~oumal

ofAdolescence

1990, 13, 3-16

Social skills training in schools: an evaluation study C.

M.

VERDUYN*,

W.

LORD?

AND

G.

C.

FORREST7

A study evaluating the effectiveness of a school-based social skills programme is described. All children in three year bands of an Oxford middle school were screened for behaviour problems. Subjects selected were allocated at random to eight sessions of social skills training with four booster sessions later or to a no treatment control group. Change was assessed by teacher, parent and selfreport measures. Results suggested a significant improvement in social activity, parental report of social behaviour and self-esteem in the treatment as compared to the control group, which persisted at 6 month follow-up. Self-esteem changes were age and gender related. Implications for school-based social skills programmes are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Social skill has been defined as “the ability to interact with others in a given social context in specific ways that are socially accepted or valid . . .” (Combs and Slaby, 1977). The ability develops through the acquisition of a repertoire of behaviours which affect the responses of other people in such a way that desirable outcomes are attained and undesirable outcomes avoided without inflicting pain on others (Rinn and Markle, 1979). Several authors have highlighted the importance of these skills in childhood. Cowen, Pederson, Babigiani, Izzo and Trost (1983) found popularity at school as indicated by peer ratings to be a better predictor of mental health than any other measure. Van Hasselt, Hersen, Whitehill and Bellak (1979) cite over 20 studies relating poor social functioning in childhood to later psychological disturbance. Problems reported to be associated with childhood social deficits include delinquency (Roff, Sells and Golden, 1972), impaired cognitive and academic performance (Cartledge and Milburn, 1978), dropping out of school (Ullman, 1957) and in adulthood, alcoholism, antisocial behaviour and psychotic disorder (Lovaas, Freitas and Whelan, 1972; Morris, 1956). *Reprint requests to C. M. Verduyn, Principal Clinical Psychologist General Hospital, Farnworth, Bolton, BL4 OJR, U.K. t Park Hospital for Children, Oxford, U.K. 014~1971/90/010003

+ 14 $03.00/O

0

1990 The

Associatmn

(Children’s

for the Psychiatric

Services),

Study

Bolton

of Adolescents

4

C. M. VEROUYN

ET AL.

The reported link between social skills and mental health need not imply causality. Peer problems are not the only cause of wider social difficulties and social skills deficits are not the only reason for interpersonal problems (Frosh, 1983). As Putallaz and Gottman (1983) comment, “it is impossible to determine whether early peer relationships determine risk or whether the risk variable of interest caused the earlier social status”. Research on children’s social relationships has indicated that factors such as competence in physical race, parental behaviour and other personal and activities, intelligence, situational characteristics affect a child’s popularity (Miller and Gentry, 1980). However the child’s ability to make use of his personal environment is of importance. Cognitive-behavioural methods have been applied to the remediation of social skill deficits (Spence, 1983). Children are helped to acquire a repertoire of behaviours for coping with everyday situations of varying difficulty, from asking for help from an adult to dealing with bullies. Several techniques are used including group discussion, modelling, rehearsal, role play and feedback on performance. The positive effects of therapy observed clinically have proved difficult to establish under research conditions. Also outcome studies vary in sampling and assessment procedures, training elements and sample size. The results of replication have been inconsistent. For example, an investigation by Oden and Asher (1977) showed an increase in peer popularity post-intervention but a replication (Hymel and Asher, 1977) f ound no difference between treatment and control groups. The children in the later study were slightly older, suggesting that age may be an important factor in determining response to treatment. Despite the inconclusive nature of research findings, the emergence of some positive effects suggests that social skills training is potentially useful and justifies further research into ways of improving treatment methods (Van Hasselt et al., 1979). A major problem with social skills training is the difficulty of obtaining generalization of treatment effects to situations outside the group setting (Marzillier and Winter, 1978). To promote generalization the training context should be as close as possible to everyday life. The hospital is not ideal in this respect. For children a more appropriate setting would be school. Whitehill (1978; reported by Spence 1983) found that improvements in conversation skills of four socially isolated children generalized from schoolbased sessions to real-life interactions. This study also demonstrated another major problem, that of persistence of treatment effects. This might be promoted if the teacher, an influential person in the child’s environment, took the therapist’s role. Allen, Heaton and Barrel1 (1977) using trained teachers as therapists found an increase in the frequency of observed social interactions

SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

5

but no difference in teacher’s reports of problem behaviour, peer sociometric ratings, self ratings or level of aspiration. In designing the present study, an evaluation of social skills training in lO13 year olds, particular attention was paid to issues of generalization and maintenance of newly acquired skills. In addition to teaching specific verbal and non-verbal behaviours, a problem-solving approach was used in the groups to encourage the children to identify potentially difficult situations and plan strategies which are likely to lead to a successful outcome (Spivack and Shure, 1976). A school base and minimum technical equipment aimed to ensure that the package could be used by teachers after training.

