Culture, Health & Sexuality, 2015 Vol. 17, No. 8, 1049–1056, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2015.1015614
SHORT REPORT Religion-related stigma and discrimination experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students at a South African rural-based university Azwihangwisi Helen Mavhandu-Mudzusi* and Peter Thomas Sandy Department of Health Studies, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa (Received 8 April 2014; accepted 2 February 2015) This paper reports on the stigma and discrimination experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students at a rural university in South Africa. Twenty lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students recruited through snowball sampling participated in this study. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used as a framework for data analysis. Findings indicate that religion-related stigma and discrimination are common at a rural-based university in South Africa. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are typically ascribed a range of labels, including ‘sinners’, ‘devils’ and ‘demon possessed’. They are also exposed to a number of discriminatory acts, such as the denial of financial and healthcare services and threats of and/or actual rape. Study participants reported attempts to convert lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students’ sexual orientation which involved the use of intervention in the form of prayers. Derogatory labelling and associated discriminatory acts, for example the threat of rape, led many students to conceal their sexual identity, not attend specific classes, terminate their studies and even attempt suicide. Universities should develop policies to promote greater social inclusion and the acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. Policies should also specify the steps or approaches to be taken in addressing discriminatory practices. Keywords: homophobia; lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students; religion; rural-based university; South Africa
Introduction Stigma and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students has been documented in South African rural universities (Mavhandu-Mudzusi and Netshandama 2013; Mavhandu-Mudzusi 2014) despite the fact that South Africa has laws and policies not only to safeguard the human rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people, but also to promote both social inclusion and acceptance (Human Rights Watch 2011). A range of factors contribute to this stigmatisation and associated discrimination, including religious beliefs and societal values and norms, which together shape people’s attitudes and behaviours toward sexuality and sexual relationships (Ngcobo 2007; Aggleton 2009). A study by Whitehead (2010) reveals how religious beliefs and affiliations in particular can significant influence attitudes toward same-sex sexual relationships.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2015 Taylor & Francis
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In countries like South Africa, organised religion serves as a powerful voice speaking out against the provision of equal rights (e.g. rights to association and marriage) to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people (Afshar 2006). Some religious organisations tend to treat non-heterosexual individuals differently from their heterosexual counterparts irrespective of laws promoting equality. Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals may be banned from attending church following the disclosure of their sexuality, a practice linked to the view that being lesbian or gay is sinful (Sumerau 2012). It is perhaps for this reason that a variety of fundamentalist religious groups wish to dissociate themselves from sexual and gender minorities (Ellis 2009). Negative perceptions of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people are also prevalent among university students. In a recent study by Mwamba (2009), heterosexual students with strong religious beliefs showed more negative attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students as compared to the rest of the student community. Similar forms of negativity towards lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people have been noted among heterosexual students who regularly attend places of worship (Froese, Bader, and Smith 2008). Instances of sexual and physical abuse, such as violence towards lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students, have been reported in the literature from many countries (Human Rights Watch 2009). In the case in South Africa, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender university students may be exposed to a range of stigmatising and discriminatory practices from their heterosexual counterparts. Some of the discriminatory practices reported are influenced by students’ religious affiliations and beliefs (Human Rights Watch 2009). Even though stigma and discriminatory practices towards lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are common in rural universities, there are no published studies to date that explore the association between religion and stigma and discrimination in these settings. Methods Design This study used Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to gain insight into the association between religion and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender-related stigma and discrimination. Such an approach requires researchers to go beyond the surface description of phenomena to explore the way in which meanings arise through participant-researcher interactions (Smith 2005). Access to these meanings is made possible if researchers adopt a hermeneutic and questioning approach. In relation to such an approach, researchers are encouraged to stand alongside participants and ask critical questions about the things they say. Adopting an insider perspective also requires researchers to seek to understand participants’ experiences and the meanings they attribute to them within a specific sociocultural context (Smith 2005; Langdridge 2007). Study setting The study was conducted in a rural South African university in Limpopo Province. The institution, which was established during the apartheid era, caters largely for students from a wide range of local rural communities. The majority of the students at the university concerned, however, come from an overtly Christian background. The university has an HIV unit that provides support to students for HIV-related matters. Examples of such support include counselling and testing for HIV, the provision of condoms and post-exposure prophylaxis. This unit was used as the base for recruitment.
