Article

Self-Perceived Health Improvements Among Prison Inmates

Journal of Correctional Health Care 2015, Vol. 21(1) 59-69 ª The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1078345814558048 jcx.sagepub.com

Sung-suk Violet Yu, PhD1, Hung-En Sung, PhD1, Jeff Mellow, PhD1, and Carl J. Koenigsmann, MD2

Abstract Despite the extensive resources expended on providing medical care to inmates, inmates’ health perception is an understudied topic. The current study investigates inmates’ perception of health status while incarcerated using a sample of 136 soon-to-be released prisoners. Prisoners with poor health perception prior to their current incarceration were most likely to perceive health improvement. Sociodemographic characteristics were generally not associated with the perceived health improvement during incarceration. Analysis results suggest correctional institutions may play a vital role in delivering much-needed medical care to a segment of the prisoner population, including determining how they feel about their health. It is important to explore the policies and practices to increase continuity of health care following release to maintain perceived health improvement. Keywords prisoner, health improvement, health perception, health policy

Until 2014, the United States was one of the few developed countries without universal health care. Nevertheless, prisoners in the United States were afforded the constitutional right to receive medical care at the government’s expense (Estelle v. Gamble, 1976), a right that until 2014 was not provided to them when living in the community. Given that health perception is associated with health outcomes (Chilcot, Wellsted, & Farrington, 2011; Petrie & Weinman, 2012), and substantial resources are expended to provide medical care to inmates (National Commission on Correctional Health Care, 2002), it is important to examine whether inmates perceive any improvement in their health during incarceration. The perceived changes in their health status during incarceration may influence their likelihood of seeking medical care upon release, in turn affecting their health following release (Freudenberg, Moseley, Labriola, Daniels, & Murrill, 2007). While there are many studies on inmate health before and after incarceration, whether inmates perceive any changes in their 1 2

Department of Criminal Justice, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York, NY, USA New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision, Albany, New York, NY, USA

Corresponding Author: Sung-suk Violet Yu, PhD, Department of Criminal Justice, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, 524 West 59th Street, 2113 North Hall, New York, NY 10019, USA. Email: [email protected]

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health status during incarceration is a largely neglected research topic. The current study sets out to examine inmate perceptions of health changes and their correlates by analyzing primary in-person survey data.

Background The high prevalence of chronic medical conditions of prisoners emphasizes the role correctional agencies play in providing medical care to prisoners and the demand placed on such agencies (Hammett, Harmon, & Rhodes, 2002). Prisoners exhibit myriad medical and mental health conditions at higher rates compared to those of the general population, even after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics and substance use (Baillargeon, Black, Pulvino, & Dunn, 2000; Binswanger, Krueger, & Steiner, 2009). Almost half of prisoners have chronic or serious medical conditions (Maruschak, 2008), 56% of prisoners have mental health problems, and nearly a quarter meet the clinical criteria for substance dependence (James & Glaze, 2006). Serious mental health disorders are shown to increase the risks of multiple incarcerations (Baillargeon et al., 2009). Mental health problems are associated with substance abuse or dependence (74%), homelessness (13%), past physical or sexual abuse (27%), and having parents with substance abuse problems (39%; James & Glaze, 2006). These findings suggest that health conditions and recidivism are associated with each other (Binswanger & Wortzel, 2009; Wilper, Woolhandler, & Boyd, 2009). Therefore, it is expected that prisoners have higher levels of medical and mental health conditions and require health care at higher levels than the general population. It is well documented that the health of recently released prisoners declines steeply and they have higher mortality rates. In the first week of release, former prisoners are 2.5 times more likely to be hospitalized than their matched control group (Wang, Wang, & Krumholz, 2013). In the first 2 weeks of release, death risks of former prisoners are 13 times higher than that of the general population (Binswanger et al., 2007). Even after the 2 weeks, their risk of death is 3.5 times higher, and the hospitalization rate is almost twice that of their matched control group. A longitudinal study shows that incarceration increases risky behaviors associated with infectious diseases such as HIV or sexually transmitted diseases upon release (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1999; Green et al., 2012; Schnittker & John, 2007). Incarceration is also linked to a decreased life expectancy (Patterson, 2013). Recently released prisoners also face lack of continuity in medical care upon release. Lowincome neighborhoods, where the majority of prisoners live at the time of arrest, and where they return to, often lack available health care resources (Davis et al., 2009). Inadequate medical care upon release in the community negatively affects prognosis and management of chronic medical conditions including diabetes, asthma, HIV-related antiviral treatment, and mental illness (Binswanger & Wortzel, 2009). The majority of recently released prisoners, even those with HIV, report missing medication (Clements-Nolle, Marx, & Pendo, 2008). Despite the extensive research studies on prevalence of inmates’ medical conditions and their health following release, it is often overlooked that the offender population displays a high prevalence of medical and mental health conditions prior to their incarceration (American Psychiatric Association, 2004; Schnittker & John, 2007). Given that correctional facilities are where all prisoners have access to health care, it is possible that their health status changes while incarcerated. Additionally, some inmates may perceive changes in their health status, regardless of objective clinical measurements. Partly due to a lack of objective pre- and posttest measures of health conditions of prisoners, limited studies exist on the changes in prisoners’ health while they are incarcerated. A couple of studies suggest that the incarcerated fare better than their counterparts in the community (Massoglia & Schnittker, 2009). For example, a study found a lower mortality rate for incarcerated minorities than their counterparts in the community (Rosen, Whol, & Schoenbach, 2011).