METHOD The subjects were children in the second, third and fourth years at an Oxford middle school (age 10 to 13 years).

Selection

of sample

After parental consent had been obtained, the children (n = 365) were screened to identify those who were observed to have behaviour problems and/or experience difficulties in social interactions, by teacher or peer report.

I) Screening

measures

(i) Teachers were asked to complete the Rutter B2 Scale (Rutter, 1967), which assesses the frequency of specific emotional and antisocial behaviours, giving scores for these categories and an overall score. The scale consists of a series of descriptions of behaviour such as “tends to do things on his ownrather solitary ” , “bullies other children”. The teacher rates the behaviour as non-applicable (0 points) somewhat applicable (1 point) or certainly applicable (2 points). (ii) All children completed a standardized sociometric questionnaire designed to produce peer preference ratings for each child in a class (MacMillan et al., 1980). Each child was required to nominate the three children in his class with whom he would most like and the three with whom he would least like to share each of the following activities:play with, sit next to, work with. This method identifies both isolated (few positive and few negative nominations) and rejected (many negative and few positive nominations) children.

6

C. M. VERDUYN

E?‘:U.

2) Criteria for selection Cut-offs

were established

cut-off of 4 on the Rutter 2 positive nominations

to identify

extreme

population. With the Rutter B2 scale, a cut-off discriminator between normal children clinics (Rutter,

1967).

Newcastle-on-Tyne sample

was considered

presence

was used in the screening

too high,

The

identifying

an index

control

treatment on three

procedure for the

only two children.

of problem

behaviour

of the present

Using rather

the than

were allocated

at random

to treatment

(n = 17) and no

(n = 17) groups.

and control occasions:-

using a placebo

control

groups before

to control

design

were compared

Pre-intervention

for non-specific

Period 1 (4 wks)

Assessment

8 Group

Sessions

2

Assessment

No Intervention

2

No Intervention

Assessment

Period 3 (2 wks)

No Intervention

4 Booster

No Intervention

Assessment

Assessment

No Intervention

to school staff.

Period 2 (4 wks)

Follow-up

Assessment

and 6

ciesijy

Period 4 (6 mths)

1

adminis-

sessions

effects of extra attention

group as this was unaceptable

1

Post-intervention

on measures

and after the treatment

Table 1. b’xpet~wzentul

Group

but

disorder.

months later. It did not prove possible

Group

1980)

et al.,

Experimental tered

A

to groups

34 subjects

treatment

on both measures.

of 9 has been regarded as the best and those attending child guidance

(MacMillan

as providing

of psychiatric

3) Allocatiolz The

This cut-off study

scale was justified

scores

B2 scale, and either 14 or more rejections or less than from sociometry identified 9.3 per cent of the

Sessions

7

SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

Assessment

procedures

and measures

Assessments were completed by each child’s teacher information on a range of situations.

and parents

to provide

Pre- and post-intervention i) Social behaviour checklist Both parents and teachers completed a social behaviour checklist. This consisted of 27 problem behaviours compiled during piloting from various standardized checklists (Michelson, Foster and Ritchey, 1978; Spence, 1980). Frequency of each behaviour was rated on a 4 point scale. A space for comments was provided after each item. A final question invited comment on the child’s main social skill problem. ii) Children’s social situation checklist The children completed a Social Situation Checklist (Spence, 1980) comprising 37 questions about social situations such as “Do you take friends home often?“, “Do you feel awkward with new people?“, “Do you tease others?“. All questions required a “yes” or “no” answer. A space for comment was placed after each item. The child was asked to indicate any situation he found particularly worrying. iii) Self-esteem inventory Each child completed statements to which the statements made up a Lie

(Coopersmith, 1967) the Self-esteem Inventory which comprised 58 child replied “Like me” or “Unlike me”. Eight Scale.

iv)

Weekly diary of social activities Each morning for a week the children the night before : (a) Last night I spent the evening (b) I was with . . . (c) It was good because . . . (d) It wasn’t good because . . . The total number

of peer group

4 sentences

concerning

. . .

activities

Post-intervention Ratings of change In addition, teachers

completed

in the week were calculated.

only

were asked to say whether

each child had 1) improved

C. M. VERDUYN

8 2) become usefulness school.

