Brit. J. Psychiat. (1976), 129, 193—200

Sigmund

Freud's Views on the Sexual Disorders Historical Perspective

in

ByJ. HOENIG

The study of the sexual disorders has made considerable strides during the past 90 years since Krafft-Ebing published his Psychopathia Sexualis in 1886. There were earlier beginnings which had provided very important insights into the nature of abnormal sexual behaviour, but it fell to Krafft-Ebing to bring sex research into the discipline of medicine, thereby giving it a methodology and a framework within which to unfold. The subsequent history has been described by Wettley and Leibbrand (i@@g) and constitutes the development of the basis of modern ‘¿scxology'—a translation of the term ‘¿Sexualwissenschaft' created by Iwan Bloch in 1906. The period from the Psychopathia Sexualis to the time of the First World War saw the development of ideas which are still important for modern sexology, although the discipline has since matured into an experimental science using the methodologies of the biological as well as the behavioural sciences—psychology, sociology and anthro pology. The development from Krafft-Ebing to Bloch, paraphrased by Wettley and Leibbrand in the title of their monograph Von der Psychopathia Sexualis zur Sexualwissenschaft, can be seen as a gradual emancipation from the concept of ‘¿degeneration'as the underlying pathology of sexual disorders, and an equally gradual recog nition of the importance of the social sciences, in particular of anthropology, to their full understanding. The breakthrough into the social sciences was made by Bloch in his book The Sexual Life of our Time (1908). Besides Richard v. Krafft-Ebing (184o—19o2) important contributors to this development were August Ford (1848—I931), Albert Moll (1862— 1939), Albert Eulenberg (184o—19I7), Henry Havelock Ellis (1859—1939), Magnus Hirschfeld (A

(1868—1935),

Sigmund

Freud

(1856—1939)

and

Iwan Bloch (1872—1922). DEGENERESCENCE

The concept of ‘¿dégénérescence' or degenera tion, was taken over from the French writers Morel

(1809—1873)

and

Magnan

(1835—1912)

and for a time profoundly influenced, if not dominated, medical thinking. Krafft-Ebing applied it to the sexual disorders. Degeneration was conceived to be a hereditary condition engendered in the first place by the adverse effects of civilization; but once established it was transmitted from generation to generation in a progressively severe form, eventually leading to the extinction of the line. Degenera tion was considered to be the underlying pathology of a large number of physical diseases of unknown aetiology and of most psychiatric disorders. The idea of degeneration was thus a ‘¿cultural-somatic' concept of causation of illnesses, and, as it met certain needs of the zeitgeist of nineteenth-century Europe it found wide acceptance. In Germany the idea was taken up by Schüle and soon found wide popularity in the textbooks of the time. It was taken over by Krafft-Ebing (1875)

in

his

Lehrbuch

der Gerichilichen

Psycho

pathologic (Textbook of Forensic Psychiatry) and applied to the sexual abnormalities in his Psychopathia Sexualis (i886). The influence of this idea affected all the other workers in the field of sexology right up to the time of the First World War (Hoenig, 1976). SIGMUND FREUD

Of the sexologists of the nineteenth century, Freud is in our time the best known not only among the general public but also inside medi cine. It is therefore of great importance to have

193

This

One

i@ iuii@ii iuui@ illni@iii mi iui i@i X2T9-BZ4-G2ZA

194

SIGMUND

FREUD'S

VIEWS

ON THE

SEXUAL

a clear appreciation of the position of his teachings in the history of ideas on the subject. The most important work by him on the sexual

disorders

is the book Drei Abhandlungen

DISORDERS

IN HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE

be glimpsed in the background, as something which has to be awakened by experience. Its appreciation goes far beyond the legitimate limits of psycho analysis.'

zur Sexualtheorie (Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality) which first appeared in 1906. Freud continued to re-examine his ideas and modified

the text with editors' (1953)

each

subsequent

note in the English says

‘¿. . . for

they

edition.