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The current study aims to examine whether inmates perceive any improvement in health status during incarceration and the correlates related to health perception. Indeed, patients’ perception of health status and satisfaction with health care services are frequently used measures in health care settings and research (Hammett et al., 2004; Herman, Hopman, & Rosenberg, 2013). Furthermore, knowledge of the characteristics associated with perceived changes in health status during incarceration can be used to inform policy makers and practitioners to deliver effective health care services to prisoners and provide an opportunity to bridge health care from corrections to community.

Method Participants From March 2011 to June 2012, structured in-person interviews were conducted with 136 state prisoners housed in a maximum-security correctional facility in the northeastern United States. Research participants were prisoners who received or expected to receive release approval from the parole board or those who would have fully served their sentences in approximately 30 days. To recruit participants, researchers were led to a classroom where prisoners were taking classes to prepare for their release. After researchers made a brief oral presentation of the study in the classroom, all prisoners were asked to fill out a card indicating whether they wanted to participate in the study. An estimated 80% of eligible prisoners participated in the study. In this facility, two levels of health appraisals, initial and periodic, are conducted under formal policies. Within 14 days of admission, prisoners are appraised on their health history to discern risk factors. The health screening includes history of substance use; sexual orientation; mental health screening; dental screening; and a complete physical exam including blood tests, urine analysis, chest X-rays, tuberculosis test, and various immunization tests. After admission, prisoners have age-dependent periodic health appraisals every 5 years for those 16 to 49 years old and every 2 years for those aged 50 and older. The research participants were asked questions about their living situation, medical conditions, health care coverage, and substance use prior to their incarceration. They also were asked about their current medical conditions, self-perceived changes in health status upon incarceration, and self-rated current and previous health status. While the in-person surveys were highly structured, participants were encouraged to elaborate in their answers. Each interview lasted between 45 and 60 minutes. Researchers asked questions and recorded the participants’ answers. No compensation was provided to the study participants.

Dependent Variables Health encompasses a broad range of meaning and various aspects of life, which may or may not include existence of illness or disability (see definition of health in the Supplement 2006 to the Constitution of the World Health Organization for an example). Based on existing studies, we operationalized health in three dimensions: health in general, physical pain, and emotional problems (see Hammett et al., 2004). The main goal of the study was to examine inmates’ perception of changes in their general, physical, and emotional health status since incarceration. To achieve this goal, the participants were asked, ‘‘Would you say your health in general is now improved while in prison, the same, or worse?’’ This question was repeated for ‘‘physical or bodily pain.’’ Participants also were asked, ‘‘Would you say your emotional problems such as feeling anxious, depressed, intense worry, fear, grief, or sad is now improved while in prison, the same, or worse?’’ The three current health status responses were placed into the following two groups for multivariate logistic analysis: those who stated that they perceived health improvement since incarceration and those who did not perceive improvement.