K:‘7‘ .U,.

worse or 3) not changed. They were also asked to comment on the of the project and the relevance to the function of the middle

At follow-up,

screening

and pre-intervention

measures

were repeated.

Intementim

Before

the programme

began the 17 children

in the treatment

group were

given an explanation of its purpose with opportunity to discuss any feelings they had about participating. They were subdivided into four groups for training

sessions,

children

were withdrawn

which

were twice

weekly

from timetabled

for 1 hour over 4 weeks.

activities

and a separate

The

classroom

was used for the session. At each session

a specific discussion,

aspect of social interaction

teaching,

group

modelling

cognitive structure

as well as behavioural comprising:-

was considered

and role play. .\ttention

aspects.

Each

session

using

was paid to

followed

a formal

i) ii)

Brief discussion of homework from previous session. Warm-up exercise related to the week’s theme.

iii)

Introduction to the theme of the session. Themes included coping with bullying, responding to criticism, asking for help, making friends, giving compliments.

vi) Brief didactic period. v) Behavioural rehearsal

of a situation

with feedback and discussion vi) Summing up and homework. book.

Tasks

were related

from a group

member’s

experience

and further role play if appropriate. Homework was recorded by each child in a

to the session’s

theme

and were practical

in

nature. When the task was completed a star was awarded and if the task had been particularly difficult a prize from a special “goody” box was given. Booster sessions followed the same format as the earlier sessions and similar strategies were employed. The working focus was provided bv the children’s experiences of difficulties and solutions since the previous sessions and aimed to reinforce their use of strategies developed then. The children were encouraged to provide their own examples of problem situations. There was one therapist for all treatment groups, a graduate psychologist

SOCIAL

SKILLS

9

TRAINING

who was also a qualified teacher, with previous experience skills groups.

of running social

RESULTS 1, Sample Gender and age characteristics shown in Table 2.

characteristics of treatment

2. Analysis

and control groups were as

of results

Mean scores on all measures at pre- and post-treatment and follow-up were examined by two-way analyses of variance. The effects of gender and school year were examined as covariables. Significant effects were further examined using paired ‘t’ tests.

3. Screening

measures

Treatment and control groups did not differ significantly on scores on Rutter B2 or sociometry at baseline or follow-up. There were no significant interactions with age or gender. Means and standard deviations of screening measures are shown in Table 3. 4. Comparison

of measures

pre- and post-intervention

and at follow-up

i) Parent’s behaviour checklist Table 4 shows mean scores on the parent checklist of the child’s problem behaviours. Pre-treatment, the treatment group had significantly more problem behaviours than controls (t = 2.06, df = 32, p < 0.05). The mean number of problems for the treatment group decreased significantly resulting in no Table 2. Gender and age characteristics

of treatment

and control groups

n

Mean age

Range

Treatment

Boys Girls

7 10

11.4 11.8

(lo%-13.1) (10.5-13.0)

Control

Boys Girls

8 9

11.7 11.5

(10.5-12.6) (10.5-12.9)

10

C. M. VERDUYN

1:7’ ,U..

Table 3. Mean scores on screening measures Screening Measure

Group

Sociometrv -choices (% of max’,mum)

mean

Treatment

7.4

Rutter

B2

(sd.)

mean

(sd.)

(6.2)

6.7

(5.X)

5.6

(2.8)

5.7

(1.7)

Treatment

34.7

(10.X)

31.2

(15.1)

Control

28.4

(14.6)

27.7

(12.2)

6.2 5.2

(3.9) (5.6)

6.X 4.8

(3.9) (2.8)

Control - rejections (% of maximum)

Follow-up

Treatment Control

significant difference between treatment and control groups post-treatment. Analysis of covariance indicated that the reduction in problem behaviours in the treatment group was due to treatment Within group analysis showed a significant post-treatment

(t = 3.885,

df = 16,~

(F = 5.054, df = 1, p = 0.03). reduction in problem behaviours

< O-01).

