatment 29.8 22.9 25.5
(12.1) (11.9) (14.8)
Control 30.5 28-O 25.8
(15.3) (11.4) (10.8)
Table 6. Mean scores on Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventoy Treatment
Pre-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up
Control
mean
(s.d.)
mean
(s.d.)
59.1 63.5 58.7
(13.4) (19.1) (19.8)
58-9 59.5 60.1
(14.9) (17.5) (16.4)
Table 5 shows the mean scores on these measures. iii)
Coopersmith
Self-esteem
Inventory
Table 6 shows mean scores on the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory. There was no overall treatment effect but an interaction between treatment, gender and age (younger i.e., 10 and 11 year olds and older i.e., 12 and 13 year olds) (F = 4.163, df = 2, p = O-03). The younger age group showed significant gains in self-esteem following treatment (t = 3.146, df = 8, p < 0.02). Differences in the older age group and controls were not significant. At follow-up there was no overall treatment effect but an interaction indicating persistence of treatment effects in the younger age group (F = 7.274, df = 2, p = 0.004; follow-up t = 3.055, df = 8,~ < 0.02). Pre-treatment, boys showed higher mean scores than girls (F = 7.903, df = 1, p = 0.01). Boys and younger girls showed significant gains following treatment (t = 2.77, df = 6, p < 0.05; t = 9.54, df = 3, p = < 0.01) but neither difference was maintained at follow-up. There were no significant differences within the control group. Coopersmith (1967) reported a mean score of 82 (s.d. 11) for 1400 14 year old boys and girls.
12
C. M. VERDUYN
E7’&.
Table 7. Mean scores on social activity
diaq
Treatment
Pre-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up
iv)
Control
mean
(s.d.)
mean
(s.d.)
2.4 5.4 4.2
(2.9) (2.6) (2.6)
3.2 3.0 4.0
(2.8) (2.5) (2.6)
Childrerz’s social activity
diaq
Mean scores on the social activity diary are shown in Table 7.
Pre-treatment, there were no significant differences between groups in social activity scores. Post-treatment, the treatment group was more socially active than the controls (F = 6.94, df = 1, p = 0.017) and than pre-treatment (t = 4.76, df = 16,~ < 0.01). At follow-up, there was no significant difference between the groups, however within the treatment group scores were significantly raised compared to pre-treatment (t = 2.401, df = 16,~ < 0.05). Thus gains in social activity were maintained. Table 8 summarizes the significant findings. 23) Teachers’ comments Six of the 12 teachers involved returned comments on the programme. All agreed that social skills training should be part of the school’s function. Some commented that they felt ill-equipped to promote this role.
Table 8. Summaq kleasure
of significant findings Factor
Significance level
Pre-treatment
Self-esteem Parent report
Gender Treatment
0.01 0.05
Post-treatment
Self-esteem Parent report Social activity
Age/Gender Treatment Treatment
0.03 0.03 0.02
Follow-up
Self-esteem Parent report Social activity
Age Treatment Treatment
0.004 0.03 0.01
SOCIAL
SKILLS
TRAINING
13
Reports on the programme from the children were predominantly positive. Asked to rate its usefulness on a O-10 scale, all ratings were 6 or above and 76 per cent rated 9 or 10.
DISCUSSION The results lend further support to the suggested effectiveness of social skills training with children who have problem behaviours at school. In the absence of a placebo control group the possibility of a non-specific effect of adult attention in the treatment groups remains but the specific changes in social behaviour suggest that the programme itself contributed to the positive changes. Significant improvements in parental report of social behaviour and children’s reported social activity level were present post-treatment and at 6 month follow-up. Perhaps the most important feature of the results is the indication that learning generalized to situations at home and encouraged increased peer group contact. It was with this intention that sessions were based in an environment familiar to the children. It is suggested that the results demonstrate generalization of effects outside the group which makes the absence of significant improvement in the schoolbased ratings surprising. The staff were initially wary of the programme but became progressively more interested during the course of the project, apparently due to subjective impressions of improvement in the children. These impressions were not confirmed by their ratings which may have been influenced by other factors. For instance, during screening the teachers disliked the rating scale assessment and seemed unwilling to indicate the presence of problem behaviours. The change to a positive attitude to the programme may have increased their awareness, and hence their later ratings, of problem behaviours and resulted in the lack of change in Rutter scores despite their reports to the contrary. Social behaviour ratings completed on the selected children showed some improvement in treatment and control groups also suggesting a possible rating effect. This perhaps serves to underline the importance of the researcher becoming well-integrated into school life and acquiring the staff’s trust and approval before beginning a school-based project. Booster sessions were intended to promote long term gains from the sessions. The persistence of positive effects at 6 month follow-up suggests the usefulness of this strategy. Confirmation would need to be sought by comparing groups with and without boosters. These sessions included revision of problem-solving strategies, further practice of techniques and encouragement to appraise their successes since the sessions a month earlier. With a longer period to review than between previous sessions, the children
14
C. M. VERDUYK
had experienced techniques
a wider range of social situations
and any problems
opportunity
67’ .-LL.
was given
for
that had arisen the
children
in which to apply their new could
be explored.
to be encouraged
Another
to think
for
themselves about social situations, by pointing out the value and praising those who had done so at times of difficulty. It was hoped to increase self reinforcement
rather than reliance
on the group,
which should be a key factor
in persistence in trying out the techniques. Several authors have commented on the importance of cognitive change for the effectiveness of behaviour therapies with children (e.g. Kendall, 1984; Spence, 1983). I n social skills training this may involve modifying not only interpersonal
awareness
own success increases
(Foster,
1983) but also the child’s perceptions
and ability to plan strategies
in scores on the measure
in the youngest
age band,
self confidence
for social situations.
of self-esteem,
are particularly
are likely to affect
which persisted
encouraging
the children’s
of his
The significant at follow-up
as improvements
approach
to future
in
difficul-
ties.
