Appl Microbiol Biotechnol DOI 10.1007/s00253-014-5866-5
MINI-REVIEW
Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a potential host for carboxylic acid production from lignocellulosic feedstock? Anders G. Sandström & Henrik Almqvist & Diogo Portugal-Nunes & Dário Neves & Gunnar Lidén & Marie F. Gorwa-Grauslund
Received: 29 March 2014 / Revised: 28 May 2014 / Accepted: 29 May 2014 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract Carboxylic acids are important bulk chemicals that can be used as building blocks for the production of polymers, as acidulants, preservatives and flavour compound or as precursors for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. Today, their production mainly takes place through catalytic processing of petroleum-based precursors. An appealing alternative would be to produce these compounds from renewable resources, using tailor-made microorganisms. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has already demonstrated its value for bioethanol production from renewable resources. In this review, we discuss Saccharomyces cerevisiae engineering potential, current strategies for carboxylic acid production as well as the specific challenges linked to the use of lignocellulosic biomass as carbon source. Keywords Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Carboxylic acid . Metabolic engineering . Lignocellulosic biomass
Introduction Carboxylic acids contain a functional group whose reactivity allows the formation of e.g. esters and amides. They are therefore important chemicals with many different applications, Anders G. Sandström, Henrik Almqvist, Diogo Portugal-Nunes, Dário Neves, Gunnar Lidén, and Marie F. Gorwa-Grauslund equally contributed to the review. A. G. Sandström : D. Portugal-Nunes : D. Neves : M. F. Gorwa-Grauslund (*) Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00 Lund, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. Almqvist : G. Lidén Chemical Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
notably as building blocks for the production of polymers. Some of these have an already established huge market—like nylon-6,6 from adipic acid, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) from terephthalic acid, or polylactic acid (PLA) from lactic acid—whereas others have a not yet fully realized potential. Carboxylic acids also have direct uses on their own as acidulants, as preservatives or as precursors for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. Another—in volume much smaller—application for carboxylic acids is the flavour market, where carboxylic acids are used for nicely smelling esters (Schrader et al. 2004). At the moment, the production of short-chain carboxylic acids mainly takes place by catalyzed oxidation of aldehydes and oxidation of hydrocarbons, through carbonylation or through dehydrogenation of alcohols (Riemenschneider 2000). With some exceptions, like for citric acid, the raw materials used are of fossil origin— either natural gas or petroleum. However, in the well-known report by the US Department of Energy (DOE) based on an extensive work to identify the most interesting platform chemicals to be derived from lignocellulose—known as the “top ten” (Werpy and Petersen 2004)—several of the identified candidate compounds were carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids are not only central components in the microbial metabolism, both within the catabolic pathways (the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle abounds with carboxylic acids—including citric acid itself), but also fermentative end products. Microbial production of carboxylic acids has therefore come as a natural alternative for some acids like citric acid, acetic acid and lactic acid. In the needed transition to accomplish production of chemicals based on renewable raw materials, it is very appealing to further expand the product spectrum through metabolic engineering and process engineering using various microorganisms (Jang et al. 2012). One candidate host for carboxylic acid production is baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Abbott et al. 2009). In this
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
mini-review, specific challenges and opportunities associated with the production of carboxylic acids from lignocellulosic biomass by Saccharomyces cerevisiae are discussed.
