This article was downloaded by: [Eindhoven Technical University] On: 06 January 2015, At: 20:11 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcmh20
Social Aggression Among Girls by Marion K Underwood Rene Nassen Published online: 12 Nov 2009.
To cite this article: Rene Nassen (2004) Social Aggression Among Girls by Marion K Underwood, Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 16:1, 61-62, DOI: 10.2989/17280580409486566 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/17280580409486566
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health 2004, 16(1): 61–62 Printed in South Africa — All rights reserved
Copyright © NISC Pty Ltd
JOURNAL OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT MENTAL HEALTH ISSN 1682–6108
Book Review
Social Aggression Among Girls Marion K Underwood
Downloaded by [Eindhoven Technical University] at 20:11 06 January 2015
2003, The Guilford Press, 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012, United States of America 290 pages; Hardcover, ISBN 1-57230-866-4, US$45.00; Softcover, ISBN 1-57230-865-6, US$25.00 http://www.guilford.com, e-mail: [email protected]
Sarah, who is 10yrs old and in fourth grade, is upset because her best friend Amy is starting to spend time with a new girl at school, Tasha. She starts telling other girls in the class that Tasha stinks, and when Tasha tries to sit down with them at lunch, Sarah sneers and holds her nose and goads the other girls into doing the same. Tasha walks away feeling desperate and left out. Social Aggression Among Girls is a well-timed, thought-provoking and scholarly account of the subject of social/relational aggression in girls. Most research on aggression has focused on physical aggression, anti-social behaviour and offending in boys and men. In recent years, however, there has been an increased interest in exploring and understanding the ways in which girls express anger, with a growing body of research on the subject of girls’ aggression. Dr Underwood provides a rich exploration into the subject, guides the reader through the various definitions and terminologies, as well as a detailed account of current research. The distinction between direct and indirect forms of aggression is known and by now is familiar territory. However, new terms ‘relational and social’ aggression are new elements creeping into the literature. Recently, researchers have recognised that compared to boys, girls might express anger and contempt in subtle, but still harmful, forms called social aggression. Social aggression is behaviour directed toward harming another’s friendships, social status or self-esteem and may take direct or indirect forms such as slanderous rumours, friendship manipulation or social exclusion. The book is divided into three parts. Part I consists of three chapters and explores different constructs and subtypes of aggression, emotional regulation of girls and why social aggression may be a ‘way out’ for girls. Gender differences in peer relationships and social networks, the distinctive play styles and cultures that develop within girls’ and boys’ groups, are explored. Some research suggests that girls’ friendships are more intimate and exclusive than boys. They are more ‘horizontal’ compared to that of boys’, which is more ‘vertical’ in structure. Girls appear to value relationships more and place a greater store on being accepted within the group. Frequent victimisation is related to
increased loneliness and depression and low self-esteem. Perpetuating social aggression is related to peer rejection, loneliness, social isolation and depression and may also be related to eating disorder symptoms and borderline personality features in young adult samples. Part II explores the developmental antecedents and particular characteristics of social aggression through the different age groups, starting from infancy through preschool, childhood and adolescence. Research reveals that anger is apparent from as young as three to four months of age and that preschool children as young as three engage in social aggression. At preschool age, gender differences are small, with equal numbers of girls and boys indulging in physical and verbal aggression. However, older preschool girls tend to be less physically aggressive. Social aggression then becomes a more prominent part of the behavioural repertoire. Social aggression during the preschool years tends to be fairly overt and direct compared to older girls, who indulge in more friendship manipulation, social exclusion and malicious gossip. During middle childhood, a more complex picture emerges. Girls appear to be more distressed by anger, aggression and conflict than boys and are more ‘upset’ by peer provocation. They become more concerned with preserving relationships than boys and are driven to resolve conflicts pro-socially. Evidence points to the fact that social aggression is widespread during adolescence. The reasons for this is that though they prefer to avoid open expressions of anger, the aim is to express anger, seek revenge and assert social dominance. Other reasons for engaging in social aggression are to achieve a sense of belonging, negotiate norms and moral standards and test the boundaries of socially acceptable behaviour. Research reveals that it might even serve the function of relieving boredom. During later adolescence, social aggression increasingly involves threatening and manipulating others in romantic relationships. In exploring the reasons why girls express anger in indirect ways, research suggests a number of possibilities: • That girls are biologically more social individuals and possess the temperamental capacity for inhibition and masking of emotions, allowing them to retaliate in more delayed, covert ways.