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Predictors and Procedures Logistic regression analyses on three health outcomes were performed in SPSS Version 20. The model included variables measuring medical conditions and sociodemographic characteristics as predictors. The analyzed demographic characteristics included marital status, ethnicity, race, age, and education. Also included were living circumstances (being homeless), availability of help from family, and employment status prior to incarceration. Four health-related variables prior to incarceration were included in the analysis because we hypothesized that prisoners who had medical conditions or health care coverage before incarceration may have different perceptions regarding their health since incarceration. The health-related variables include self-reported diagnosable medical and mental health conditions, and public health care coverage such as Medicare and Medicaid. Lastly, a dichotomous variable on ‘‘substance use weekly or more’’ was created by combining several variables on illicit hard drug use such as crack cocaine, powder cocaine, heroin, PCP, or crystal meth. In addition to the impacts of sociodemographic characteristics on perceived health improvement, we examined whether inmates’ self-rated health status prior to incarceration had impacts on their current health perception. Research participants were asked to rate three types of health status prior to their incarceration on a Likert-type scale. Participants were asked, ‘‘Would you say your health status before your prison stay in the community was excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor?’’ This question was repeated for ‘‘physical or bodily pain’’ and ‘‘emotional problems such as feeling anxious, depressed, intense worry, fear grief, or sad.’’ Possible choices for physical pain were no pain, minimal pain, mild pain, moderate pain, or severe pain. Possible choices for emotional problems included not at all, slightly, moderately, quite a bit, or extremely. The three types of health status prior to current incarceration were recoded into three groups: excellent, good, and poor.

Results Research Participant Characteristics Characteristics of research participants are presented in Table 1. A startling number of study participants were ethnic minorities (66% Black and 35% Hispanic). While less than 20% of the participants reported being married, 49% reported that a substantial amount of help was available from their family prior to incarceration. High prevalence of homelessness, substance use, and chronic medical and mental health conditions was observed. Within the 12 months prior to their incarceration, 20% of respondents reported being homeless, 18% reported using hard illicit substances at least weekly, 54% reported having medical conditions including physical disability, and 23% reported having mental health disorders prior to their incarceration. The reliance on public health insurance was quite high: 55% of the respondents reported being covered under Medicare and/or Medicaid.1 Almost four out of five respondents (77%) reported having a minimum of high school or equivalent educational attainment, although only 54% reported working in the year prior to their incarceration. An analysis of their prior health status showed prevalent health challenges. About a quarter of the research participants reported suffering from extreme emotional problems even before their incarceration. We also observe that 50% of participants reported having excellent general health, while 20% reported having poor general health. A majority of the participants (79%) reported that they experienced minimal or no physical pain when living in the community.

Perceived Changes in Health Status During Incarceration Table 2 presents perceived changes in prisoners’ health status. A majority of the research participants (55%) reported that their general health had improved since incarceration. The comparable figures for physical pain and emotional problems were not as positive, however. About a third of

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Table 1. Characteristics of Research Participants (N ¼ 136). Predictors Married Hispanic Black High school completion Age (mean: 32.5, median: 30, range 20–59) Prior to incarceration: Within 12 months Homeless Help from family: As much as needed or quite a bit Employed Chronic medical conditions including disability Mental health conditions Covered under public health insurance (Medicare/Medicaid) Hard drug use: Weekly or more often Prior to incarceration: General health statusa Excellent Good Poor Prior to incarceration: Physical paina No pain Mild pain Severe pain Prior to incarceration: Emotional problemsa Not at all Moderately Extremely

Number

%

22 48 90 105 —

16.2 35.2 66.2 77.2 —

27 67 73 73 31 61 25

19.9 49.3 53.7 53.7 22.8 55.1 18.4

68 40 27

50.4 29.6 20.0

106 12 17

78.5 8.9 12.6

89 14 32

65.9 10.4 23.7

a

N ¼ 135, 1 missing.