Standard were

The

Edition

submitted

by

their author, in the course of a succession of editions over a period of twenty years, to more modifications and additions than any other of

his writings.

. .‘.Here we take as our text the

7th Edition, which appeared posthumously in 1946 (Franz Deuticke, Vienna). This edition

includes the last two forewords written by Freud for the third and fourth editions, one just before the outbreak of the First World War, the other shortly after its end; the three subse quent editions remained unaltered. One can assume that the book in its final form really does represent Freud's views on this subject.

Biology or psychology In the foreword to the 4th Edition (1920) Freud writes (p 5): ‘¿After the turmoil of war has subsided one finds with satisfaction that the interest in psycho analytic research has, in the world at large survived unharmed. But not all parts of the teachings have met the same fate. The purely psychological findings of psychoanalysis . . . enjoy a growing acceptance . . . Those parts of the teachings, however, which border on biology, and which are presented here in this little book, continue to evoke undiminished objections....' He thus regards his theory of sex as the

most biological

of all the concerns

of psycho

analysis. At the same time he clearly demarcates

his concern from that of biology in general (p 2). ‘¿My aim was to establish how much can be guessed about the biology of human sexuality by the methods of psychological research.' ‘¿Everywhere [in this book] we maintain certain priorities of concern; what is accidental is brought into the foreground, what is disposition is left in the

background; the ontogenetic development is given first concern over the phylogenesis. For psycho analysis the accidental is the more important; it can deal with it entirely. The disposition can only

Degeneration Freud gives his view of the crucial concept of degeneration very clearly when discussing the

aetiology of homosexuality. In a footnote on p io he approvingly quotes Moebius (I9oo): ‘¿Surveyingthe wide field of degeneration, some aspects of which have been spotlighted, one can see without difficulty, that the diagnosis of degener ation is generally of very little value.' The portmanteau concept had by the turn of the century become a little threadbare and had difficulties in maintaining its intactness in

the face of rapidly advancing specific knowledge in pathology. Freud too takes umbrage against its uncritical

use.

Firstly

he separates

clearly

degeneration from congenitality or heredity. (The German ‘¿Angeborensein'used by Freud in this essay can mean either of the last two). Not every disorder which is hereditary need be due to degeneration. As regards the latter he writes

(p ii):

‘¿It appears more useful not to speak of degeneration unless: i. There are several other severe abnormalities, and 2. Performance

and

fitness

to

survive

in

general

appear severely impaired.' He goes on to say: ‘¿That inverts are not degenerates in this justifiable sense emerges from following findings: i.

Inversion

is found

in

persons

not

showing

other

severe abnormalities. 2. Performance

is

in

no

way

disturbed;

homosexuals are often distinguished tional intellect and ethics. 3. If one goes outside

the experience

rather,

by excep

of the consult

ing room one finds: (a) homosexuality is an institutionalized practice in highly developed ancient cultures, and

(b) itis widely practised in many primitive cultures.' Here he acknowledges the work of Bloch (1902—3).

Although Freud rejects the indiscriminate use of the concept and wishes to narrow its application, he by no means dismisses it. In relation to homosexuality he writes (p 13):

3. HOENIG ‘¿Neither the assumption that inversion is congeni tal, nor that it is acquired explains its essence. In the first case one has to state what exactly is con genital if one does not wish to follow the overly crude explanation that everyone is born with a combination of sex drive and sex object ready made. In the latter case it is questionable whether the varied accidental influences are sufficient to explain its acquisition without something in the individual which meets them halfway. To negate that factor is from what we have said above impermissible.' In discussing what it might be that is con genital, he refutes Ulrich's ‘¿femalebrain in a male body' and Krafft-Ebing's more precise surmise of abnormal brain centres: ‘¿We are not sure whether the assumption of such centres is justified' (p 16); he leaves the question open. There is however a lengthy footnote on p i8ff, which refers to the experiments by Eugen Steinach (1919) who claimed that he could turn a homosexual man into a heterosexual one by transplanting testes from a normal man into him. Freud, like most other contemporaries,