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Ethical issues Ethical clearance to conduct the study was obtained from the Health, Safety and Research Ethics Committee of the study site. Informed consent to participate in the study was also sought and obtained from each participant. Participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the study at any time and that they could do so without having to give a reason. Because of the sensitive nature of the subject studied and difficulty in accessing participants, we utilised snowball sampling. Sampling Sampling commenced when a female bisexual student, who reported having sex with and being attracted to both women and men, visited the HIV unit for HIV counselling and testing. One of the researchers of this study, the first author of this paper (AHM), worked in the unit during the study period as a co-ordinator. Her primary remit concerned the provision of HIV counselling and testing and the co-ordination of HIV/AIDS services on the university campus. The aim and significance of the study was explained to the student, including eligibility criteria for participation. These included: (1) being a student currently registered at a South African rural-based university, and a member of the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender student community for at least two years and (2) being willing and feeling safe to share experiences and views relating to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender stigma and discrimination. The student in question offered to refer other lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students who met the criteria for participation in the study to the HIV unit. A total of 20 students eventually participated in the study. Sample size was determined by category saturation, which refers to the point at which the data collection process fails to yield new information relevant to the study (Sandy 2013). The final sample consisted of the following self-identified categories: five lesbians, three bisexual females, three transgender (female-to-male), two transgender (male-to-female), two bisexual males and five gays. The age of the students sampled ranged between 19 and 25 years. Data collection Data were collected between June and October 2012 by the first author of this paper. Data collection took the form of individual semi-structured interviews using an interview guide designed in keeping with IPA principles. All interviews began from the following statement: ‘please tell me about religion-based stigma and discrimination you have experienced as a student because of your gender and sexual orientation’. Probes and prompts were used to elicit more detailed information from participants. Each interview was audio-taped and lasted for about 45 to 60 minutes. Field notes were also taken to capture and describe non-verbal cues observed during interviews. Data analysis All audio-recorded interview data were transcribed verbatim into written text. The 20 transcripts were analysed independently by two researchers using Smith’s (2005) IPA data analysis framework. Analysis was conducted iteratively throughout the data collection process until category saturation was achieved. Each researcher read each transcript several times to familiarise themselves with the data and made notes in the process. Emergent themes were identified and related themes were clustered into superordinate categories. A master table of themes for each transcript was developed containing
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superordinate themes, sub-themes and associated quotations to illustrate where in the transcripts the themes could be found. All the master tables of themes were then compared for similarities and differences. This process led to the development of a single master table. The authors of this paper then met to compare and discuss their respective master table of themes. This discussion resulted in the development of a final master table, composed of superordinate themes, sub-themes and associated excerpts from transcripts. Findings Three superordinate themes emerged from data analysis: (1) religion-related stigma and discrimination, (2) processes of ‘heterosexualisation’ and (3) the impact of religion-related stigma and discrimination on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. In what follows, excerpts from participants’ transcripts are used to support discussion of the identified themes. Stigma and discrimination Participants repeatedly reported that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are stigmatised and frequently discriminated against by the university community. Participants also mentioned that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals are often labelled as sinners, satanic or ‘demon possessed’: Students often tell me that I am demon possessed as they claim that homosexuality is against God’s will. They refer to me and my friends as sinners, Lucifer, Adam and Steve, Eve and Eve. So, they often exclude us from their social and educational activities. (Lesbian participant)
Most participants claimed that the discriminatory acts lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are exposed to are mainly influenced by people’s religious beliefs and practices. One participant illustrated this assertion with a personal experience: I found a picture of two men kissing on my desk one Monday morning. Just below the picture was my name and that of my sexual partner. A statement was also written in red below our names. It reads: if the devil do not fry you, we shall do it ourselves. (Gay participant)
All participants highlighted that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students were not only stigmatised and discriminated against by heterosexual students, but also by academic staff who held strong religious affiliations: One lecturer in particular often refers to homosexuality as the ‘worst’ sin. She sometimes spends an entire class period talking about how all homosexual individuals will burn in hell with Satan. (Transgender female-to-male participant)
Most participants also reported similar experiences of discrimination and stigmatisation from administrative staff and healthcare workers. They described a number of occasions where non-heterosexual students were denied services such as financial support and education materials by administrative staff and lecturers because of their sexual orientation. There was agreement among all participants that the majority of the university community, including lecturers and healthcare workers, perceived being lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender as a sin, and that to support gender and sexual minorities was to promote an act of sin. Some staff members said that any form of support to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals would anger God and be a bad omen for the university. ‘Heterosexualisation’ Another theme that emerged during the analysis of participants’ narratives was that of ‘heterosexualisation’, a term coined to describe strategies to transform lesbian, gay,
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bisexual and transgender individuals into heterosexuals. According to participants, many of these strategies were religiously motivated. Respondents went on to describe spiritual and physical interventions such as offering prayers and sprinkling potions and solutions on people to drive away the evil spirits that caused them to become non-heterosexual: If Venda or Zionist churchwomen suspect that you are non-heterosexual. They will pray for you and even give you their tea to drink as well as sprinkle water on you. These actions are taken to drive away the demons in the non-heterosexual individual. (Lesbian participant)