Table 2. Perception of Current Health Status Following Incarceration (N ¼ 136). Yes: Improved Health Improvement Following Incarceration General health Physical pain Emotional problems

The Same or Deteriorated

Number

%

Number

%

75 42 44

55.1 30.9 32.4

61 94 92

44.9 69.1 67.6

the research participants reported lower physical pain (31%) and fewer emotional problems (32%) during their incarceration. Only 10% of the respondents reported deterioration in their general health since they were incarcerated. On the other hand, 17% and 28% of respondents reported that their physical pain and emotional problems, respectively, deteriorated since their incarceration.

Perceived Changes in Health Status and Correlates Table 3 presents logistic regression analysis results on perceived changes in health status while incarcerated. Prisoners with self-perceived poor general health status prior to their incarceration were significantly more likely to perceive that their health improved during incarceration and had 28.02 odds ratios (ORs; 95% confidence interval [CI] [4.77, 164.62]) of reporting improved health perception versus those who reported having excellent general health prior to incarceration. Only

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Table 3. Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis on Improved Health Outcomes (N ¼ 136). General Health Exp(B) Married Hispanic Black High school completion Age Prior to current incarceration Ever homeless Help from family Employed Chronic medical conditions Mental health conditions Public health insurance Illegal substance use Health status Excellent/very good Good Fair/poor Constant Cox and Snell R2 Nagelkerke R2

y

CI (95%)

Physical Pain Exp(B)

CI (95%)

Emotional Problem Exp(B)

CI (95%)

0.35 0.63 0.74 0.47 0.96

[0.10, [0.23, [0.26, [0.17, [0.92,

1.15] 1.69] 2.10] 1.28] 1.01]

0.33 0.57 0.5 0.40y 1

[0.08, [0.22, [0.18, [0.15, [0.95,

1.32] 1.49] 1.45] 1.03] 1.05]

0.88 1.02 1.65 0.53 1.03

[0.27, [0.37, [0.57, [0.19, [0.98,

2.85] 2.78] 4.75] 1.49] 1.09]

1.08 1.96 1.37 0.8 0.96 0.55 2.32

[0.30, [0.80, [0.60, [0.33, [0.31, [0.23, [0.77,

3.88] 4.80] 3.10] 1.91] 2.99] 1.29] 6.95]

1.42 1.4 1.56 0.73 1.73 1.35 1.3

[0.43, [0.60, [0.68, [0.30, [0.58, [0.57, [0.50,

4.66] 3.27] 3.54] 1.77] 5.18] 3.17] 3.43]

1.32 1.22 1.14 0.77 1.54 2.81* 1.91

[0.40, [0.48, [0.48, [0.31, [0.53, [1.12, [0.70,

4.38] 3.06] 2.67] 1.92] 4.42] 7.03] 5.19]

— 2.35 1.69 0.89

— [0.58, 9.63] [0.44, 6.44]

— 3.67y 3.04* 0.05

— [0.91, 14.76] [1.16, 7.98]

— 1.85 28.02** 5.41 .26 .35

— [0.74, 4.67] [4.77, 164.62]

.14 .2

.21 .29

Note. CI ¼ confidence interval. y p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01.

one sociodemographic variable was related to perceived changes in general health: Married participants were less likely to report that their general health improved since their incarceration (OR ¼ 0.35, 95% CI [.10, 1.15]). For participants with prior emotional problems, improvement was observed more widely, albeit at a smaller level. Prisoners who had moderate emotional disturbance prior to their incarceration had 3.67 ORs (95% CI [.91, 14.76]) of thinking that their emotional problems improved versus those who reported no emotional disturbance prior to incarceration. For those who suffered extreme emotional disturbance prior to their incarceration, their ORs of perceiving improvement was 3.04 (95% CI [1.16, 7.98]). This result is even more compelling since participants often expressed that they were experiencing increased apprehension and fear, mixed with excitement, regarding their impending release. Respondents covered by public health programs prior to their incarceration were more likely to perceive that their emotional problems improved since incarceration (OR ¼ 2.81, 95% CI [1.12, 7.03]). In terms of physical pain, prior health status was not associated with perceiving improvement or deterioration since incarceration. However, this result may be due to only a small number of participants experiencing physical pain prior to their incarceration: Only 9% reported experiencing mild pain and 13% reported moderate to severe pain. Education was the only significant variable for perceived changes in physical pain: Those with a minimum of high school education were less likely to report that their physical pain had improved since incarceration (OR ¼ .40, 95% CI [.151, 1.034]).