Comparison with Coopersmith’s norms suggests that both groups had Increasing this may have been facilitated by the very low self-esteem. problem-solving approach used in the programme described here. The age
effect
may indicate
older children. The package period
that different
has potential
of intervention
strategies
might need to be adopted
for improvement.
might
have been
The
usefully
number increased.
for the
of sessions The
and
children
needed time to adjust to the format inhibitions about discussing feelings
of the sessions, to overcome their initial and build up a good relationship with the
therapist
and other group members.
With a longer programme
achieved
during
repetition
early sessions
of important
allowing
more opportunity
these would be
for emphasis
and
points.
An aim of the study was to develop
a programme
of social skills training
which could be used by teachers. It was demonstrated that sessions could be integrated into the school timetable. No special equipment, such as video, was used. The teachers perceived a need for such a programme. Experimental constraints limited their involvement in this study to feedback given in regular meetings however including teachers as co-therapists would allow greater
scope
reinforcing period.
for applying
new behaviour
the techniques produced
in the classroom
by the children
and specifically
in situ and over a longer
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to express their thanks to Mr ‘I‘. Brighouse, Chief Education Officer, Oxfordshire County Council, Mrs M. ,4ppleton, then Educational Psychologist, Oxford City and the staff at the middle school.
SOCIAL SKILLS
15
TRAINING
The project was funded by a grant from Oxford Locally Organized Research Scheme
Regional
Health Authority
REFERENCES Allen, R. P., Heaton, R. and Barrel& M. (1977). Behaviour therapy for socially ineffective children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 14, 500-509. Cartledge, G. and Milburn, J. F. (1978). The case for teaching social skills in the classroom: a review. Review of Educational Research, 48, 133-156. Combs, M. L. and Slaby, D. A. (1977). Social Skills Training with Children. In Advances in Clinical ChildPsychology, Lahey, B. B. and Kazdin, A. E. (Eds), Vol. 1. New York: Plenum Press. Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of selfesteem. San Francisco: Freeman. Cowen, E. L., Pederson, A., Babigiani, H., Izzo, L. D. and Trost, M. A. (1973). Long term follow-up of early detected vulnerable children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41,438-446. Frosh, S. R. (1983). Children and teachers in schools. In Social Skills Training in Practice, Spence, S. and Shepherd, G. (Eds). London: Academic Press. Hymel, S. and Asher, S. R. (1977). Assessment and training of isolated children’s social skills. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of Society for Research in Child Development. Kendall, P. C. (1984). Cognitive-behavioural self-control therapy for children.Joumal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25, 173-179. Lovaas, I., Freitas, K. and Whelan, C. (1972). The establishment of limitation and its use for the development of complex behaviour in schizophrenic children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 171-181. MacMillan, AS., Kolvin, I., Garside, R. F., Nicol, A. R. and Leitch, I. M. (1980). A multiple criterion screen for identifying secondary school children with psychiatric disorder. Psychological Medicine, 10, 265-276. Marzillier, J. S. and Winter, K. (1978). Success and failure in Social Skills Trainingindividual differences. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 16, 67-84. Michelson, L., Foster, S. L. and Ritchey, W. L. (1978). Social Skills Assessment of Children. In Advances in Clinical Psychology, Lahey, B. B. and Kazdin, A. E. (Eds), Vol. 4. London: Plenum Press. Miller, N. and Gentry, K. W. (1980). Sociometric indices of children’s peer interaction in the school setting. In Friendship and Social Relations in Children, Foot, H. C., Chapman, A. J. and Smith, J. R. (Eds). Chichester: Wiley. Morris, H. H. (1956). Aggressive behaviour disorders in children: A follow-up study. AmericanJournal of Psychiatv, l&991-997. Oden, S. and Asher, S. (1977). Coaching Children in social skills for friendship making. Child Development, 48,495-506. Putallaz, M. and Gottman, J. (1983). Social relationship problems in children. In Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, Lahey, B. B. and Kazdin A. E. (Eds), Vol. 6. London: Plenum Press. Rinn, R. C. and Markle, A. (1979). Modification of skills deficits in children. In Research andpractice in Social Skills Training, Bellak, A. S. and Hersen, M. (Eds). London: Plenum Press. Roff, M., Sells, B. and Golden, M. M. (1972). Social Adjustment and Personality Development in Children. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
16
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VERDUYN
ET Xx.
Rutter, M. (1967). A children’s behaviour questionnaire for completton by teachers: preliminary findings. Jownal ofU& Psvchology and PsychiatT, 8, l-l 1. Spence, S. H. (1980). Social Skills Training C’hildren and Adolescents. :I ~b~o~sello~-‘s Manual. Windsor: NFER. Spence, S. H. (1983). Teaching social skills to children.~ow?~a/ o~(%il~i Psychology ami Psychiatry, 24,621-627. of ~i)zzng (‘/zi/dr-e~z. .A (‘ogt~itiz,e Spivak, G. and Shure, M. B. (1976). .5‘ocial Adjustnzerzt Approach to So&zgReal Lzje Problems. London: Jossey Bass. Ullman, C. A. (1957). Teachers, peers and tests as predictors of adjustment. .~ozwna/ o/ Educational Psychology, 48, 257-267. Van Hasselt, V. B., Hersen, M. M., Whitehill, M. B. and Bellak, A. S. (1979). Social skull assessment and training for children: an evaluative review. Hehaciozcz-Research arzri Therapy, 17,4113-4439.