Some participants believed that similar attempts at deliverance or rescue could be seen both in the local community and on the university campus. Participants claimed that efforts to cast out the ‘devil of homosexuality’ were generally carried out both by students and academic staff: A female lecturer and I prayed together in her office. The following week, she requested that I go with her to an all-night miracle service. She stressed that these prayers will help to cast away the demon of homosexuality that resided in me. (Transgender female-to-male participant)
In addition to such spiritual interventions, participants also talked about physical approaches to ‘heterosexualisation’ they have experienced. Participants mentioned that some lesbian students have experienced threats of rape, or actual rape, as perpetrators tended to believe that such actions in the form of ‘corrective rape’ would correct or change the sexual orientation of the women concerned: Some male students threatened to rape me. They said that it would make me ‘a real lady’. They stressed that corrective rape was the best way to change my satanic behaviour. (Lesbian participant)
In addition to threats of rape, some participants narrated their experiences of threats of murder. They talked of instances where some members of the university community described their intentions to eradicate the entire lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender student population on campus. These threats, some participants stressed, were often built on religious beliefs. One of the participants described her personal experience of the threats she had encountered on the university campus as follows: If this were in Uganda I would have beheaded you to prevent you from bringing demonic spirits in this university. As for your friend, I would have stoned her to death. (Transgender female-to-male participant)
Impact of religion-related stigma and discrimination Participants talked about the impact of religiously-motivated stigma and discrimination on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. They claimed that stigmatising and discriminatory acts could have a negative impact on the physical, social, emotional and spiritual wellbeing. In relation to emotional wellbeing, some participants reported that some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students refused to attend the classes of specific lecturers in order to avoid humiliation: I feel humiliated when the lecturer sometimes tells me that I am demon possessed. This affected my performance in class. So, I no longer attend her classes. (Lesbian participant)
Apart from poor performance and reluctance to attend classes, participants described lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students who intended to terminate their studies because they had been described as demons and sinners: Next year I am not coming back to this university. I am tired of being called a sinner, being labelled as demon and called all terrible names. (Gay participant)
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Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students were reported to have already terminated their studies to reduce anxieties related to labelling, stigmatisation and discrimination. Participants stressed that other lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students coped with their anxiety by hiding or concealing their sexuality and occasionally acting as heterosexuals. This dual type of sexual expression resulted in a form of ‘imposed bisexuality’. Not only did it put some individuals at a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, but it also increased the risk of unwanted pregnancy. Added to this, participants talked about suicidal thoughts. They stressed that being labelled, stigmatised and discriminated against had made them to think of committing suicide: My friends on campus have been ignoring me since they became aware of my sexuality. I was also chased out of my local church by the pastor when he became aware of my sexuality. This made me try to kill myself as I saw at the time no purpose in life. (Transgender male-to-female participant)
Participants claimed that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students find the ascription of negative labels disrespectful and dehumanising. According to some participants, such feelings had made some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students stop attending their respective churches: The pastor always talks about verses that condemn homosexuality in church. So, I decided not to go to church any longer. But not going to church sometimes make to feel spiritually weak. (Gay participant)
Discussion The outcomes of this study reveal how lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are labelled, stigmatised and discriminated against by heterosexual students and university employees. Such practices are against South African law and policies that advocate for equality and social inclusion and acceptance of all, irrespective of people’s gender, sexual orientation and religious affiliation (Human Rights Watch 2011). Labelling and stigmatisation can have a negative impact on those labelled. The impact is even greater if people are labelled and stigmatised by those who are supposed to offer support and safeguard the human rights of individuals. Participants reported instances of being labelled and discriminated against by lecturers and even pastors. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students were denied access to, for example, the university financial support system and education materials by administrative staff and lecturers, respectively. This was the result of these university employees perceiving being lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender as a sin. Other studies, like that of Sumerau (2012), have also reported non-heterosexual relationships being viewed as mortal sins. Frequent exposure to such labels caused some students to terminate their studies and even consider suicide. Findings from this study point to the need to develop and implement better policies to safeguard the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. It is critical for these policies to focus on promoting social inclusion and acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. They should also specify the steps that need to be followed in addressing identified discriminatory practices. Also revealed by this study is the need for education for university staff, students and local community members (including religious leaders) on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender issues and concerns. Workshops with lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals acting as co-facilitators may ensure a more adequate understanding of sexual diversity.
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There are, of course, limitations to a study such as this, conducted in a single setting in rural area of South Africa. Experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students in the university concerned may differ from those of students in other rural universities. The study’s adoption of snowball sampling may have led to select groups of students with similar experiences taking part in the study. The findings should be interpreted with these limitations in mind. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the university concerned for permission to conduct this research. Special appreciation is extended to the students who participated in the study.
Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
References Afshar, A. 2006. “The Anti-gay Movement in the United States: The Framing of Religion.” Essex Human Rights Review 3 (1): 64– 79. Aggleton, P. 2009. “Researching Same-sex Sexuality and HIV Prevention.” In From Social Silence to Social Science: Same– Sex Sexuality, HIV & AIDS and Gender in South Africa, edited by V. Reddy, T. Sandfort, and L. Rispel, 2 – 13. Cape Town: HSCR Press. Ellis, S. J. 2009. “Diversity and Inclusivity at University: A Survey of the Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans (LGBT) Students in the UK.” Higher Education 57 (6): 723– 739. Froese, P., C. Bader, and B. Smith. 2008. “Political Tolerance and God’s Wrath in the United States.” Sociology of Religion 69 (1): 29 – 44. Human Rights Watch. 2009. Together, Apart, Organizing around Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Worldwide. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. 2011. “We’ll Show You You’re a Woman”. Violence and Discrimination against Black Lesbians and Transgender Men in South Africa. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Langdridge, D. 2007. Phenomenological Psychology: Theory, Research and Method. Harlow: Pearson Education. Mavhandu-Mudzusi, A. H. 2014. “Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Students Regarding Sports Participation in a South African Rural-based University.” African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance 20 (2.2): 710– 720. Mavhandu-Mudzusi, A. H., and V. O. Netshandama. 2013. “The Attitudes of Students Towards the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Community: A Case of a South African, Rural-based University.” African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, Supplement 1 (1): 56 – 66. Mwamba, K. 2009. “Attitudes and Beliefs about Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage among a Sample of South African Students.” Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 37 (6): 801– 804. Ngcobo, N. P. 2007. Difficulties Faced by Homosexual Students at the University of Zululand: A Phenomenological Explication, Unpublished Masters degree thesis. South Africa: University of Zululand. Sandy, P. T. 2013. “Motives for Self-harm: Views of Nurses in a Secure Unit.” International Nursing Review 60 (3): 358– 365. Smith, J. A. 2005. “Semi-structured Interviewing and Qualitative Analysis.” In Rethinking Methods in Psychology, edited by J. A. Smith, R. Harre, and L. van Langenhove, 9 – 26. London: SAGE. Sumerau, J. E. 2012. “‘That’s What a Man is Supposed to Do’: Compensatory Manhood Acts in an LGBT Christian Church.” Gender & Society 26 (3): 461–487. Whitehead, A. L. 2010. “Sacred Rites and Civil Rights: Religion’s Effect on Attitudes Toward Same-Sex Unions and the Perceived Cause of Homosexuality.” Social Science Quarterly 91 (1): 63 – 79.
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Re´sume´ Cet article rend compte d’une e´tude sur le stigma et la discrimination ve´cus par des e´tudiant(e)s lesbiennes, gays, bisexuel(le)s et transgenre(s) (LGBT) fre´quentant une universite´ situe´e dans une re´gion rurale de l’Afrique du Sud. Vingt e´tudiants LGBT recrute´s selon l’e´chantillonnage en boule de neige ont participe´ a` l’enqueˆte. La me´thode d’analyse phe´nome´nologique a servi de cadre interpre´tatif pour les donne´es. Les re´sultats indiquent que le stigma et la discrimination lie´s a` la religion sont courants dans une universite´ situe´e dans une zone rurale en Afrique du Sud. Ge´ne´ralement, on y attribue aux e´tudiants LGBT une se´rie d’e´tiquettes telles que « pe´cheurs/ pe´cheresses », « diables/diablesses » et « posse´de´(e)s par le de´mon ». Ces e´tudiants sont e´galement expose´s a` un certain nombre d’actes discriminatoires comme le refus de services financiers et de sante´, des menaces de viol et/ou des viols. Les participants a` l’e´tude ont rapporte´ avoir subi des tentatives de conversion de leur orientation sexuelle a` travers des interventions comme la prie`re. Les e´tiquettes pe´joratives et les actes discriminatoires associe´s, tels les menaces de viol, conduisaient beaucoup d’entre eux a` cacher leur identite´ sexuelle, e´viter certains cours pre´cis, interrompre leurs e´tudes, voire tenter de se suicider. Les universite´s doivent e´laborer des politiques pour renforcer la promotion d’une inte´gration sociale et d’une acceptation des e´tudiants LGBT. Ces politiques doivent aussi pre´ciser par quelles e´tapes passer et sur quelles approches s’appuyer pour s’attaquer aux pratiques discriminatoires.
Resumen El presente artı´culo da cuenta de la estigmatizacio´n y la discriminacio´n de que son objeto estudiantes lesbianas, gais, bisexuales y transge´neros (lgbt) inscritos en una universidad del a´rea rural de Suda´frica. En este estudio participaron 20 estudiantes lgbt, quienes fueron seleccionados mediante un muestreo de bola de nieve. El marco conceptual utilizado para el ana´lisis de los datos obtenidos fue el Ana´lisis Interpretativo Fenomenolo´gico. Los resultados sen˜alan que la discriminacio´n y el estigma basados en la religio´n son comunes en dicha universidad. En este sentido, a los estudiantes lgbt frecuentemente se les endilga una amplia gama de etiquetas, por ejemplo, las de “pecadores”, “diablos” y “poseı´dos por demonios”. Asimismo, son objeto de numerosos actos discriminatorios, entre los que se encuentra el rechazo de sus solicitudes de servicios financieros y de salud o amenazas de violacio´n y el cumplimiento de tales intimidaciones. Quienes participaron en el estudio refieren intentos de convertirlos en te´rminos de su orientacio´n sexual, a trave´s de intervenciones que cobran forma mediante oraciones. Las etiquetas peyorativas y los actos discriminatorios asociados a estas, como la amenaza de violacio´n, determinaron que muchos estudiantes se vieran obligados a ocultar su identidad sexual, a no asistir a cursos especı´ficos, a poner fin a sus estudios e, incluso, a intentar el suicidio. Se concluye que las universidades debera´n impulsar polı´ticas encaminadas a promover mayor inclusio´n social y la aceptacio´n de los estudiantes lgbt. Al respecto, las polı´ticas correspondientes debera´n delinear los pasos o los enfoques que sera´n adoptados para hacer frente a las pra´cticas discriminatorias.