Discussion The current study examined perceived health improvement by prisoners during incarceration, a largely neglected research topic. By conducting in-person interviews with soon-to-be-released

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prisoners, it was possible to examine their perceptions regarding whether their health (health in general, physical pain, and emotional problems) had improved or deteriorated since incarceration. Consistent with existing literature, research participants in this study reported high rates of homelessness, unemployment, marital instability, and substance use (Clements-Nolle et al., 2008; Freudenberg et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2008; MacGowan et al., 2003; Rosen, Schoenbach, & Wohl, 2008). More than half of the participants reported having chronic medical conditions, and 2 out of every 10 participants reported having a mental health condition prior to their incarceration. However, the existence of chronic medical and mental health conditions and disability prior to incarceration was not related to perceived health improvement during incarceration. This finding may reflect the marginalized status of this population; in the community, they may not have (adequate) access to health care, precluding them from receiving formal diagnosis or appropriate management of illness. Review of literature on prisoner health shows that prisoners are often from low-income and minority communities where medical needs are frequently unmet (Dumont, Brockmann, Dickman, Alexander, & Rich, 2012). This finding also increases the validity of using perception of changes in health status as a measure of health outcome for this vulnerable population, given the lack of official measures on health before and after their incarceration. More importantly, the analysis showed that how participants felt about their health prior to incarceration—not whether they had any chronic illness or disability—was related to the perceived health improvement during incarceration. Indeed, the prisoners with poor prior health were most likely to perceive health improvement since incarceration. Specifically, 27 research participants rated their general health to be poor in the community. Of those, all but two felt that their general health improved since incarceration. Therefore, prisoners with the worst health appear to believe that their health improved since incarceration. This finding also corroborates suggestions that mandated medical, mental health, and substance abuse assessment and treatment at intake, structured daily routines, and the availability of medical care for acute and chronic conditions can decrease the continuity of morbidity and bring a stable period of health and well-being behind bars (Binswanger et al., 2011; Rosen et al., 2008). The study does have some limitations, however. First, as with any research study relying on selfreporting, the survey data may suffer from underreporting or exaggeration due to social stigma, social desirability, or memory loss (Heerwegh, 2009). Additionally, there is a risk of recall bias influenced by the current situation, when participants were asked to remember their past events including medical conditions. This bias may be more pronounced for mild illness than for severe or chronic illness. Considering that the participants were housed in a maximum-security prison at the time of study, it seems unlikely that this systemic bias would have favored their experiences in the correctional facilities. Another set of concerns is related to generalizability of the findings. The study sample consisted of volunteers from a maximum-security prison. Therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to prisoners in lower security prisons or with relatively shorter prison stays. However, given that about 80% of the eligible population participated in the study, the sample represents this unique cohort of population. Additionally, our research participants were overwhelmingly ethnic minorities. While this partially reflects overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in correctional facilities, the results may not be generalizable to all prisoners or even prisoners in maximumsecurity prisons in other regions. Third, the analysis relied on self-reported measures of medical conditions and perceptions of health improvement. While they are valid measures for this vulnerable population without adequate access to medical care in the community, the authors plan to use official prison health data to validate findings of the current study in the future. Finally, due to the relatively small sample size, it was not possible to examine impacts of specific illnesses on perceived improvement in health status.