195

degeneration. In that context I have to report a remarkable finding. In more than half of my psychotherapeutically treated severe cases of hysteria, compulsive neurosis, etc, I have succeeded in demonstrating that their fathers had had syphilis before their marriage, that they had tabes, GPI or some other form of lues which could be established in their case history. I emphasize that the later neurotic children did not have physical signs of congenital lues, so that the abnormal sexual constitution has to be regarded as the last remnant of the syphilitic inheritance. Far be it from me to regard the descendence from syphilitic parents as a regular or inevitable aetiol ogical condition of the neuropathic constitution; I nevertheless cannot regard the coincidence observed by me as accidental or without signifi cance. . . . There are good reasons to surmize that what applies to the neuroses has also validity for the perversions.'

The partial instincts

The question of what precisely is congenitally abnormal in the constitution in the sexual accepted these claims somewhat uncritically, abnormalities is pursued further and leads us and he argues strenuously that these ‘¿beautiful to the examination of the sexual drive and its experiments' do not invalidate the earlier development. On page 41 a footnote says: assumptions about the causes of homosexuality, ‘¿The theory of instincts is the most important but but will turn out rather to confirm them. also the least advanced part of psychoanalytic In the summary at the end of the book he theory.' comes back to the question of the role of In the text we read (p 41): degeneration in the causation of sexual ‘¿By “¿instinct― we cannot understand anything but abnormalities in general, and—as the sexual the psychic representations of a continuously abnormalities underlie all neurotic disorders flowing intra-somatic source of stimuli... . The and certain of the psychosis—of most other source of an instinct is an excitatory event in an psychiatric disorders (p i i). organ and the immediate aim of the instinct lies in the cancellation of the organ stimulation. ‘¿....we have to expect difficulties when we try to A further preliminary assumption which we cannot assign to the individual factors the significance each escape is that the body organs provide excitations of of them deserves [in the causation of these dis two kinds, the differences being of a chemical orders]. nature. One of these types of excitement we call In the first place we have to name the congenital

differences in the sexual constitution, to which

specifically sexual and the organ concerned the

“¿erogenous zone―from which the partial sexual probably falls the main importance.. . . We visualize instinct emanates.' it as a preponderance of this or that of the manifold sources of sexual excitement, and we believe that In the child these partial instincts linked to such differences in the Anlage must express them various erogenous zones undergo a gradual selves in the final result, even if they may still be reorganization, one or the other drive gaining within the range of normality. Variations in the the hegemony over the others until they become original Anlage surely could be such that they subordinated in puberty to the genital instinct. will inevitably and without further help lead by Sexual abnormalities can arise in a number of necessity to the development of an abnormal sexual life. These can then be called “¿degenerative― ways, and these could be rooted in the constitu tion. One or other of the partial sexual instincts and can be regarded as an expression of an inherited

196

SIGMUND FREUD'S VIEWS ON THE SEXUAL DISORDERS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

may be constitutionally abnormally strong and cannot therefore be subsumed under the genital hegemony. On the other hand, the genital instinct may be constitutionally too weak to gain the ascendence and dominate all the other partial instincts. In either case the result will be an abnormal sexual life. The resulting abnormality can be one of three (p 114): 1. If

the

partial

independent 2. If the

instinct

instincts

continue

to

maintain

life a perversion will be the result. meets

with

repression

and

that

repression is only partial a neurosis will result. 3. The partial instinct can undergo the process of sublimation. We shall return to the nature sublimation later.

