Clinical Tutors
Role modelling in medical education: the importance of teaching skills Annette Burgess1, Kim Oates2,3 and Kerry Goulston2 1
Central Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 2 Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 3 Clinical Excellence Commission, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Students see good role models as being able to provide a constructive learning environment
SUMMARY Objectives: By observation of role models, and participation in activities, students develop their attitudes, values and professional competencies. Literature suggests that clinical skills and knowledge, personality, and teaching skills are three main areas that students consider central to the identification of positive role models. The aim of this study was to explore junior medical students’ opinions of the ideal attributes of a good role model in clinical tutors.
Methods: The study was conducted with one cohort (n = 301) of students who had completed year 1 of the medical programme in 2013. All students were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding the ideal attributes of a good role model in a clinical tutor. The questionnaire consisted of seven closed items and one open-ended question. Results: The response rate to the questionnaire was 265/301 (88%). Although students found all three key areas important in a good role model, students
emphasised the importance of excellence in teaching skills. Specifically, students see good role models as being able to provide a constructive learning environment, a good understanding of the curriculum and an ability to cater to the learning needs of all students. Conclusion: While acknowledging the importance of a patient-centred approach, as well as clinical knowledge and skills, our findings reinforce the importance of the actual teaching abilities of role models within medical education.
134 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137
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INTRODUCTION
D
escribed as teaching by example and influencing students in an unintentional, unaware, informal and episodic manner,1 role modelling remains an elusive phenomenon in medical education, yet it is important to the professional development of students.2 By observation of role models, and participation in activities, students develop their attitudes, values and professional competencies.3 The role of educators, both in the classroom and in practice, is to foster students’ learning and to serve as a role model for their profession. Often referred to within professional education as the ‘hidden curriculum’, a lack of understanding exists regarding students’ perceptions of role modelling.1,3 Part of the role of a medical educator is to facilitate the process of socialisation into the medical profession, helping to create a sense of identity of the students’ current and future roles in medicine.4 Behaviours that appear successful to students are the ones that students learn, and these are the behaviours that exert an influence over students. Previous literature has identified several common factors that students consider key in the identification of positive role models. These include clinical skills and knowledge, personal attributes, and teaching skills.2 Although difficult to categorise specific characteristics of role models within ‘clinical skills and knowledge’, ‘personal attributes’ or ‘teaching skills’ without overlap, a recent systematic review by Passi et al. has provided guidance for this paper.2 Demonstration of clinical skills and knowledge at the bedside appears to be the most distinctive characteristic of an effective role model in medicine mentioned within the literature.2,5 A patientcentred approach to teaching, and humanistic behaviours encompassing empathy, respect
and compassion have all been identified as important to students.2,5 Additionally, personal attributes, such as enthusiasm, a positive outlook and outstanding interpersonal skills are considered by students as positive qualities in role models.6,7
(consultant), registrar (house staff) or general practitioner. The aim of this study was to explore junior medical students’ opinion of the key attributes of an ideal role model in clinical tutors.
Behaviours that appear successful to students are the ones that students learn
METHODS Teaching skills, with the provision of an encouraging and supportive learning environment, the development of useful teaching methods, a commitment to the individual academic development of students, and the development of a rapport with students have been identified in previous studies as being important to students.8 Additionally, the time spent teaching and the provision of an adequate amount of patient contact in the clinical setting have been closely associated with excellence in role modelling.9–11
CONTEXT Sydney Medical School offers a 4–year graduate entry medical programme, where bedside clinical tutorials commence within the first week of entry into medical school. One day per week, students attend one of six metropolitan teaching hospitals where their ‘parent clinical school’ is located. There, on a weekly basis, students take part in smallgroup bedside clinical tutorials. Students attend 1.5 hours of physical examination teaching and 1.5 hours of communications teaching. Groups consist of six or seven students, with one clinical tutor who is a senior specialist
The study was conducted with one cohort (n = 301) of students who had completed year 1 of the medical programme in 2013. At the start of year 2, in 2014, all students were asked to complete a questionnaire. Quantitative The questionnaire consisted of seven closed questions using a Likert scale of 1–5, with responses ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5). The questions were developed based on the positive characteristics of role models reported in the literature, as presented in Box 1.2,6, Qualitative The questionnaire also contained one open-ended question that simply asked, ‘What attributes do you think a good role model should have as a clinical tutor?’ The data were coded to identify recurrent themes. Once data had been coded and categorised into themes, the data within each theme were quantified in order to measure the theme prevalence.9 Ethics approval was obtained from The University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee. Informed written consent was gained from participants.