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Conclusion The current study showed that the inmates who had perceived their health to be poor prior to incarceration were most likely to perceive improvement in their health during incarceration. Importantly, the perceived changes in health status were not related to sociodemographic characteristics or the presence of chronic medical and mental conditions. The biggest improvement was perceived in general health, followed by emotional health. The paucity of studies on how prisoners perceive their health status while incarcerated demonstrates a need for a study assessing prisoners’ perception of their health status and their satisfaction with their medical care during incarceration. The findings from the current study signal that even prisoners in a maximum-security prison perceive improvement in their health while incarcerated, and the likelihood of perceiving improvement was influenced by how they felt about their health prior to their incarceration. While the study did not employ clinical measures to validate inmates’ perceptions, it demonstrates that inmates are their own agents capable of recognizing their own health status. There is a growing recognition that perception of an illness is as important as, if not more important than, clinical measures when it comes to health outcomes (Chilcot et al., 2011). The relative fluidity of health perception (Devcich, Ellis, Broadbent, Gamble, & Petrie, 2011) underscores the importance of providing continuity of care between prison health care and the community. Without ensuring continuity of care upon release, any health improvement, whether perceived or real, will dissipate rapidly postrelease. For example, a history of drug abuse and dependency is the leading predictor of the risk of death postrelease (e.g., 92% of deaths in the first 2 weeks postrelease are due to overdose; Binswanger et al., 2007). A potentially deadly side effect of improving health of prisoners through forced abstinence from drug use is that prisoners lose their drug tolerance. A previous normal dose of heroin prior to incarceration can become fatal postrelease. This lack of assimilation to their new tolerance level, for instance, may explain the steep decline in health measured by hospital admission (Wang et al., 2013) and mortality rates (Binswanger et al., 2007), despite many prisoners feeling that their health is better than before their incarceration. The fact that a substantial proportion of research participants reported improved health status since incarceration suggests that correctional institutions may play an important role in the public health field. Unlike other health care environments, in prison all have access to medical care. With the implementation of the Affordable Care Act, which will reduce the number of uninsured Americans in the community (Manchikanti, Caraway, Parr, Fellows, & Hirsch, 2011), the findings from this study may change. However, given that the majority of prisoners will return to their communities, where they are required to manage their own health, it is important to explore policies to maintain improved health, whether perceived or real. In the meantime, it is important to recognize that the closed environment of prison gives health care workers an ideal opportunity to screen, prevent, and treat diseases that often go unaddressed in the community for this disadvantaged population. Treatment regimens and medication management, for example, are often easier to address in correctional facilities than in the community. We are doubtful that self-perceived health improvements alone can buffer the recently released prisoners from the social and environmental triggers to use drugs so prevalent in many of the communities to which they return. However, inmates’ perceived health improvement may help case managers begin the conversation with soon-to-be released prisoners about the importance of enrolling in a health plan, maintaining a long-term medical regimen, seeking out a primary care provider or qualified health clinic, and accessing quality substance treatment programs postrelease. If inmates do not perceive that their health has improved regardless of objective measures, they are less likely to realize the benefits of medical care and less likely to seek medical care to maintain their health following their release.

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Acknowledgments We thank Mr. Philip Heath, Mr. Paul Korotkin, and Mr. Brian Lane at the New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision for their responsiveness and cooperation. They worked with us to ensure that our study complied with their department’s research protocols and assisted us with the clearance and coordination necessary to conduct surveys with our research participants.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The authors disclosed no conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. For information about JCHC’s disclosure policy, please see the Self-Study Exam.

Funding The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Funding for this study was made possible by grant #5P20MD006118 from the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities. The views expressed in this study do not necessarily reflect the official policies of the Department of Health and Human Services, nor does mention of trade names, commercial practices, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government or John Jay College of Criminal Justice.

Note 1. Medicare is available for people aged 65 and older and those with certain disabilities, and Medicaid is available for people with low income. The oldest research participant was 59 years old at the time of interview. However, six participants reported being covered by both Medicaid and Medicare, and two participants reported being covered exclusively under Medicare. Due to the small number of participants covered under Medicare program, we combined both groups into one group.

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Self-perceived health improvements among prison inmates.

Despite the extensive resources expended on providing medical care to inmates, inmates' health perception is an understudied topic. The current study ...
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