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SHORT REPORT Religion-related stigma and discrimination experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students at a South African rural-based university Azwihangwisi Helen Mavhandu-Mudzusi* and Peter Thomas Sandy Department of Health Studies, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa (Received 8 April 2014; accepted 2 February 2015) This paper reports on the stigma and discrimination experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students at a rural university in South Africa. Twenty lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students recruited through snowball sampling participated in this study. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used as a framework for data analysis. Findings indicate that religion-related stigma and discrimination are common at a rural-based university in South Africa. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are typically ascribed a range of labels, including ‘sinners’, ‘devils’ and ‘demon possessed’. They are also exposed to a number of discriminatory acts, such as the denial of financial and healthcare services and threats of and/or actual rape. Study participants reported attempts to convert lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students’ sexual orientation which involved the use of intervention in the form of prayers. Derogatory labelling and associated discriminatory acts, for example the threat of rape, led many students to conceal their sexual identity, not attend specific classes, terminate their studies and even attempt suicide. Universities should develop policies to promote greater social inclusion and the acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. Policies should also specify the steps or approaches to be taken in addressing discriminatory practices. Keywords: homophobia; lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students; religion; rural-based university; South Africa
Introduction Stigma and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students has been documented in South African rural universities (Mavhandu-Mudzusi and Netshandama 2013; Mavhandu-Mudzusi 2014) despite the fact that South Africa has laws and policies not only to safeguard the human rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people, but also to promote both social inclusion and acceptance (Human Rights Watch 2011). A range of factors contribute to this stigmatisation and associated discrimination, including religious beliefs and societal values and norms, which together shape people’s attitudes and behaviours toward sexuality and sexual relationships (Ngcobo 2007; Aggleton 2009). A study by Whitehead (2010) reveals how religious beliefs and affiliations in particular can significant influence attitudes toward same-sex sexual relationships.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2015 Taylor & Francis
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In countries like South Africa, organised religion serves as a powerful voice speaking out against the provision of equal rights (e.g. rights to association and marriage) to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people (Afshar 2006). Some religious organisations tend to treat non-heterosexual individuals differently from their heterosexual counterparts irrespective of laws promoting equality. Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals may be banned from attending church following the disclosure of their sexuality, a practice linked to the view that being lesbian or gay is sinful (Sumerau 2012). It is perhaps for this reason that a variety of fundamentalist religious groups wish to dissociate themselves from sexual and gender minorities (Ellis 2009). Negative perceptions of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people are also prevalent among university students. In a recent study by Mwamba (2009), heterosexual students with strong religious beliefs showed more negative attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students as compared to the rest of the student community. Similar forms of negativity towards lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people have been noted among heterosexual students who regularly attend places of worship (Froese, Bader, and Smith 2008). Instances of sexual and physical abuse, such as violence towards lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students, have been reported in the literature from many countries (Human Rights Watch 2009). In the case in South Africa, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender university students may be exposed to a range of stigmatising and discriminatory practices from their heterosexual counterparts. Some of the discriminatory practices reported are influenced by students’ religious affiliations and beliefs (Human Rights Watch 2009). Even though stigma and discriminatory practices towards lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are common in rural universities, there are no published studies to date that explore the association between religion and stigma and discrimination in these settings. Methods Design This study used Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to gain insight into the association between religion and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender-related stigma and discrimination. Such an approach requires researchers to go beyond the surface description of phenomena to explore the way in which meanings arise through participant-researcher interactions (Smith 2005). Access to these meanings is made possible if researchers adopt a hermeneutic and questioning approach. In relation to such an approach, researchers are encouraged to stand alongside participants and ask critical questions about the things they say. Adopting an insider perspective also requires researchers to seek to understand participants’ experiences and the meanings they attribute to them within a specific sociocultural context (Smith 2005; Langdridge 2007). Study setting The study was conducted in a rural South African university in Limpopo Province. The institution, which was established during the apartheid era, caters largely for students from a wide range of local rural communities. The majority of the students at the university concerned, however, come from an overtly Christian background. The university has an HIV unit that provides support to students for HIV-related matters. Examples of such support include counselling and testing for HIV, the provision of condoms and post-exposure prophylaxis. This unit was used as the base for recruitment.