Box 1. Questions, using a five-point Likert scale I think the ideal attributes of a good role model in a clinical tutor would be a person who: • encourages my learning; • is a very good diagnostic clinician; • models empathy, respect, compassion; • is inspiring; • is enthusiastic; • has a positive outlook; • shows good communication skills. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137 135
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Students’ ideal attributes of role models included excellence in clinical knowledge and skills, and personal attributes
RESULTS The response rate to the questionnaire was 265/301 (88%). Of the respondents, 138 (52%) were male and 117 (44%) were female, and 10 (4%) did not identify their gender in the questionnaire. Quantitative responses Results for each of the seven closed questions are reported in Figure 1. Student responses indicate that all mentioned elements of role modelling were important to students, with the positive responses from students ranging from 91 to 99 per cent. Qualitative feedback Students’ qualitative feedback, where students responded to the question ‘What attributes do you think a good role model should have as a clinical tutor?’, fell into four main themes, each of which is categorised as ‘teaching skills’ or ‘clinical skills and knowledge’. Teaching skills Development of a rapport with students and provision of constructive feedback Almost a quarter (58/265; 22%) of students remarked on the importance of ‘the ability to encourage and relate to students’, to show ‘patience, understanding’, and an ‘interest in students’ development of learning’. They wanted tutors who would ‘command respect without scaring the students’, with ‘high but realistic expectations of students’. The provision of‘ constructive and useful feedback’ was also very important to the students. Knowledge of the curriculum and ability to teach at an appropriate level Similarly, 53/265 (20%) of the students commented on factors that also related to teaching skills. These included ‘a good knowledge of the curriculum and learning objectives and provision of homework’ and the importance of ‘structure’ within the teaching
Sydney medical students' ideal aributes of a good 1st year clinical tutor who is also a role model (N=265) 0%
20%
Encourages my learning.
19%
Is a very good diagnosc clinician.
72% 65%
23%
Has a posive outlook.
74% 62%
29% 15%
Disagree
100%
65%
26%
Is enthusiasc.
80%
80%
25%
Is inspiring.
Strongly Disagree
60%
29%
Models empathy, respect, compassion.
Shows good communicaon skills.
40%
83%
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
Figure 1. Closed-question survey responses for students regarding role modelling
session. Students consistently highlighted the importance of tutors to ‘teach at a level appropriate for students, with an understanding of how little first years know’ and ‘an ability to teach in a way that best suits their students’ needs’. Clinical skills and knowledge Rapport and empathy for patients Within the qualitative response, 15/265 (6%) students reported that a good role model would be ‘good at including the patient in the tutorial rather than having them as a “dummy” on the bed’, ‘display a good rapport with patients’ and be able to ‘empathise with patients’. Students also emphasised the importance of being provided with enough opportunities to interact with patients. Medical knowledge and clinical skills A small number of students (11/265; 4%) mentioned the importance of role models as tutors having ‘good clinical knowledge’ and ‘knowledge of theory behind clinical symptoms and signs’.