Major carboxylic acids and current production processes In 2004, the US DOE published a report on the top potential product from biorefineries (Werpy and Petersen 2004) in which several carboxylic acids produced by fermentation were included among the top candidates, i.e. succinic, fumaric, malic, glucaric, 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) and itaconic acids. In an updated review by the lead authors in 2010 (Bozell and Petersen 2010), which considered the technological progress made in the 6 years since the first report, lactic acid was added to the list. In addition to the carboxylic acids above, there are several other carboxylic acids which are promising for microbial production, although less often mentioned. For the purpose of this review, we performed a bibliometric analysis on publications of a wide range of carboxylic acids in order to get a perception of the interest for their bio-based production (Fig. 1). The carboxylic acids, whose properties, use and production mode are
Fig. 1 Number of publications per year matching the search phrases ((“acid name” or “base conjugate name” or “acid synonym(s)”) and (“fermentation” or “synonyms”)). The query was made in the database
reviewed in Table 1, could be clustered into three different groups based on their occurrence in the bibliometric analysis. With the exception of those with lowest occurrence, where there was no clear trend, the number of publications per year increased almost exponentially for all acids. This confirms that the microbial production of carboxylic acids is attracting increasing attention from the academic community. Acetic and lactic acids (marked yellow in Fig. 1) are the most frequent acids identified in the bibliometric analysis, and they are also produced in large quantities (Table 1). Both acids have been used for a long time, mainly to preserve food. Acetic acid has been produced as vinegar by microbial fermentation of alcoholic beverages for more than 5,000 years and is still produced today. However, industrial production of acetic acid is done chemically, mainly by methanol carbonylation and liquid phase oxidation of aliphatic hydrocarbons (Cheung et al. 2011). Lactic acid (2-hydroxypropionic acid) is deeply connected to the production of milk (Dusselier et al. 2013) and is certainly one of the commercially most important carboxylic acid in the food industry. Furthermore, the use of lactic acid for the production of a biodegradable polylactide polymer has boosted the commercial interest for this acid (Singh et al. 2006). Lactic acid bacteria, Rhizopus spp., and
Web of Science (Thomson Reuters 2014), and the number of publications per year was recorded between 1991 and 2013
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol Table 1 Carboxylic acid main applications and commercial-related information Carboxylic Acid
Acetic acid
Glycolic acid
3-Hydroxy propanoic acid
Acrylic acid
Lactic acid
Fumaric acid
Structure
Applications
- Vinyl acetate for polymers; - Ethyl acetate as ecofriendly solvent. - Precursor for polyglycolic acid and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid; - Medical, textile and cosmetic applications; - Packaging; - Potential substitute for acrylic acid; - Biodegradable polymers; - 1,3-PDO.
- Polymeric flocculants; - Diapers; - Coatings; - Adhesives; - Water treatment; - Textiles; - Detergents. - Polylactic acid; - Durable and disposable plastics; - Food preservative; - Biodegradable polymer production; - Polyesters and acrylates. - Food additive; - Polyester resins; - Acidulant; - - Rosin paper sizes; - Wind turbines; - Boats; - Unsaturated polyester resins.
Malic acid
- Food additive; - Acidulant; - Potential substitute of maleic anhydride.
Succinic acid
- Detergent/surfactant; - Food additive; - Pharmaceutical market; - Potential source of C4 commodity chemicals.
Annual Companies producing bioproduction based acids or with reported (kilotonnes/ interest* year) 7 000-10 700T 190B
40T
Reported Microorganisms
Wacker ZeaChem
A. aceti WT
(de Jong et al. 2012; Jang et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; Transparency Market Research 2013)
Metabolic Explorer Roquette
S. cerevisiae E K. lactis E E. coli E
(Koivistoinen et al. 2013; Transparency Market Research 2012; Kataoka et al. 2001; Soucaille 2009; Roquette 2010)
E. coli WT E K. pneumonia WT E S. cerevisiae E C. aurantiacus WT
(Jäger and Büchs 2012; Valdehuesa et al. 2013; Jang et al. 2012; de Jong et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; Straathof et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2014; Myriant 2013; de Guzman 2013; OpxBio 2013)
OPX Bio Cargill/Novozymes 3 600T
OPXBio/Dow Chemical Cargill Perstorp Myriant Metabolix Arkema StoHaas Monomer Nippon Shokubai Formosa Plastics
4 200T
Lactobacillus sp. WT E M
275-450T
90-200
T
Purac NatureWorks Galactic Henan Jindan BBCA
DuPont Myriant Kraft Chemical Nippon Shokubai Bartek Anhui Sealong Biotech. Huaibei Jingyuan Bio-eng. PMP Fermentation Products
60T
Myriant Novozymes
15-37T B
BioAmber/Mitsui Reverdia (DSM/Roquette) Myriant Succinity (BASF/Purac) PTT Chem/Mitsubishi CC
E. coli WT E A. niger WT R. oryzae WT P. acidipropionici WT S. stipitis E S. cerevisiae E Rhizopus sp. WT Mucor sp. WT Cunninghamella sp. WT
Circinella sp. WT S. cerevisiae E Aspergillus sp. WT E. coli E S. cerevisiae E E. coli WT E M A. succiniciproducens WT
S. cerevisiae WT E Yarrowia lipolytica E M. succiniciproducens WT E
C. glutamicum WT E A. succinogenes WT M
Itaconic acid
- Polymers; - Replace petroleumbased polyacrylic acids.