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Ethical issues Ethical clearance to conduct the study was obtained from the Health, Safety and Research Ethics Committee of the study site. Informed consent to participate in the study was also sought and obtained from each participant. Participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the study at any time and that they could do so without having to give a reason. Because of the sensitive nature of the subject studied and difficulty in accessing participants, we utilised snowball sampling. Sampling Sampling commenced when a female bisexual student, who reported having sex with and being attracted to both women and men, visited the HIV unit for HIV counselling and testing. One of the researchers of this study, the first author of this paper (AHM), worked in the unit during the study period as a co-ordinator. Her primary remit concerned the provision of HIV counselling and testing and the co-ordination of HIV/AIDS services on the university campus. The aim and significance of the study was explained to the student, including eligibility criteria for participation. These included: (1) being a student currently registered at a South African rural-based university, and a member of the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender student community for at least two years and (2) being willing and feeling safe to share experiences and views relating to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender stigma and discrimination. The student in question offered to refer other lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students who met the criteria for participation in the study to the HIV unit. A total of 20 students eventually participated in the study. Sample size was determined by category saturation, which refers to the point at which the data collection process fails to yield new information relevant to the study (Sandy 2013). The final sample consisted of the following self-identified categories: five lesbians, three bisexual females, three transgender (female-to-male), two transgender (male-to-female), two bisexual males and five gays. The age of the students sampled ranged between 19 and 25 years. Data collection Data were collected between June and October 2012 by the first author of this paper. Data collection took the form of individual semi-structured interviews using an interview guide designed in keeping with IPA principles. All interviews began from the following statement: ‘please tell me about religion-based stigma and discrimination you have experienced as a student because of your gender and sexual orientation’. Probes and prompts were used to elicit more detailed information from participants. Each interview was audio-taped and lasted for about 45 to 60 minutes. Field notes were also taken to capture and describe non-verbal cues observed during interviews. Data analysis All audio-recorded interview data were transcribed verbatim into written text. The 20 transcripts were analysed independently by two researchers using Smith’s (2005) IPA data analysis framework. Analysis was conducted iteratively throughout the data collection process until category saturation was achieved. Each researcher read each transcript several times to familiarise themselves with the data and made notes in the process. Emergent themes were identified and related themes were clustered into superordinate categories. A master table of themes for each transcript was developed containing
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superordinate themes, sub-themes and associated quotations to illustrate where in the transcripts the themes could be found. All the master tables of themes were then compared for similarities and differences. This process led to the development of a single master table. The authors of this paper then met to compare and discuss their respective master table of themes. This discussion resulted in the development of a final master table, composed of superordinate themes, sub-themes and associated excerpts from transcripts. Findings Three superordinate themes emerged from data analysis: (1) religion-related stigma and discrimination, (2) processes of ‘heterosexualisation’ and (3) the impact of religion-related stigma and discrimination on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. In what follows, excerpts from participants’ transcripts are used to support discussion of the identified themes. Stigma and discrimination Participants repeatedly reported that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are stigmatised and frequently discriminated against by the university community. Participants also mentioned that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals are often labelled as sinners, satanic or ‘demon possessed’: Students often tell me that I am demon possessed as they claim that homosexuality is against God’s will. They refer to me and my friends as sinners, Lucifer, Adam and Steve, Eve and Eve. So, they often exclude us from their social and educational activities. (Lesbian participant)
Most participants claimed that the discriminatory acts lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are exposed to are mainly influenced by people’s religious beliefs and practices. One participant illustrated this assertion with a personal experience: I found a picture of two men kissing on my desk one Monday morning. Just below the picture was my name and that of my sexual partner. A statement was also written in red below our names. It reads: if the devil do not fry you, we shall do it ourselves. (Gay participant)
All participants highlighted that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students were not only stigmatised and discriminated against by heterosexual students, but also by academic staff who held strong religious affiliations: One lecturer in particular often refers to homosexuality as the ‘worst’ sin. She sometimes spends an entire class period talking about how all homosexual individuals will burn in hell with Satan. (Transgender female-to-male participant)
Most participants also reported similar experiences of discrimination and stigmatisation from administrative staff and healthcare workers. They described a number of occasions where non-heterosexual students were denied services such as financial support and education materials by administrative staff and lecturers because of their sexual orientation. There was agreement among all participants that the majority of the university community, including lecturers and healthcare workers, perceived being lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender as a sin, and that to support gender and sexual minorities was to promote an act of sin. Some staff members said that any form of support to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals would anger God and be a bad omen for the university. ‘Heterosexualisation’ Another theme that emerged during the analysis of participants’ narratives was that of ‘heterosexualisation’, a term coined to describe strategies to transform lesbian, gay,
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bisexual and transgender individuals into heterosexuals. According to participants, many of these strategies were religiously motivated. Respondents went on to describe spiritual and physical interventions such as offering prayers and sprinkling potions and solutions on people to drive away the evil spirits that caused them to become non-heterosexual: If Venda or Zionist churchwomen suspect that you are non-heterosexual. They will pray for you and even give you their tea to drink as well as sprinkle water on you. These actions are taken to drive away the demons in the non-heterosexual individual. (Lesbian participant)