DISCUSSION Our findings illustrate students’ ideals regarding clinical tutors as role models. In accordance with current literature, students’ ideal attributes of role models included excellence in clinical knowledge
and skills, and personal attributes.1 Bedside teaching skills, such as communication skills, diagnostic skills and a patientcentred approach, displaying empathy, respect and compassion for patients, were all regarded by students as ideal attributes of a role model. Personal attributes, such as displaying a positive outlook and enthusiasm, were also highly regarded by students; however, the key attribute identified and emphasised by our students was teaching skills. Qualitative student feedback highlighted the importance of teaching skills in a good role model. The majority of student responses centred around the clinical tutor’s teaching abilities and dedication to teaching, as well as their ability to facilitate students’ learning needs. As expressed through qualitative responses, some students (22%) were concerned about the efforts and ability of tutors to develop a rapport with students, and the encouragement and constructive feedback offered towards the development of their learning. Accurate feedback is needed to narrow the gap between actual and desired performance.12 The extent to which students are able to fully engage and learn from clinical tutorials is dependent upon multiple factors, including the structure of the tutorial, the
136 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137
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3/7/2016 12:32:39 PM
attitudes of both the tutor and the students, and both the tutors’ and the students’ understanding of the learning objectives.10 Students (20%) expressed the concern that a tutor should have a good understanding of the medical curriculum, know exactly what level of knowledge a student might have and the ability of tutors to tailor to each students’ learning needs. The learning trajectory of each person is unique. Factors such as natural aptitude and past experience will vary greatly amongst students. This is particularly relevant for students entering a graduate-entry medical programme. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) indicates the volume and depth of learning possible by a student who is provided with appropriate instruction,11 highlighting the importance of the quality of supervision and guidance provided by the tutor and the learning environment. This can be challenging, with well-developed teaching skills required in order to provide appropriate learning opportunities within each students’ ZPD. As role models, clinical tutors serve to highlight the importance of students’ future roles as clinical teachers themselves; however, few clinicians have been formally taught how to teach students,13 and clinicians working in hospitals have large clinical demands that may impact on their ability to fulfil teaching roles. In order to preserve the quality of education, faculty members should ensure that education is supported as a core task in health
care. Medical Schools ultimately benefit by encouraging a culture of high-quality teaching and ensuring the development of future clinical tutors. The demonstration of excellence in teaching skills may help to solidify the importance of the students’ own roles as educators in their future medical careers.
CONCLUSION Many of the attributes associated with excellence in role modelling relate to learned skills, and certainly teaching skills can be learned. The importance of a patient-centred approach, and clinical knowledge and ability, should in no way be discarded; however, our study highlights the value students place upon actual teaching skills in their consideration of an ideal role model. By reflecting and developing teaching skills, clinical tutors can improve their impact on students as role models. This has important implications for medical schools in terms of developing the teaching abilities of their clinical tutors in line with the curriculum. REFERENCES 1. Kenny NP, Mann KV, MacLeod H. Role modelling in physicians’ professional formation: reconsidering an essential but untapped educational strategy. Acad Med 2003;78:1203–1210. 2. Passi V, Johnson S, Peile E, Wright S, Hafferty F, Johnson N. Doctor role modelling in medical education: BEME Guide No. 27. Med Teach 2013;35:e1422–e1436. 3. Hafferty FW. Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicine’s hidden curriculum. Acad Med 1998;73:403–407.
4. Swanwick T. Informal learning in postgraduate medical education: from cognitivism to ‘culturism’. Med Educ 2005;39(8):859–865. 5. Reuler JB, Nardone DA. Role modelling in medical education. West J Med 1994;160:335–337. 6. Elzubeir MA, Rizk DEE. Identifying characteristics that students, interns and residents look for in their role models. Med Educ 2001;35(3):272–277.
Clinical tutors serve to highlight the importance of students’ future roles as clinical teachers themselves
7. Joubert PM, Kruger C, Bergh AM, Pickworth GE, Van Staden CW, Roos JL, Schurink WJ, DuPreez RR, Grey SV, Lindeque BG. Medical students on the value of role models for developing ‘soft skills’ – ‘That’s the way you do it’. South African Psychiatry Review 2006;9:28–32. 8. Althouse LA, Stritter FT, Steiner BD. Attitudes and approaches of influential role models in clinical education. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract 1999;2: 111–122. 9. Creswell J. Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddler River, NJ: Merrill; 2002. 10. Pitkala K, Mantyranta T. Professional socialisation revised: medical students’ own conceptions related to adoption of the future physicians’ role – a qualitative study. Med Teach 2003;25: 155–160. 11. Vygotsky L. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1978. 12. Taras M. Summative and formative assessment – some theoretical reflections. Br J Educ Stud 2005;53:466–478. 13. Gibson DR, Campbell RM. Promoting effective teaching and learning: hospital consultants identify their needs. Med Educ 2000;34(2):126–130.