15-80T B
α-ketoglutaric acid
- Food and pharmaceutical applications; - Fine chemistry; - Animal feed industries; - Precursor of glutamic acid.
NA
Citric acid
- Food additive; - Acidulant; - Controls microbial growth.
1 600T B
Adipic acid
- Polyamide (nylon); - Surface coating; - Food additive; - Acidulant.
References
2 200-3 000T
Itaconix LLC Chengdu Lucky Biology Eng. Ind. Nanjing Huajin Biologicals Qingdao Langyatai Group Ronas Chemicals Ind. Shandong Kaison Biochem. Shandong Zhongshun Science & Tech. Development Spectrum Chemicals & Lab. Products
NA
Cargill DSM BBCA Ensign TTCA RZBC The Chemical Company PMP Fermentation Prod. Rennovia Verdezyne BioAmber Celexion Genomatica BASF DSM Amyris Myriant Aemetis Invista Ascend Performance Materials Honeywell China Shenma PetroChina Rhodia Shangdong Haili (Bohui) Liyoyang Petrochemical Asahi Kasei Radici
A. terreus WT M E. coli WT E U. maydis WT
(Engel et al. 2008; Straathof et al. 2005; de Guzman 2013; Xu et al. 2012c; Xu et al. 2012a; Lee et al. 2011; Kraft Chemical 2013; IHS Chemical 2010; Myriant 2013) (Jang et al. 2012; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Zhang et al. 2011; Novozymes 2012; Abbott et al. 2009; Sauer et al. 2008; Zelle et al. 2008)
(Abbott et al. 2009; de Jong et al. 2012; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Cok et al. 2013; Lee et al. 2011; Bozell and Petersen 2010; Jang et al. 2012; de Guzman 2013; Il Bioeconomista 2013; Beauprez et al. 2010; Sauer et al. 2008)
(Klement and Buchs 2013; Straathof et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2011; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; de Jong et al. 2012; Research and Markets 2011; Itaconix 2013)
Y. lipolytica WT E P. fluorescens WT Bacillus sp. WT S. marcescens WT A. paraffineus WT C. glutamicum WT T. glabrata WT Candida sp. WT Pichia sp. WT
(Yu et al. 2012; Otto et al. 2011)
Aspergillus sp. WT Y. lipolytica Candida sp. WT Pichia sp. WT S. lipolytica WT
(de Jong et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; Angumeenal and Venkappayya 2013; The Chemical Company 2013)
E. coli E
Muconic acid
- Precursor and platform chemical for producing several (bio)plastics and fibers; - Precursor adipic acid.
NA
Myriant
S. cerevisiae E
Glucaric Acid
-Polymers; -Corrosion inhibitor; -Drop-in replacement for phosphates in detergents.
25 - 42T
Rivertop Renewables
E. coli E
Gluconic Acid
- Food additive; - Metal chelator; - Iron sequestering; - Pharmaceutical industry.