There was no significant difference between the groups at follow-up, suggesting that gains post-treatment had persisted. The treatment group’s follow-up

scores were significantly

lower than pre-treatment

(t = 4.524,

df =

16, p < 0.01).

ii) Teachers checklist

social

beharioul-

checklist

cd

childt-m’s

There were no significant differences between the groups treatment or follow-up nor significant interactions.

Table 4. Meun Scot-eson

situatiotr

at pre- or post-

the pat-erzt checklist

Treatment

Pm-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up

social

Control

mean

(sd.)

mean

(sd.)

26.6 18.3 17.2

(14.3) (10.6) (11.8)

17.5 18.4 16.9

(11.0) (16.2) (13.1)

SOCIAL

SKILLS

TRAINING

11

Table 5. Mean scores on teachers’ and children’s social behaviour checklists Mean scores (s.d.) Teacher Treatment 24.9 15.3 11.2

Pre-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up

(24.6) (10.4) (5.5)

Child Control

23.2 IO-8 12.5

(30.3) (11.0) (15.3)

Treatment 29.8 22.9 25.5

(12.1) (11.9) (14.8)

Control 30.5 28-O 25.8

(15.3) (11.4) (10.8)

Table 6. Mean scores on Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventoy Treatment

Pre-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up

Control

mean

(s.d.)

mean

(s.d.)

59.1 63.5 58.7

(13.4) (19.1) (19.8)

58-9 59.5 60.1

(14.9) (17.5) (16.4)

Table 5 shows the mean scores on these measures. iii)

Coopersmith

Self-esteem

Inventory

Table 6 shows mean scores on the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory. There was no overall treatment effect but an interaction between treatment, gender and age (younger i.e., 10 and 11 year olds and older i.e., 12 and 13 year olds) (F = 4.163, df = 2, p = O-03). The younger age group showed significant gains in self-esteem following treatment (t = 3.146, df = 8, p < 0.02). Differences in the older age group and controls were not significant. At follow-up there was no overall treatment effect but an interaction indicating persistence of treatment effects in the younger age group (F = 7.274, df = 2, p = 0.004; follow-up t = 3.055, df = 8,~ < 0.02). Pre-treatment, boys showed higher mean scores than girls (F = 7.903, df = 1, p = 0.01). Boys and younger girls showed significant gains following treatment (t = 2.77, df = 6, p < 0.05; t = 9.54, df = 3, p = < 0.01) but neither difference was maintained at follow-up. There were no significant differences within the control group. Coopersmith (1967) reported a mean score of 82 (s.d. 11) for 1400 14 year old boys and girls.

12

C. M. VERDUYN

E7’&.

Table 7. Mean scores on social activity

diaq

Treatment

Pre-treatment Post-treatment Follow-up

iv)

Control

mean

(s.d.)

mean

(s.d.)

2.4 5.4 4.2

(2.9) (2.6) (2.6)

3.2 3.0 4.0

(2.8) (2.5) (2.6)

Childrerz’s social activity

diaq

Mean scores on the social activity diary are shown in Table 7.

Pre-treatment, there were no significant differences between groups in social activity scores. Post-treatment, the treatment group was more socially active than the controls (F = 6.94, df = 1, p = 0.017) and than pre-treatment (t = 4.76, df = 16,~ < 0.01). At follow-up, there was no significant difference between the groups, however within the treatment group scores were significantly raised compared to pre-treatment (t = 2.401, df = 16,~ < 0.05). Thus gains in social activity were maintained. Table 8 summarizes the significant findings. 23) Teachers’ comments Six of the 12 teachers involved returned comments on the programme. All agreed that social skills training should be part of the school’s function. Some commented that they felt ill-equipped to promote this role.

Table 8. Summaq kleasure

of significant findings Factor

Significance level

Pre-treatment

Self-esteem Parent report

Gender Treatment

0.01 0.05

Post-treatment

Self-esteem Parent report Social activity

Age/Gender Treatment Treatment

0.03 0.03 0.02

Follow-up

Self-esteem Parent report Social activity

Age Treatment Treatment

0.004 0.03 0.01

SOCIAL

SKILLS

TRAINING

13

Reports on the programme from the children were predominantly positive. Asked to rate its usefulness on a O-10 scale, all ratings were 6 or above and 76 per cent rated 9 or 10.