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• Boys and girls are socialised in different ways, with overt displays of aggression more tolerated in boys than girls. • Children possibly learn and model socially aggressive behaviour by observing parental conflict and modeling this behaviour from the parent. • Girls’ social cognitions may also have an influence in the way they respond to conflictual situations: i.e. they tend to expect more negative interpersonal consequences, which may inhibit more direct and assertive responses. Part III, titled ‘Clinical implications’, explores the psychosocial consequences of girls’ aggression, prevention and intervention and finally presents a proposal for a new model for understanding social aggression. This section enters the terrain of psychopathology and explores antisocial behaviour and conduct disturbances in girls and the link with social aggression. Research does suggest that social aggression is related to other problem behaviours, such as conduct disturbances, borderline personality traits and eating disorders. However, this negative outcome is not inevitable and research suggests that negative outcomes are more robustly related to physical aggression in girls. A natural outcome of social aggression in childhood and adolescence is persistence of this behaviour into adulthood. The chapter on prevention and intervention is useful and thought provoking, where the issue of whether to intervene or not is debated, what the setting should be and who should be involved in interventions. The author suggests that parents, teachers, as well as pro-social peers should be harnessed as part of an intervention strategy (research points to the fact that an immediate challenge to the perpetrator by a peer often disrupts the escalation of socially aggressive behaviour within a group). Finally, in a proposal for a new model for understanding social aggression, it is suggested that a combination of a dimensional and categorical model via a multi-axial system will best serve to deepen understanding of this phenomenon (where one can define various features of behaviour, like intent, direct vs indirect, intensity, type of harm inflicted, etc.).
Book Review — Social Aggression Among Girls
So, are girls and boys equally aggressive? Is social aggression the female equivalent of male physical aggression? Do boys indulge in socially aggressive behaviour to an equal or lesser extent than girls? Research to date has not been able to unequivocally answer these questions. It does confirm, though, that boys do indulge in greater degrees of physical aggression than girls. The author cautions against viewing physical and social aggression as gender-specific forms of expressing anger and views physical and social aggression as two very different but related entities, with two different outcomes. This book is about the phenomenon of social aggression and its perpetrators, with less said about victims and the effects of social aggression on them. Likewise the phenomenon of bullying is not extensively explored. The strength of this book is the detail and depth of the debate about social aggression and the fact that it highlights and captures all research on the subject to date. It is richly interspersed with vignettes and provides a useful summary at the end of each chapter. However, certain sections were less readable, especially the middle section where numerous research studies are discussed, often with conflicting results. A worthwhile read, nonetheless, especially for researchers in the field, clinicians, social psychologists, sociologists and teachers. To end… Man, it is so hard to live down that sugar-and-spice rep. We women try, Lord do we try, and still people are shocked — shocked! — when we are mean to each other, humiliate our partners, scream at our children, spread nasty rumours, lie on our resumes, embezzle from our employers, demean our employees, give slower drivers the finger, have extramarital affairs, commit murder, enter the military, join the Aryan Nation or the Islamic Jihad, and fail to send Christmas cards to the family. How dare women behave like…like…people? (Tavris 2002, p. B7)
Rene Nassen Psychiatrist and lecturer in the Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory 7925, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]
Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcmh20
Social Aggression Among Girls by Marion K Underwood Rene Nassen Published online: 12 Nov 2009.
To cite this article: Rene Nassen (2004) Social Aggression Among Girls by Marion K Underwood, Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 16:1, 61-62, DOI: 10.2989/17280580409486566 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/17280580409486566
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health 2004, 16(1): 61–62 Printed in South Africa — All rights reserved
Copyright © NISC Pty Ltd
JOURNAL OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT MENTAL HEALTH ISSN 1682–6108
Book Review
Social Aggression Among Girls Marion K Underwood
Downloaded by [Eindhoven Technical University] at 20:11 06 January 2015
2003, The Guilford Press, 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012, United States of America 290 pages; Hardcover, ISBN 1-57230-866-4, US$45.00; Softcover, ISBN 1-57230-865-6, US$25.00 http://www.guilford.com, e-mail: [email protected]
Sarah, who is 10yrs old and in fourth grade, is upset because her best friend Amy is starting to spend time with a new girl at school, Tasha. She starts telling other girls in the class that Tasha stinks, and when Tasha tries to sit down with them at lunch, Sarah sneers and holds her nose and goads the other girls into doing the same. Tasha walks away feeling desperate and left out. Social Aggression Among Girls is a well-timed, thought-provoking and scholarly account of the subject of social/relational aggression in girls. Most research on aggression has focused on physical aggression, anti-social behaviour and offending in boys and men. In recent years, however, there has been an increased interest in exploring and understanding the ways in which girls express anger, with a growing body of research on the subject of girls’ aggression. Dr Underwood provides a rich exploration into the subject, guides the reader through the various definitions and terminologies, as well as a detailed account of current research. The distinction between direct and indirect forms of aggression is known and by now is familiar territory. However, new terms ‘relational and social’ aggression are new elements creeping into the literature. Recently, researchers have recognised that compared to boys, girls might express anger and contempt in subtle, but still harmful, forms called social aggression. Social aggression is behaviour directed toward harming another’s friendships, social status or self-esteem and may take direct or indirect forms such as slanderous rumours, friendship manipulation or social exclusion. The book is divided into three parts. Part I consists of three chapters and explores different constructs and subtypes of aggression, emotional regulation of girls and why social aggression may be a ‘way out’ for girls. Gender differences in peer relationships and social networks, the distinctive play styles and cultures that develop within girls’ and boys’ groups, are explored. Some research suggests that girls’ friendships are more intimate and exclusive than boys. They are more ‘horizontal’ compared to that of boys’, which is more ‘vertical’ in structure. Girls appear to value relationships more and place a greater store on being accepted within the group. Frequent victimisation is related to