Roquette Frères Pfizer Inc. Bristol-Meyers Co. Premier Malt Products Benckiser Fujisawa Kyowa Hakko
A. niger WT; Z. mobilis Pseudomonas sp. Gluconobacter sp. WT ; Acetobacter sp.
60-87T B
(Bozell and Petersen 2010; Straathof et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2011; Jang et al. 2012; Abbott et al. 2009; Sauer et al. 2008; de Jong et al. 2012; Dusselier et al. 2013; Myriant 2013)
(BASF 2013; Burgard et al. 2010; Curran et al. 2013; de Jong et al. 2012; Lee et al. 2011; Myriant 2013; Niu et al. 2002; Markets and Research 2012; Sun et al. 2013; Van de Vyver and Román-Leshkov 2013; Weber et al. 2012)
(Jang et al. 2012; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Lee et al. 2011; Moon et al. 2009; de Jong et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008)
(Ramachandran et al. 2006; Roquette 2013; Sauer et al. 2008; Toivari et al. 2012)
WT
NA not applicable T
Total annual production of the carboxylic acid, including chemical and biological methods/techniques
B
Annual production of the carboxylic acid via microbial processes
*
Reported microorganisms in scientific literature, patent applications and official released companies reports
WT E
Wild type
Microorganism obtained after metabolic and/or genetic engineered
M
Microorganism obtained via random mutation and/or evolutionary adaptation/engineering
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
yeast are the most common microorganisms used in the industrial processes (Singh et al. 2006; Chahal and Starr 2006; Lopez-Garzon and Straathof 2014). The interest for lactic acid production in yeast has increased because yeast fermentation can be made at lower pH, thus reducing the amount of neutralizing alkaline needed to maintain pH (cf. part C). The second group of acids (citric, succinic, malic, fumaric and gluconic acid, marked green in Fig. 1) is all produced in moderate amounts (
MINI-REVIEW
Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a potential host for carboxylic acid production from lignocellulosic feedstock? Anders G. Sandström & Henrik Almqvist & Diogo Portugal-Nunes & Dário Neves & Gunnar Lidén & Marie F. Gorwa-Grauslund
Received: 29 March 2014 / Revised: 28 May 2014 / Accepted: 29 May 2014 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract Carboxylic acids are important bulk chemicals that can be used as building blocks for the production of polymers, as acidulants, preservatives and flavour compound or as precursors for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. Today, their production mainly takes place through catalytic processing of petroleum-based precursors. An appealing alternative would be to produce these compounds from renewable resources, using tailor-made microorganisms. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has already demonstrated its value for bioethanol production from renewable resources. In this review, we discuss Saccharomyces cerevisiae engineering potential, current strategies for carboxylic acid production as well as the specific challenges linked to the use of lignocellulosic biomass as carbon source. Keywords Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Carboxylic acid . Metabolic engineering . Lignocellulosic biomass
Introduction Carboxylic acids contain a functional group whose reactivity allows the formation of e.g. esters and amides. They are therefore important chemicals with many different applications, Anders G. Sandström, Henrik Almqvist, Diogo Portugal-Nunes, Dário Neves, Gunnar Lidén, and Marie F. Gorwa-Grauslund equally contributed to the review. A. G. Sandström : D. Portugal-Nunes : D. Neves : M. F. Gorwa-Grauslund (*) Applied Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00 Lund, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. Almqvist : G. Lidén Chemical Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
notably as building blocks for the production of polymers. Some of these have an already established huge market—like nylon-6,6 from adipic acid, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) from terephthalic acid, or polylactic acid (PLA) from lactic acid—whereas others have a not yet fully realized potential. Carboxylic acids also have direct uses on their own as acidulants, as preservatives or as precursors for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. Another—in volume much smaller—application for carboxylic acids is the flavour market, where carboxylic acids are used for nicely smelling esters (Schrader et al. 2004). At the moment, the production of short-chain carboxylic acids mainly takes place by catalyzed oxidation of aldehydes and oxidation of hydrocarbons, through carbonylation or through dehydrogenation of alcohols (Riemenschneider 2000). With some