Corresponding author’s contact details: Dr Annette Burgess, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital level 4, Building 63, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
Funding: None. Conflicts of interest: None. Acknowledgements: None. Ethical approval: Ethics approval was obtained from The University of Sydney Research Ethics Committee. doi: 10.1111/tct.12397
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137 137
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Role modelling in medical education: the importance of teaching skills Annette Burgess1, Kim Oates2,3 and Kerry Goulston2 1
Central Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 2 Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 3 Clinical Excellence Commission, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Students see good role models as being able to provide a constructive learning environment
SUMMARY Objectives: By observation of role models, and participation in activities, students develop their attitudes, values and professional competencies. Literature suggests that clinical skills and knowledge, personality, and teaching skills are three main areas that students consider central to the identification of positive role models. The aim of this study was to explore junior medical students’ opinions of the ideal attributes of a good role model in clinical tutors.
Methods: The study was conducted with one cohort (n = 301) of students who had completed year 1 of the medical programme in 2013. All students were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding the ideal attributes of a good role model in a clinical tutor. The questionnaire consisted of seven closed items and one open-ended question. Results: The response rate to the questionnaire was 265/301 (88%). Although students found all three key areas important in a good role model, students
emphasised the importance of excellence in teaching skills. Specifically, students see good role models as being able to provide a constructive learning environment, a good understanding of the curriculum and an ability to cater to the learning needs of all students. Conclusion: While acknowledging the importance of a patient-centred approach, as well as clinical knowledge and skills, our findings reinforce the importance of the actual teaching abilities of role models within medical education.
134 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137
tct_12397.indd 134
3/7/2016 12:32:38 PM
INTRODUCTION
D
escribed as teaching by example and influencing students in an unintentional, unaware, informal and episodic manner,1 role modelling remains an elusive phenomenon in medical education, yet it is important to the professional development of students.2 By observation of role models, and participation in activities, students develop their attitudes, values and professional competencies.3 The role of educators, both in the classroom and in practice, is to foster students’ learning and to serve as a role model for their profession. Often referred to within professional education as the ‘hidden curriculum’, a lack of understanding exists regarding students’ perceptions of role modelling.1,3 Part of the role of a medical educator is to facilitate the process of socialisation into the medical profession, helping to create a sense of identity of the students’ current and future roles in medicine.4 Behaviours that appear successful to students are the ones that students learn, and these are the behaviours that exert an influence over students. Previous literature has identified several common factors that students consider key in the identification of positive role models. These include clinical skills and knowledge, personal attributes, and teaching skills.2 Although difficult to categorise specific characteristics of role models within ‘clinical skills and knowledge’, ‘personal attributes’ or ‘teaching skills’ without overlap, a recent systematic review by Passi et al. has provided guidance for this paper.2 Demonstration of clinical skills and knowledge at the bedside appears to be the most distinctive characteristic of an effective role model in medicine mentioned within the literature.2,5 A patientcentred approach to teaching, and humanistic behaviours encompassing empathy, respect
and compassion have all been identified as important to students.2,5 Additionally, personal attributes, such as enthusiasm, a positive outlook and outstanding interpersonal skills are considered by students as positive qualities in role models.6,7
(consultant), registrar (house staff) or general practitioner. The aim of this study was to explore junior medical students’ opinion of the key attributes of an ideal role model in clinical tutors.
Behaviours that appear successful to students are the ones that students learn
METHODS Teaching skills, with the provision of an encouraging and supportive learning environment, the development of useful teaching methods, a commitment to the individual academic development of students, and the development of a rapport with students have been identified in previous studies as being important to students.8 Additionally, the time spent teaching and the provision of an adequate amount of patient contact in the clinical setting have been closely associated with excellence in role modelling.9–11
CONTEXT Sydney Medical School offers a 4–year graduate entry medical programme, where bedside clinical tutorials commence within the first week of entry into medical school. One day per week, students attend one of six metropolitan teaching hospitals where their ‘parent clinical school’ is located. There, on a weekly basis, students take part in smallgroup bedside clinical tutorials. Students attend 1.5 hours of physical examination teaching and 1.5 hours of communications teaching. Groups consist of six or seven students, with one clinical tutor who is a senior specialist
The study was conducted with one cohort (n = 301) of students who had completed year 1 of the medical programme in 2013. At the start of year 2, in 2014, all students were asked to complete a questionnaire. Quantitative The questionnaire consisted of seven closed questions using a Likert scale of 1–5, with responses ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5). The questions were developed based on the positive characteristics of role models reported in the literature, as presented in Box 1.2,6, Qualitative The questionnaire also contained one open-ended question that simply asked, ‘What attributes do you think a good role model should have as a clinical tutor?’ The data were coded to identify recurrent themes. Once data had been coded and categorised into themes, the data within each theme were quantified in order to measure the theme prevalence.9 Ethics approval was obtained from The University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee. Informed written consent was gained from participants.