of repression

and

Sex objects The explanation of the choice of the parti cular perverse sex object leads Freud to a confrontation with two different theories. One is the view put forward by Hoche (1896) and by Bloch (1908) that the ‘¿Reizhunger' (hunger for stimulation) explains the extension of sexual interest to parts of the body other than the genital organs of the partner. Freud does not accept this theory and replaces it by his own concept of the overvaluation of the sex object, which brings with it an overflow, as it were, on to aspects of the loved person other than the genital organs (p 24, footnote). ‘¿The factor called “¿Reizhunger―, which is used by Hoche and I. Bloch to explain the overflow of sexual interest to parts of the body other than the genitals does not appear to me to deserve this significance. The diverse paths along which the libido ambulates relate to each other from the outset as do communicating pipes, and one has to take into account the phenomenon of collateral flow.' The other theory concerns the reason for the choice of the particular objects which we find in the fetishistic perversions. Binet (1887) had put forward the view that the choice of the fetish finds its reason in an association between a sexually coloured experience in early child hood and a simultaneous contact with the object which later by a process of fixation becomes the fetish. In a footnote on page 28 Freud takes issue with Binet's view. He points

out that psychoanalysis has shown that the fetish exists long before the fifth or sixth year at which age Binet's experiences are said to occur. What Binet has elicited in his patients' histories are merely screen memories of much earlier events. Freud states roundly: ‘¿The turning to the fetish, as well as the choice of the fetish which takes place during a phase in the earliest years of childhood, are constitutionally determined.' We see here that it was not learning theory of which Binet's views are a precursor—which first challenged psychoanalytic views on the origin of the fetishistic perversions, but that it was the other way round; psychoanalysis opposed the psychogenic theory of Binet by a predominantly constitutional view of the origin of these disorders.

Fixation As the same experiences in normal persons do not lead to the formation of perversions or their negative, the neuroses, an additional factors has to be surmised (p i i8). ‘¿I mean here the heightened pertinacity and fixability of these early impressions of the sexual life which one has to accept as an additional factor in persons who later become perverts or neurotics, for the same early sexual experiences in other persons do not engrave themselves so deeply that they compel the repetitiousness and can lay down the way the sexual instinct has to take for the entire life.' He goes on to say that fixation is probably analogous to, or of a similar nature as, the ability to memorize which seems stronger in neurotics than in normal persons. He ascribes this to education and to cultural development. ‘¿The primitive person is the “¿unfortunatechild of the moment―. Because of this relationship between culture and sexual development.. . it is as unim portant how the sexual life of the child develops in a primitive culture as it is of the utmost importance in a highly developed civilization.' Here we see of cultural development this is taken the footnote

the appreciation in Freud's views and educational factors in the of sexual abnormalities, but even back, to a certain extent at least, in on that page:

J. HOENIG ‘¿It is possible that the heightened fixability could be the result of a particularly intensive somatic sexual manifestation of the earlier years.' 77ze inhi biting factors The factors which serve to bridle and repress the partial instincts vary from instinct to instinct. In the case of non-genital zones it is disgust, in the case of voyeurist or exhibitionist tendencies it is modesty, or in the case of sadism/masochism it is compassion. The origin and nature of these forces is discussed in a footnote (p 35). ‘¿One also has to see these inhibiting forces—disgust, modesty and morality—as historical precipitations of external inhibitions which the sexual instinct has undergone in the psychogenesis of mankind. One can observe that in the development of an individ ual they appear at exactly the right time, as though spontaneously, in response to mere hints given by educational and general influences.'

@

An ontogenetic repetition, as it were, of a psychogenesis of moral development, which has turned such reactions as disgust or modesty into constitutional, hereditarily transmitted responses. Is this a faint echo of another cultural-somatic aetiology of an hereditary trait manifesting itself in the area of behaviour —¿in degeneracy—this time leading to the opposite effect?

Sexual disorders and the psychology of sex It has been mentioned earlier that the gradual increase in the precision of the concept of dégénérescence and the final emancipation from it is one of the great themes of sexology of the late nineteenth century. We have tried to show how Freud narrowed its application very considerably without however quite over coming it. We have further tried to show that Freud displaced it in favour of another aetio logical theory involving largely constitutional, i.e. physiopathological factors to account for homosexuality and the perversions. Another great theme of this historical develop ment is the gradual removal of the absolute divide between the sexual disorders on the one hand and normal sexuality on the other. Krafft-Ebing, drawing his material from medico criminological practice, saw the gross perver