exceptions, like for citric acid, the raw materials used are of fossil origin— either natural gas or petroleum. However, in the well-known report by the US Department of Energy (DOE) based on an extensive work to identify the most interesting platform chemicals to be derived from lignocellulose—known as the “top ten” (Werpy and Petersen 2004)—several of the identified candidate compounds were carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids are not only central components in the microbial metabolism, both within the catabolic pathways (the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle abounds with carboxylic acids—including citric acid itself), but also fermentative end products. Microbial production of carboxylic acids has therefore come as a natural alternative for some acids like citric acid, acetic acid and lactic acid. In the needed transition to accomplish production of chemicals based on renewable raw materials, it is very appealing to further expand the product spectrum through metabolic engineering and process engineering using various microorganisms (Jang et al. 2012). One candidate host for carboxylic acid production is baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Abbott et al. 2009). In this
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
mini-review, specific challenges and opportunities associated with the production of carboxylic acids from lignocellulosic biomass by Saccharomyces cerevisiae are discussed.
Major carboxylic acids and current production processes In 2004, the US DOE published a report on the top potential product from biorefineries (Werpy and Petersen 2004) in which several carboxylic acids produced by fermentation were included among the top candidates, i.e. succinic, fumaric, malic, glucaric, 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) and itaconic acids. In an updated review by the lead authors in 2010 (Bozell and Petersen 2010), which considered the technological progress made in the 6 years since the first report, lactic acid was added to the list. In addition to the carboxylic acids above, there are several other carboxylic acids which are promising for microbial production, although less often mentioned. For the purpose of this review, we performed a bibliometric analysis on publications of a wide range of carboxylic acids in order to get a perception of the interest for their bio-based production (Fig. 1). The carboxylic acids, whose properties, use and production mode are
Fig. 1 Number of publications per year matching the search phrases ((“acid name” or “base conjugate name” or “acid synonym(s)”) and (“fermentation” or “synonyms”)). The query was made in the database
reviewed in Table 1, could be clustered into three different groups based on their occurrence in the bibliometric analysis. With the exception of those with lowest occurrence, where there was no clear trend, the number of publications per year increased almost exponentially for all acids. This confirms that the microbial production of carboxylic acids is attracting increasing attention from the academic community. Acetic and lactic acids (marked yellow in Fig. 1) are the most frequent acids identified in the bibliometric analysis, and they are also produced in large quantities (Table 1). Both acids have been used for a long time, mainly to preserve food. Acetic acid has been produced as vinegar by microbial fermentation of alcoholic beverages for more than 5,000 years and is still produced today. However, industrial production of acetic acid is done chemically, mainly by methanol carbonylation and liquid phase oxidation of aliphatic hydrocarbons (Cheung et al. 2011). Lactic acid (2-hydroxypropionic acid) is deeply connected to the production of milk (Dusselier et al. 2013) and is certainly one of the commercially most important carboxylic acid in the food industry. Furthermore, the use of lactic acid for the production of a biodegradable polylactide polymer has boosted the commercial interest for this acid (Singh et al. 2006). Lactic acid bacteria, Rhizopus spp., and
Web of Science (Thomson Reuters 2014), and the number of publications per year was recorded between 1991 and 2013
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol Table 1 Carboxylic acid main applications and commercial-related information Carboxylic Acid
Acetic acid
Glycolic acid
3-Hydroxy propanoic acid
Acrylic acid
Lactic acid
Fumaric acid
Structure
Applications
- Vinyl acetate for polymers; - Ethyl acetate as ecofriendly solvent. - Precursor for polyglycolic acid and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid; - Medical, textile and cosmetic applications; - Packaging; - Potential substitute for acrylic acid; - Biodegradable polymers; - 1,3-PDO.