Box 1. Questions, using a five-point Likert scale I think the ideal attributes of a good role model in a clinical tutor would be a person who: • encourages my learning; • is a very good diagnostic clinician; • models empathy, respect, compassion; • is inspiring; • is enthusiastic; • has a positive outlook; • shows good communication skills. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137 135
tct_12397.indd 135
3/7/2016 12:32:39 PM
Students’ ideal attributes of role models included excellence in clinical knowledge and skills, and personal attributes
RESULTS The response rate to the questionnaire was 265/301 (88%). Of the respondents, 138 (52%) were male and 117 (44%) were female, and 10 (4%) did not identify their gender in the questionnaire. Quantitative responses Results for each of the seven closed questions are reported in Figure 1. Student responses indicate that all mentioned elements of role modelling were important to students, with the positive responses from students ranging from 91 to 99 per cent. Qualitative feedback Students’ qualitative feedback, where students responded to the question ‘What attributes do you think a good role model should have as a clinical tutor?’, fell into four main themes, each of which is categorised as ‘teaching skills’ or ‘clinical skills and knowledge’. Teaching skills Development of a rapport with students and provision of constructive feedback Almost a quarter (58/265; 22%) of students remarked on the importance of ‘the ability to encourage and relate to students’, to show ‘patience, understanding’, and an ‘interest in students’ development of learning’. They wanted tutors who would ‘command respect without scaring the students’, with ‘high but realistic expectations of students’. The provision of‘ constructive and useful feedback’ was also very important to the students. Knowledge of the curriculum and ability to teach at an appropriate level Similarly, 53/265 (20%) of the students commented on factors that also related to teaching skills. These included ‘a good knowledge of the curriculum and learning objectives and provision of homework’ and the importance of ‘structure’ within the teaching
Sydney medical students' ideal aributes of a good 1st year clinical tutor who is also a role model (N=265) 0%
20%
Encourages my learning.
19%
Is a very good diagnosc clinician.
72% 65%
23%
Has a posive outlook.
74% 62%
29% 15%
Disagree
100%
65%
26%
Is enthusiasc.
80%
80%
25%
Is inspiring.
Strongly Disagree
60%
29%
Models empathy, respect, compassion.
Shows good communicaon skills.
40%
83%
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
Figure 1. Closed-question survey responses for students regarding role modelling
session. Students consistently highlighted the importance of tutors to ‘teach at a level appropriate for students, with an understanding of how little first years know’ and ‘an ability to teach in a way that best suits their students’ needs’. Clinical skills and knowledge Rapport and empathy for patients Within the qualitative response, 15/265 (6%) students reported that a good role model would be ‘good at including the patient in the tutorial rather than having them as a “dummy” on the bed’, ‘display a good rapport with patients’ and be able to ‘empathise with patients’. Students also emphasised the importance of being provided with enough opportunities to interact with patients. Medical knowledge and clinical skills A small number of students (11/265; 4%) mentioned the importance of role models as tutors having ‘good clinical knowledge’ and ‘knowledge of theory behind clinical symptoms and signs’.