DISCUSSION The results lend further support to the suggested effectiveness of social skills training with children who have problem behaviours at school. In the absence of a placebo control group the possibility of a non-specific effect of adult attention in the treatment groups remains but the specific changes in social behaviour suggest that the programme itself contributed to the positive changes. Significant improvements in parental report of social behaviour and children’s reported social activity level were present post-treatment and at 6 month follow-up. Perhaps the most important feature of the results is the indication that learning generalized to situations at home and encouraged increased peer group contact. It was with this intention that sessions were based in an environment familiar to the children. It is suggested that the results demonstrate generalization of effects outside the group which makes the absence of significant improvement in the schoolbased ratings surprising. The staff were initially wary of the programme but became progressively more interested during the course of the project, apparently due to subjective impressions of improvement in the children. These impressions were not confirmed by their ratings which may have been influenced by other factors. For instance, during screening the teachers disliked the rating scale assessment and seemed unwilling to indicate the presence of problem behaviours. The change to a positive attitude to the programme may have increased their awareness, and hence their later ratings, of problem behaviours and resulted in the lack of change in Rutter scores despite their reports to the contrary. Social behaviour ratings completed on the selected children showed some improvement in treatment and control groups also suggesting a possible rating effect. This perhaps serves to underline the importance of the researcher becoming well-integrated into school life and acquiring the staff’s trust and approval before beginning a school-based project. Booster sessions were intended to promote long term gains from the sessions. The persistence of positive effects at 6 month follow-up suggests the usefulness of this strategy. Confirmation would need to be sought by comparing groups with and without boosters. These sessions included revision of problem-solving strategies, further practice of techniques and encouragement to appraise their successes since the sessions a month earlier. With a longer period to review than between previous sessions, the children

14

C. M. VERDUYK

had experienced techniques

a wider range of social situations

and any problems

opportunity

67’ .-LL.

was given

for

that had arisen the

children

in which to apply their new could

be explored.

to be encouraged

Another

to think

for

themselves about social situations, by pointing out the value and praising those who had done so at times of difficulty. It was hoped to increase self reinforcement

rather than reliance

on the group,

which should be a key factor

in persistence in trying out the techniques. Several authors have commented on the importance of cognitive change for the effectiveness of behaviour therapies with children (e.g. Kendall, 1984; Spence, 1983). I n social skills training this may involve modifying not only interpersonal

awareness

own success increases

(Foster,

1983) but also the child’s perceptions

and ability to plan strategies

in scores on the measure

in the youngest

age band,

self confidence

for social situations.

of self-esteem,

are particularly

are likely to affect

which persisted

encouraging

the children’s

of his

The significant at follow-up

as improvements

approach

to future

in

difficul-

ties.

Comparison with Coopersmith’s norms suggests that both groups had Increasing this may have been facilitated by the very low self-esteem. problem-solving approach used in the programme described here. The age

effect

may indicate

older children. The package period

that different

has potential

of intervention

strategies

might need to be adopted

for improvement.

might

have been

The

usefully

number increased.

for the

of sessions The

and

children

needed time to adjust to the format inhibitions about discussing feelings

of the sessions, to overcome their initial and build up a good relationship with the

therapist

and other group members.

With a longer programme

achieved

during

repetition

early sessions

of important

allowing

more opportunity

these would be

for emphasis

and

points.

An aim of the study was to develop

a programme

of social skills training

which could be used by teachers. It was demonstrated that sessions could be integrated into the school timetable. No special equipment, such as video, was used. The teachers perceived a need for such a programme. Experimental constraints limited their involvement in this study to feedback given in regular meetings however including teachers as co-therapists would allow greater

scope

reinforcing period.

for applying

new behaviour

the techniques produced

in the classroom

by the children

and specifically

in situ and over a longer

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to express their thanks to Mr ‘I‘. Brighouse, Chief Education Officer, Oxfordshire County Council, Mrs M. ,4ppleton, then Educational Psychologist, Oxford City and the staff at the middle school.