- Polymeric flocculants; - Diapers; - Coatings; - Adhesives; - Water treatment; - Textiles; - Detergents. - Polylactic acid; - Durable and disposable plastics; - Food preservative; - Biodegradable polymer production; - Polyesters and acrylates. - Food additive; - Polyester resins; - Acidulant; - - Rosin paper sizes; - Wind turbines; - Boats; - Unsaturated polyester resins.
Malic acid
- Food additive; - Acidulant; - Potential substitute of maleic anhydride.
Succinic acid
- Detergent/surfactant; - Food additive; - Pharmaceutical market; - Potential source of C4 commodity chemicals.
Annual Companies producing bioproduction based acids or with reported (kilotonnes/ interest* year) 7 000-10 700T 190B
40T
Reported Microorganisms
Wacker ZeaChem
A. aceti WT
(de Jong et al. 2012; Jang et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; Transparency Market Research 2013)
Metabolic Explorer Roquette
S. cerevisiae E K. lactis E E. coli E
(Koivistoinen et al. 2013; Transparency Market Research 2012; Kataoka et al. 2001; Soucaille 2009; Roquette 2010)
E. coli WT E K. pneumonia WT E S. cerevisiae E C. aurantiacus WT
(Jäger and Büchs 2012; Valdehuesa et al. 2013; Jang et al. 2012; de Jong et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; Straathof et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2014; Myriant 2013; de Guzman 2013; OpxBio 2013)
OPX Bio Cargill/Novozymes 3 600T
OPXBio/Dow Chemical Cargill Perstorp Myriant Metabolix Arkema StoHaas Monomer Nippon Shokubai Formosa Plastics
4 200T
Lactobacillus sp. WT E M
275-450T
90-200
T
Purac NatureWorks Galactic Henan Jindan BBCA
DuPont Myriant Kraft Chemical Nippon Shokubai Bartek Anhui Sealong Biotech. Huaibei Jingyuan Bio-eng. PMP Fermentation Products
60T
Myriant Novozymes
15-37T B
BioAmber/Mitsui Reverdia (DSM/Roquette) Myriant Succinity (BASF/Purac) PTT Chem/Mitsubishi CC
E. coli WT E A. niger WT R. oryzae WT P. acidipropionici WT S. stipitis E S. cerevisiae E Rhizopus sp. WT Mucor sp. WT Cunninghamella sp. WT
Circinella sp. WT S. cerevisiae E Aspergillus sp. WT E. coli E S. cerevisiae E E. coli WT E M A. succiniciproducens WT
S. cerevisiae WT E Yarrowia lipolytica E M. succiniciproducens WT E
C. glutamicum WT E A. succinogenes WT M
Itaconic acid
- Polymers; - Replace petroleumbased polyacrylic acids.
15-80T B
α-ketoglutaric acid
- Food and pharmaceutical applications; - Fine chemistry; - Animal feed industries; - Precursor of glutamic acid.
NA
Citric acid
- Food additive; - Acidulant; - Controls microbial growth.
1 600T B
Adipic acid
- Polyamide (nylon); - Surface coating; - Food additive; - Acidulant.