DISCUSSION Our findings illustrate students’ ideals regarding clinical tutors as role models. In accordance with current literature, students’ ideal attributes of role models included excellence in clinical knowledge
and skills, and personal attributes.1 Bedside teaching skills, such as communication skills, diagnostic skills and a patientcentred approach, displaying empathy, respect and compassion for patients, were all regarded by students as ideal attributes of a role model. Personal attributes, such as displaying a positive outlook and enthusiasm, were also highly regarded by students; however, the key attribute identified and emphasised by our students was teaching skills. Qualitative student feedback highlighted the importance of teaching skills in a good role model. The majority of student responses centred around the clinical tutor’s teaching abilities and dedication to teaching, as well as their ability to facilitate students’ learning needs. As expressed through qualitative responses, some students (22%) were concerned about the efforts and ability of tutors to develop a rapport with students, and the encouragement and constructive feedback offered towards the development of their learning. Accurate feedback is needed to narrow the gap between actual and desired performance.12 The extent to which students are able to fully engage and learn from clinical tutorials is dependent upon multiple factors, including the structure of the tutorial, the
136 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137
tct_12397.indd 136
3/7/2016 12:32:39 PM
attitudes of both the tutor and the students, and both the tutors’ and the students’ understanding of the learning objectives.10 Students (20%) expressed the concern that a tutor should have a good understanding of the medical curriculum, know exactly what level of knowledge a student might have and the ability of tutors to tailor to each students’ learning needs. The learning trajectory of each person is unique. Factors such as natural aptitude and past experience will vary greatly amongst students. This is particularly relevant for students entering a graduate-entry medical programme. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) indicates the volume and depth of learning possible by a student who is provided with appropriate instruction,11 highlighting the importance of the quality of supervision and guidance provided by the tutor and the learning environment. This can be challenging, with well-developed teaching skills required in order to provide appropriate learning opportunities within each students’ ZPD. As role models, clinical tutors serve to highlight the importance of students’ future roles as clinical teachers themselves; however, few clinicians have been formally taught how to teach students,13 and clinicians working in hospitals have large clinical demands that may impact on their ability to fulfil teaching roles. In order to preserve the quality of education, faculty members should ensure that education is supported as a core task in health
care. Medical Schools ultimately benefit by encouraging a culture of high-quality teaching and ensuring the development of future clinical tutors. The demonstration of excellence in teaching skills may help to solidify the importance of the students’ own roles as educators in their future medical careers.
CONCLUSION Many of the attributes associated with excellence in role modelling relate to learned skills, and certainly teaching skills can be learned. The importance of a patient-centred approach, and clinical knowledge and ability, should in no way be discarded; however, our study highlights the value students place upon actual teaching skills in their consideration of an ideal role model. By reflecting and developing teaching skills, clinical tutors can improve their impact on students as role models. This has important implications for medical schools in terms of developing the teaching abilities of their clinical tutors in line with the curriculum. REFERENCES 1. Kenny NP, Mann KV, MacLeod H. Role modelling in physicians’ professional formation: reconsidering an essential but untapped educational strategy. Acad Med 2003;78:1203–1210. 2. Passi V, Johnson S, Peile E, Wright S, Hafferty F, Johnson N. Doctor role modelling in medical education: BEME Guide No. 27. Med Teach 2013;35:e1422–e1436. 3. Hafferty FW. Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicine’s hidden curriculum. Acad Med 1998;73:403–407.
4. Swanwick T. Informal learning in postgraduate medical education: from cognitivism to ‘culturism’. Med Educ 2005;39(8):859–865. 5. Reuler JB, Nardone DA. Role modelling in medical education. West J Med 1994;160:335–337. 6. Elzubeir MA, Rizk DEE. Identifying characteristics that students, interns and residents look for in their role models. Med Educ 2001;35(3):272–277.
Clinical tutors serve to highlight the importance of students’ future roles as clinical teachers themselves
7. Joubert PM, Kruger C, Bergh AM, Pickworth GE, Van Staden CW, Roos JL, Schurink WJ, DuPreez RR, Grey SV, Lindeque BG. Medical students on the value of role models for developing ‘soft skills’ – ‘That’s the way you do it’. South African Psychiatry Review 2006;9:28–32. 8. Althouse LA, Stritter FT, Steiner BD. Attitudes and approaches of influential role models in clinical education. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract 1999;2: 111–122. 9. Creswell J. Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddler River, NJ: Merrill; 2002. 10. Pitkala K, Mantyranta T. Professional socialisation revised: medical students’ own conceptions related to adoption of the future physicians’ role – a qualitative study. Med Teach 2003;25: 155–160. 11. Vygotsky L. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1978. 12. Taras M. Summative and formative assessment – some theoretical reflections. Br J Educ Stud 2005;53:466–478. 13. Gibson DR, Campbell RM. Promoting effective teaching and learning: hospital consultants identify their needs. Med Educ 2000;34(2):126–130.
Corresponding author’s contact details: Dr Annette Burgess, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital level 4, Building 63, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
Funding: None. Conflicts of interest: None. Acknowledgements: None. Ethical approval: Ethics approval was obtained from The University of Sydney Research Ethics Committee. doi: 10.1111/tct.12397
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. THE CLINICAL TEACHER 2016; 13: 134–137 137
tct_12397.indd 137
3/7/2016 12:32:39 PM