797

sions which appeared to have nothing in common with the idealized version of sexuality acceptable at that time. The gradual growth of permissiveness and the newly found concern of the medical profession brought to their attention cases of ordinary unhappy folk who suffered from a great variety of sexual disorders which had little in common with the monstrosities of the Psychopathia Sexualis. Freud understood perhaps better than any of the others how to provide a theory which while holding on to constitutional factors as causes of sexual disorders—some due to degene ration—nevertheless made it possible to see the disorders as lying along a continuum from normality to the most severe abnormalities. In fact it was—almost—normality which was called in question: ‘¿We have seen that it is not scientifically feasible to draw a line of demarcation between what is psychically normal or abnormal; so that that distinction, in spite of its practical importance, possesses only a conventional value.' (Freud Vol XXIII, p 195) He writes a footnote

about the causes of homosexuality on p i8:

in

‘¿Psychoanalysis has not up to now produced a full explanation of inversion, but, it has nevertheless revealed the psychic mechanisms of its forma tion. . . Psychoanalysis resists entirely the attempt to regard homosexuals as a specially formed group and to separate them from other men . . . It finds that all men are capable of a homosexual object choice and that they have in fact performed it unconcious ly. . . . To psychoanalysis it appears rather. that the equally free choice of male or female objects as we find it in childhood, in primitive conditions and in prehistoric times, is the basis from which by limitation in the one or the other direction the normal or inverted types develop. In this psychoanalytic

sense,

therefore,

the

exclusive sexual interest of a man for a woman is equally asking for an explanation and cannot be taken for granted as an underlying chemical attraction. The decision about the final sexual behaviour falls after puberty and is the result of an as yet unknown series of factors which are partly constitutional and partly accidental in nature. The narcissistic object choice and the fixation of the erotic significance of the anal zone appear as their most essential (constitutional) characteristics. How

198

SIGMUND FREUD'S VIEWS ON THE SEXUAL DISORDERS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTWE

ever, nothing is gained if on the basis of such constitutional characteristics one separates the most extremely inverted types from the others. The end results may be qualitative in nature; analysis shows that the differences in the underlying conditions are only quantitative...' About perversion in general—having in mind predominantly the fetishistic abnormalities—he writes similarly (p 45). ‘¿We have heard that it is arguable whether the perversions are based on congenital conditions or on accidental life experiences as Binet has assumed in the case of fetishism. We now can decide that underlying the perversions there is indeed some thing congenital, but something which is inborn in all humanity; it can vary in intensity and awaits awakening by life influences.' Thus the constitutional abnormalities which underly the abnormal object choice are not something new, possessed only by homosexuals or perverts and setting them apart, but some thing that is general and only quantitively different from the normal, such as abnormal strength or weakness of a partial instinct, of fixability or of the inhibiting forces which determine the sexual development of an individual. In this way the sexual abnormalities can be seen just as modifications of the normal sexual life; the transition from the normal to the abnormal is a gradual rather than an abrupt one and lies on a continuum rather than on two sides of a divide. The sexual disorders have been taken back into humanity as variations of existence rather than being regarded as illnesses in the medical sense, and the way is open to treat patients afflicted by them with tolerance rather than with therapeutic zeal. Freud's theory was a preparation for this last step, though he himself did not ultimately take it. CONCLUSIONS

It will be seen that, contrary to many popular views, Freud's concepts on the origin and the nature of the sexual disorders are very much in keeping with the prevailing medical thinking of his time. He is looking predominantly for biological causes rather than psychological ones. In fact, not only his instinct theory but even the repressive forces like disgust or morality are conceived as largely constitutionally given.