References
2 200-3 000T
Itaconix LLC Chengdu Lucky Biology Eng. Ind. Nanjing Huajin Biologicals Qingdao Langyatai Group Ronas Chemicals Ind. Shandong Kaison Biochem. Shandong Zhongshun Science & Tech. Development Spectrum Chemicals & Lab. Products
NA
Cargill DSM BBCA Ensign TTCA RZBC The Chemical Company PMP Fermentation Prod. Rennovia Verdezyne BioAmber Celexion Genomatica BASF DSM Amyris Myriant Aemetis Invista Ascend Performance Materials Honeywell China Shenma PetroChina Rhodia Shangdong Haili (Bohui) Liyoyang Petrochemical Asahi Kasei Radici
A. terreus WT M E. coli WT E U. maydis WT
(Engel et al. 2008; Straathof et al. 2005; de Guzman 2013; Xu et al. 2012c; Xu et al. 2012a; Lee et al. 2011; Kraft Chemical 2013; IHS Chemical 2010; Myriant 2013) (Jang et al. 2012; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Zhang et al. 2011; Novozymes 2012; Abbott et al. 2009; Sauer et al. 2008; Zelle et al. 2008)
(Abbott et al. 2009; de Jong et al. 2012; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Cok et al. 2013; Lee et al. 2011; Bozell and Petersen 2010; Jang et al. 2012; de Guzman 2013; Il Bioeconomista 2013; Beauprez et al. 2010; Sauer et al. 2008)
(Klement and Buchs 2013; Straathof et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2011; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; de Jong et al. 2012; Research and Markets 2011; Itaconix 2013)
Y. lipolytica WT E P. fluorescens WT Bacillus sp. WT S. marcescens WT A. paraffineus WT C. glutamicum WT T. glabrata WT Candida sp. WT Pichia sp. WT
(Yu et al. 2012; Otto et al. 2011)
Aspergillus sp. WT Y. lipolytica Candida sp. WT Pichia sp. WT S. lipolytica WT
(de Jong et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008; Angumeenal and Venkappayya 2013; The Chemical Company 2013)
E. coli E
Muconic acid
- Precursor and platform chemical for producing several (bio)plastics and fibers; - Precursor adipic acid.
NA
Myriant
S. cerevisiae E
Glucaric Acid
-Polymers; -Corrosion inhibitor; -Drop-in replacement for phosphates in detergents.
25 - 42T
Rivertop Renewables
E. coli E
Gluconic Acid
- Food additive; - Metal chelator; - Iron sequestering; - Pharmaceutical industry.
Roquette Frères Pfizer Inc. Bristol-Meyers Co. Premier Malt Products Benckiser Fujisawa Kyowa Hakko
A. niger WT; Z. mobilis Pseudomonas sp. Gluconobacter sp. WT ; Acetobacter sp.
60-87T B
(Bozell and Petersen 2010; Straathof et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2011; Jang et al. 2012; Abbott et al. 2009; Sauer et al. 2008; de Jong et al. 2012; Dusselier et al. 2013; Myriant 2013)
(BASF 2013; Burgard et al. 2010; Curran et al. 2013; de Jong et al. 2012; Lee et al. 2011; Myriant 2013; Niu et al. 2002; Markets and Research 2012; Sun et al. 2013; Van de Vyver and Román-Leshkov 2013; Weber et al. 2012)
(Jang et al. 2012; Jäger and Büchs 2012; Lee et al. 2011; Moon et al. 2009; de Jong et al. 2012; Sauer et al. 2008)
(Ramachandran et al. 2006; Roquette 2013; Sauer et al. 2008; Toivari et al. 2012)
WT
NA not applicable T
Total annual production of the carboxylic acid, including chemical and biological methods/techniques
B
Annual production of the carboxylic acid via microbial processes
*
Reported microorganisms in scientific literature, patent applications and official released companies reports
WT E
Wild type
Microorganism obtained after metabolic and/or genetic engineered
M
Microorganism obtained via random mutation and/or evolutionary adaptation/engineering
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
yeast are the most common microorganisms used in the industrial processes (Singh et al. 2006; Chahal and Starr 2006; Lopez-Garzon and Straathof 2014). The interest for lactic acid production in yeast has increased because yeast fermentation can be made at lower pH, thus reducing the amount of neutralizing alkaline needed to maintain pH (cf. part C). The second group of acids (citric, succinic, malic, fumaric and gluconic acid, marked green in Fig. 1) is all produced in moderate amounts (