SOCIAL SKILLS

15

TRAINING

The project was funded by a grant from Oxford Locally Organized Research Scheme

Regional

Health Authority

REFERENCES Allen, R. P., Heaton, R. and Barrel& M. (1977). Behaviour therapy for socially ineffective children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 14, 500-509. Cartledge, G. and Milburn, J. F. (1978). The case for teaching social skills in the classroom: a review. Review of Educational Research, 48, 133-156. Combs, M. L. and Slaby, D. A. (1977). Social Skills Training with Children. In Advances in Clinical ChildPsychology, Lahey, B. B. and Kazdin, A. E. (Eds), Vol. 1. New York: Plenum Press. Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of selfesteem. San Francisco: Freeman. Cowen, E. L., Pederson, A., Babigiani, H., Izzo, L. D. and Trost, M. A. (1973). Long term follow-up of early detected vulnerable children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41,438-446. Frosh, S. R. (1983). Children and teachers in schools. In Social Skills Training in Practice, Spence, S. and Shepherd, G. (Eds). London: Academic Press. Hymel, S. and Asher, S. R. (1977). Assessment and training of isolated children’s social skills. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of Society for Research in Child Development. Kendall, P. C. (1984). Cognitive-behavioural self-control therapy for children.Joumal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25, 173-179. Lovaas, I., Freitas, K. and Whelan, C. (1972). The establishment of limitation and its use for the development of complex behaviour in schizophrenic children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 171-181. MacMillan, AS., Kolvin, I., Garside, R. F., Nicol, A. R. and Leitch, I. M. (1980). A multiple criterion screen for identifying secondary school children with psychiatric disorder. Psychological Medicine, 10, 265-276. Marzillier, J. S. and Winter, K. (1978). Success and failure in Social Skills Trainingindividual differences. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 16, 67-84. Michelson, L., Foster, S. L. and Ritchey, W. L. (1978). Social Skills Assessment of Children. In Advances in Clinical Psychology, Lahey, B. B. and Kazdin, A. E. (Eds), Vol. 4. London: Plenum Press. Miller, N. and Gentry, K. W. (1980). Sociometric indices of children’s peer interaction in the school setting. In Friendship and Social Relations in Children, Foot, H. C., Chapman, A. J. and Smith, J. R. (Eds). Chichester: Wiley. Morris, H. H. (1956). Aggressive behaviour disorders in children: A follow-up study. AmericanJournal of Psychiatv, l&991-997. Oden, S. and Asher, S. (1977). Coaching Children in social skills for friendship making. Child Development, 48,495-506. Putallaz, M. and Gottman, J. (1983). Social relationship problems in children. In Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, Lahey, B. B. and Kazdin A. E. (Eds), Vol. 6. London: Plenum Press. Rinn, R. C. and Markle, A. (1979). Modification of skills deficits in children. In Research andpractice in Social Skills Training, Bellak, A. S. and Hersen, M. (Eds). London: Plenum Press. Roff, M., Sells, B. and Golden, M. M. (1972). Social Adjustment and Personality Development in Children. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

16

C. M.

VERDUYN

ET Xx.

Rutter, M. (1967). A children’s behaviour questionnaire for completton by teachers: preliminary findings. Jownal ofU& Psvchology and PsychiatT, 8, l-l 1. Spence, S. H. (1980). Social Skills Training C’hildren and Adolescents. :I ~b~o~sello~-‘s Manual. Windsor: NFER. Spence, S. H. (1983). Teaching social skills to children.~ow?~a/ o~(%il~i Psychology ami Psychiatry, 24,621-627. of ~i)zzng (‘/zi/dr-e~z. .A (‘ogt~itiz,e Spivak, G. and Shure, M. B. (1976). .5‘ocial Adjustnzerzt Approach to So&zgReal Lzje Problems. London: Jossey Bass. Ullman, C. A. (1957). Teachers, peers and tests as predictors of adjustment. .~ozwna/ o/ Educational Psychology, 48, 257-267. Van Hasselt, V. B., Hersen, M. M., Whitehill, M. B. and Bellak, A. S. (1979). Social skull assessment and training for children: an evaluative review. Hehaciozcz-Research arzri Therapy, 17,4113-4439.

Social skills training in schools: an evaluation study.

A study evaluating the effectiveness of a school-based social skills programme is described. All children in three year bands of an Oxford middle scho...
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