He goes along with those contemporaries who like to give precision to the concept of degeneration and oppose the uncritical over application of it. However, he is not emanci pated from the concept as such, and he invokes it in his understanding of the neuroses no less than of the perversions. Freud appears to try to distinguish constitu tional from ‘¿accidental', including psychogenic, factors when speaking of aetiology (p I i 5). ‘¿It is not easy to assess the effect of constitutional and accidental factors in their mutual relationship. In research one is always inclined to overrate the former; in the therapeutic practice one emphasizes the importance of the latter.' In reality, however, the distinction is not as sharp in his hands as it might be. When speaking of his ‘¿mechanisms' of repression or sublimation, although he conceived these as a clash of mind less biological forces, he is really describing meaningful connections. It is in the psychology of meaning that Freud has indeed opened so many doors. He mentions with satisfaction (p i):

‘¿In its purely psychological findings about the unconscious, about repression, about conflict which leads toillness, aboutsecondary gain, about the mech anisms of symptom formation, etc, psychoanalysis has enjoyed growing recognition even amongst its principal adversaries.' It is where the areas close to biology are concerned that in Freud's view psychoanalysis does not carry conviction. Why should this be so? The answer can be found in the metho dological analysis of psychoanalysis. Freud asserts that his views are based on observations made by the ‘¿method called psychoanalysis' (p i). ‘¿It should be emphasized that the presentation given here has proceeded from the daily medical experience which was deepened and made scienti fically significant by the results of the psycho analytic investigation. The Three Essays on Sexual Theory cannot contain anything else than what psychoanalysis has forced us to accept or permits us to confirm.... Besides the constant dependence on psycho analytic research I have to emphasize the intention al independence from biological research as the characteristic of my work.'

J. HOENIG The

method

is psychoanalysis,

conclusions are biological. methods of psychoanalysis the following observations Translation):

but

the

As regards the Jaspers made (p 539, English

‘¿Freud is really concerned with the psychology of meaningful connections and not with causal explanations as he himself believed. . . . He penetrates into the unregarded part of the psychic life which through him is brought into full aware

ness. The falseness of the Freudian claim lies in the mistaking of meaningful connections for causal connections. . . . Freud uses meaningful connec tions as a basis for building theories about the original causes of the whole course of psychic life whereas understanding of meaning can never by its very nature lead one to a theory.'

‘¿99

persists present.

to a certain extent One might paraphrase

of the state of psychoanalysis 7920

by

saying,

‘¿Inits

right up to the his summing up

which he wrote in

purely

psychological

findings. . . psychoanalysis has enjoyed growing recognition and what was found here has long been integrated into the body of psychiatric knowledge. Those parts of the teachings, how ever, which border on biology, and this includes the theory of sexuality, continue to be mis understood even by my followers.' As regards what might be called the ‘¿nor malization of the sexual abnormalities', Freud has taken the development

a great step forward.

Before him there were attempts by Moll (1921), and even more so by Hirschfeld (1913) to fight for equal rights for homosexuals; there were The underlying events postulated by Freud strong pleadings by Fore! (1924) and Ellis are biological in nature and have no ‘¿psycho (1936) for compassion for the perverts instead logical meaning'. The methods of psychology of a harsh segregation into the world of the of meaning cannot reveal anything about them. insane. None of these, however, have succeeded, They can only be properly applied to human as has Freud, in breaking down these barriers intentions, to choices made in freedom, to reveal by a developmental theory of the sexual life meaningful connections. Furthermore, the which make these abnormalities appear as methods of psychoanalysis which reveal merely something childish. The validity of these meaningful

connections

not permit

generalizations

causal

connections

are subjective

and

do

as we use them in

to establish

scientific

laws.

‘¿Freud proceeds from meaningful connections to theories

about

the causes of the entire

In this self-misunderstanding which is the basic methodological error of psychoanalysis we have the explanation for its difficulties. Where Freud writes about psychic events, psychoanalytic insights have opened new path ways even for ‘¿adversaries'of his teachings; where he writes about biological events as if This

accounts

there is a peculiar for the widespread

be

him to have

psychogenic,

explained

their

a misunderstanding

century;

now as they were in the there

is nevertheless

little

doubt that their legacy to us is the social benefit which came to patients so afflicted. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The translations from Freud's ThreeEssajs were made by the author. My thanks are due to Ms Faye Caznmaert

for the typing of the manuscript and for her general assistance. REFERENCES

BINET, A. (1887) Du fétichisme dans philosophique. Paris.

l'amour.