increased loneliness and depression and low self-esteem. Perpetuating social aggression is related to peer rejection, loneliness, social isolation and depression and may also be related to eating disorder symptoms and borderline personality features in young adult samples. Part II explores the developmental antecedents and particular characteristics of social aggression through the different age groups, starting from infancy through preschool, childhood and adolescence. Research reveals that anger is apparent from as young as three to four months of age and that preschool children as young as three engage in social aggression. At preschool age, gender differences are small, with equal numbers of girls and boys indulging in physical and verbal aggression. However, older preschool girls tend to be less physically aggressive. Social aggression then becomes a more prominent part of the behavioural repertoire. Social aggression during the preschool years tends to be fairly overt and direct compared to older girls, who indulge in more friendship manipulation, social exclusion and malicious gossip. During middle childhood, a more complex picture emerges. Girls appear to be more distressed by anger, aggression and conflict than boys and are more ‘upset’ by peer provocation. They become more concerned with preserving relationships than boys and are driven to resolve conflicts pro-socially. Evidence points to the fact that social aggression is widespread during adolescence. The reasons for this is that though they prefer to avoid open expressions of anger, the aim is to express anger, seek revenge and assert social dominance. Other reasons for engaging in social aggression are to achieve a sense of belonging, negotiate norms and moral standards and test the boundaries of socially acceptable behaviour. Research reveals that it might even serve the function of relieving boredom. During later adolescence, social aggression increasingly involves threatening and manipulating others in romantic relationships. In exploring the reasons why girls express anger in indirect ways, research suggests a number of possibilities: • That girls are biologically more social individuals and possess the temperamental capacity for inhibition and masking of emotions, allowing them to retaliate in more delayed, covert ways.
Downloaded by [Eindhoven Technical University] at 20:11 06 January 2015
62
• Boys and girls are socialised in different ways, with overt displays of aggression more tolerated in boys than girls. • Children possibly learn and model socially aggressive behaviour by observing parental conflict and modeling this behaviour from the parent. • Girls’ social cognitions may also have an influence in the way they respond to conflictual situations: i.e. they tend to expect more negative interpersonal consequences, which may inhibit more direct and assertive responses. Part III, titled ‘Clinical implications’, explores the psychosocial consequences of girls’ aggression, prevention and intervention and finally presents a proposal for a new model for understanding social aggression. This section enters the terrain of psychopathology and explores antisocial behaviour and conduct disturbances in girls and the link with social aggression. Research does suggest that social aggression is related to other problem behaviours, such as conduct disturbances, borderline personality traits and eating disorders. However, this negative outcome is not inevitable and research suggests that negative outcomes are more robustly related to physical aggression in girls. A natural outcome of social aggression in childhood and adolescence is persistence of this behaviour into adulthood. The chapter on prevention and intervention is useful and thought provoking, where the issue of whether to intervene or not is debated, what the setting should be and who should be involved in interventions. The author suggests that parents, teachers, as well as pro-social peers should be harnessed as part of an intervention strategy (research points to the fact that an immediate challenge to the perpetrator by a peer often disrupts the escalation of socially aggressive behaviour within a group). Finally, in a proposal for a new model for understanding social aggression, it is suggested that a combination of a dimensional and categorical model via a multi-axial system will best serve to deepen understanding of this phenomenon (where one can define various features of behaviour, like intent, direct vs indirect, intensity, type of harm inflicted, etc.).
Book Review — Social Aggression Among Girls
So, are girls and boys equally aggressive? Is social aggression the female equivalent of male physical aggression? Do boys indulge in socially aggressive behaviour to an equal or lesser extent than girls? Research to date has not been able to unequivocally answer these questions. It does confirm, though, that boys do indulge in greater degrees of physical aggression than girls. The author cautions against viewing physical and social aggression as gender-specific forms of expressing anger and views physical and social aggression as two very different but related entities, with two different outcomes. This book is about the phenomenon of social aggression and its perpetrators, with less said about victims and the effects of social aggression on them. Likewise the phenomenon of bullying is not extensively explored. The strength of this book is the detail and depth of the debate about social aggression and the fact that it highlights and captures all research on the subject to date. It is richly interspersed with vignettes and provides a useful summary at the end of each chapter. However, certain sections were less readable, especially the middle section where numerous research studies are discussed, often with conflicting results. A worthwhile read, nonetheless, especially for researchers in the field, clinicians, social psychologists, sociologists and teachers. To end… Man, it is so hard to live down that sugar-and-spice rep. We women try, Lord do we try, and still people are shocked — shocked! — when we are mean to each other, humiliate our partners, scream at our children, spread nasty rumours, lie on our resumes, embezzle from our employers, demean our employees, give slower drivers the finger, have extramarital affairs, commit murder, enter the military, join the Aryan Nation or the Islamic Jihad, and fail to send Christmas cards to the family. How dare women behave like…like…people? (Tavris 2002, p. B7)
Rene Nassen Psychiatrist and lecturer in the Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory 7925, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]