Revue

Bz.ocss, I. (1902/3) Beitrige zur Atiologie der P@richopathia sexualis. 2 vols. Dresden. —¿

(19o6)

Das

Sexualleben

unserer

Zeit.

Berlin.

(Translated

as The Sexual Lif I of our Time, by M. E. Paul (1908)

London.) Euss, H. (1936) Studiesin the Psychologyof Sex. New York:

Random House.

twilight.

FOREL, A. H. (7924) The Sexual Question (trans. by C. F. Marshall), pp 404ff. New York: Phys. & Surg.

misunder

Book Co. Fazun, S. (:906) Drei Abhandlungenzur Sexualtheorie,1st

standing of his writings on the sexual disorders about which he complains so bitterly, which believes

nineteenth

psychic

process. While understanding, by its very nature, can never lead to general theory, causal research must always do so. The tentative interpretation of an individual psychic event—andonly such individ ual interpretations are methodologically justi fiable—is,of course, not a general theory.' (Karl Jaspers)

they had meaning

views are as contested

nature

to

which

Edition —¿

(i@@@)

(7th Edition

i@6).

The

Edition

Standard

Sigmund Frew4 Vol VII,

Press.

Wien: of

the

p :26.

F. Deuticke. Complete

London:

Works

of

Hogarth

200

SIGMUND FREUD'S

VIEWS ON THE SEXUAL DISORDERS

HUISCISFEW, M. (i@:@) Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes. In Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaft in Einzeldarstellungen, Vol III (ed. Iwan Bloch). Berlin: Louise Marcus. Hocus, A. (:896) Zur Frage der forensischen Beurteilung sexueller Vergehen. .WeurologischesCentralblatt, p 58. H0ENI0, J. (:@76) The development of sexology during

the second half of the igth century. In Handbookof Sexology (ed. J. Money JASPERS,

K.

(1962)

General

and H. Musaph). Psychopatlwlogy

(:9:8—46)

(trans

by J. Hoenig and M. Hamilton). Manchester: Uni versity Press. —¿

(:9:3)

Causal

and

‘¿meaningful'

connections

between

life history and psychosis. Trans in Themes and Variations in European P.fychiat@y(ed. S. R. Hirsch and

M. Shepherd, 1974). Bristol: John Wright and Sons.

IN HISTORICAL

KRAFFr-EBINO,

R. v. (1886)

Ferdinand —¿

(1875)

PERSPECTIVE

Psychiopathia

Sexuaks.

Stuttgart:

Encke.

Le/irbuch

der

Gerschtlichen

P4ychopathologie.

Moxaius, P. J. (igoo) Uber Entartung. Grenzfr. Xsrv. See/snieb,3, :38. MoLL, A. (192!)

Behandlung der Homosexualitdt:

biogenischi

oderpsychisch,pp 64ff. Bonn: Marcus v. Webers. STEniAcII, E. (1919)

Experimentelle

und bistologische

Beweise fürden ursAchlichen Zusaznmenh*ng von Homosexualitat und Zwitterdrüse. S.A.a.d.akad. Anzeiger. Nr ii. Wien. Warrx@r, A. & LEIBBRAND,W. (:g@@)Von der P4jrch.pathia Sexualis zur Sexualwissenschaft.Stuttgart: Ferd inand Encke.

J. Hoenig,M.D., P.R.C.P., F.R.C.P.yCh., Professor andChairman inPsychiatry, Memorial University, StJohn's, Newfoundland, Canada (Received 21 October 1975)

Sigmund Freud's views on sexual disorders in historical perspective. J Hoenig BJP 1976, 129:193-200. Access the most recent version at DOI: 10.1192/bjp.129.3.193

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Sigmund Freud's views on sexual disorders in historical perspective.

Brit. J. Psychiat. (1976), 129, 193—200 Sigmund Freud's Views on the Sexual Disorders Historical Perspective in ByJ. HOENIG The study of the se...
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