Some participants believed that similar attempts at deliverance or rescue could be seen both in the local community and on the university campus. Participants claimed that efforts to cast out the ‘devil of homosexuality’ were generally carried out both by students and academic staff: A female lecturer and I prayed together in her office. The following week, she requested that I go with her to an all-night miracle service. She stressed that these prayers will help to cast away the demon of homosexuality that resided in me. (Transgender female-to-male participant)
In addition to such spiritual interventions, participants also talked about physical approaches to ‘heterosexualisation’ they have experienced. Participants mentioned that some lesbian students have experienced threats of rape, or actual rape, as perpetrators tended to believe that such actions in the form of ‘corrective rape’ would correct or change the sexual orientation of the women concerned: Some male students threatened to rape me. They said that it would make me ‘a real lady’. They stressed that corrective rape was the best way to change my satanic behaviour. (Lesbian participant)
In addition to threats of rape, some participants narrated their experiences of threats of murder. They talked of instances where some members of the university community described their intentions to eradicate the entire lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender student population on campus. These threats, some participants stressed, were often built on religious beliefs. One of the participants described her personal experience of the threats she had encountered on the university campus as follows: If this were in Uganda I would have beheaded you to prevent you from bringing demonic spirits in this university. As for your friend, I would have stoned her to death. (Transgender female-to-male participant)
Impact of religion-related stigma and discrimination Participants talked about the impact of religiously-motivated stigma and discrimination on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. They claimed that stigmatising and discriminatory acts could have a negative impact on the physical, social, emotional and spiritual wellbeing. In relation to emotional wellbeing, some participants reported that some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students refused to attend the classes of specific lecturers in order to avoid humiliation: I feel humiliated when the lecturer sometimes tells me that I am demon possessed. This affected my performance in class. So, I no longer attend her classes. (Lesbian participant)
Apart from poor performance and reluctance to attend classes, participants described lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students who intended to terminate their studies because they had been described as demons and sinners: Next year I am not coming back to this university. I am tired of being called a sinner, being labelled as demon and called all terrible names. (Gay participant)
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Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students were reported to have already terminated their studies to reduce anxieties related to labelling, stigmatisation and discrimination. Participants stressed that other lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students coped with their anxiety by hiding or concealing their sexuality and occasionally acting as heterosexuals. This dual type of sexual expression resulted in a form of ‘imposed bisexuality’. Not only did it put some individuals at a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, but it also increased the risk of unwanted pregnancy. Added to this, participants talked about suicidal thoughts. They stressed that being labelled, stigmatised and discriminated against had made them to think of committing suicide: My friends on campus have been ignoring me since they became aware of my sexuality. I was also chased out of my local church by the pastor when he became aware of my sexuality. This made me try to kill myself as I saw at the time no purpose in life. (Transgender male-to-female participant)
Participants claimed that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students find the ascription of negative labels disrespectful and dehumanising. According to some participants, such feelings had made some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students stop attending their respective churches: The pastor always talks about verses that condemn homosexuality in church. So, I decided not to go to church any longer. But not going to church sometimes make to feel spiritually weak. (Gay participant)
Discussion The outcomes of this study reveal how lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students are labelled, stigmatised and discriminated against by heterosexual students and university employees. Such practices are against South African law and policies that advocate for equality and social inclusion and acceptance of all, irrespective of people’s gender, sexual orientation and religious affiliation (Human Rights Watch 2011). Labelling and stigmatisation can have a negative impact on those labelled. The impact is even greater if people are labelled and stigmatised by those who are supposed to offer support and safeguard the human rights of individuals. Participants reported instances of being labelled and discriminated against by lecturers and even pastors. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students were denied access to, for example, the university financial support system and education materials by administrative staff and lecturers, respectively. This was the result of these university employees perceiving being lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender as a sin. Other studies, like that of Sumerau (2012), have also reported non-heterosexual relationships being viewed as mortal sins. Frequent exposure to such labels caused some students to terminate their studies and even consider suicide. Findings from this study point to the need to develop and implement better policies to safeguard the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. It is critical for these policies to focus on promoting social inclusion and acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students. They should also specify the steps that need to be followed in addressing identified discriminatory practices. Also revealed by this study is the need for education for university staff, students and local community members (including religious leaders) on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender issues and concerns. Workshops with lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals acting as co-facilitators may ensure a more adequate understanding of sexual diversity.
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There are, of course, limitations to a study such as this, conducted in a single setting in rural area of South Africa. Experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students in the university concerned may differ from those of students in other rural universities. The study’s adoption of snowball sampling may have led to select groups of students with similar experiences taking part in the study. The findings should be interpreted with these limitations in mind. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the university concerned for permission to conduct this research. Special appreciation is extended to the students who participated in the study.
Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
References Afshar, A. 2006. “The Anti-gay Movement in the United States: The Framing of Religion.” Essex Human Rights Review 3 (1): 64– 79. Aggleton, P. 2009. “Researching Same-sex Sexuality and HIV Prevention.” In From Social Silence to Social Science: Same– Sex Sexuality, HIV & AIDS and Gender in South Africa, edited by V. Reddy, T. Sandfort, and L. Rispel, 2 – 13. Cape Town: HSCR Press. Ellis, S. J. 2009. “Diversity and Inclusivity at University: A Survey of the Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans (LGBT) Students in the UK.” Higher Education 57 (6): 723– 739. Froese, P., C. Bader, and B. Smith. 2008. “Political Tolerance and God’s Wrath in the United States.” Sociology of Religion 69 (1): 29 – 44. Human Rights Watch. 2009. Together, Apart, Organizing around Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Worldwide. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. 2011. “We’ll Show You You’re a Woman”. Violence and Discrimination against Black Lesbians and Transgender Men in South Africa. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Langdridge, D. 2007. Phenomenological Psychology: Theory, Research and Method. Harlow: Pearson Education. Mavhandu-Mudzusi, A. H. 2014. “Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Students Regarding Sports Participation in a South African Rural-based University.” African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance 20 (2.2): 710– 720. Mavhandu-Mudzusi, A. H., and V. O. Netshandama. 2013. “The Attitudes of Students Towards the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Community: A Case of a South African, Rural-based University.” African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, Supplement 1 (1): 56 – 66. Mwamba, K. 2009. “Attitudes and Beliefs about Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage among a Sample of South African Students.” Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 37 (6): 801– 804. Ngcobo, N. P. 2007. Difficulties Faced by Homosexual Students at the University of Zululand: A Phenomenological Explication, Unpublished Masters degree thesis. South Africa: University of Zululand. Sandy, P. T. 2013. “Motives for Self-harm: Views of Nurses in a Secure Unit.” International Nursing Review 60 (3): 358– 365. Smith, J. A. 2005. “Semi-structured Interviewing and Qualitative Analysis.” In Rethinking Methods in Psychology, edited by J. A. Smith, R. Harre, and L. van Langenhove, 9 – 26. London: SAGE. Sumerau, J. E. 2012. “‘That’s What a Man is Supposed to Do’: Compensatory Manhood Acts in an LGBT Christian Church.” Gender & Society 26 (3): 461–487. Whitehead, A. L. 2010. “Sacred Rites and Civil Rights: Religion’s Effect on Attitudes Toward Same-Sex Unions and the Perceived Cause of Homosexuality.” Social Science Quarterly 91 (1): 63 – 79.
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Re´sume´ Cet article rend compte d’une e´tude sur le stigma et la discrimination ve´cus par des e´tudiant(e)s lesbiennes, gays, bisexuel(le)s et transgenre(s) (LGBT) fre´quentant une universite´ situe´e dans une re´gion rurale de l’Afrique du Sud. Vingt e´tudiants LGBT recrute´s selon l’e´chantillonnage en boule de neige ont participe´ a` l’enqueˆte. La me´thode d’analyse phe´nome´nologique a servi de cadre interpre´tatif pour les donne´es. Les re´sultats indiquent que le stigma et la discrimination lie´s a` la religion sont courants dans une universite´ situe´e dans une zone rurale en Afrique du Sud. Ge´ne´ralement, on y attribue aux e´tudiants LGBT une se´rie d’e´tiquettes telles que « pe´cheurs/ pe´cheresses », « diables/diablesses » et « posse´de´(e)s par le de´mon ». Ces e´tudiants sont e´galement expose´s a` un certain nombre d’actes discriminatoires comme le refus de services financiers et de sante´, des menaces de viol et/ou des viols. Les participants a` l’e´tude ont rapporte´ avoir subi des tentatives de conversion de leur orientation sexuelle a` travers des interventions comme la prie`re. Les e´tiquettes pe´joratives et les actes discriminatoires associe´s, tels les menaces de viol, conduisaient beaucoup d’entre eux a` cacher leur identite´ sexuelle, e´viter certains cours pre´cis, interrompre leurs e´tudes, voire tenter de se suicider. Les universite´s doivent e´laborer des politiques pour renforcer la promotion d’une inte´gration sociale et d’une acceptation des e´tudiants LGBT. Ces politiques doivent aussi pre´ciser par quelles e´tapes passer et sur quelles approches s’appuyer pour s’attaquer aux pratiques discriminatoires.
Resumen El presente artı´culo da cuenta de la estigmatizacio´n y la discriminacio´n de que son objeto estudiantes lesbianas, gais, bisexuales y transge´neros (lgbt) inscritos en una universidad del a´rea rural de Suda´frica. En este estudio participaron 20 estudiantes lgbt, quienes fueron seleccionados mediante un muestreo de bola de nieve. El marco conceptual utilizado para el ana´lisis de los datos obtenidos fue el Ana´lisis Interpretativo Fenomenolo´gico. Los resultados sen˜alan que la discriminacio´n y el estigma basados en la religio´n son comunes en dicha universidad. En este sentido, a los estudiantes lgbt frecuentemente se les endilga una amplia gama de etiquetas, por ejemplo, las de “pecadores”, “diablos” y “poseı´dos por demonios”. Asimismo, son objeto de numerosos actos discriminatorios, entre los que se encuentra el rechazo de sus solicitudes de servicios financieros y de salud o amenazas de violacio´n y el cumplimiento de tales intimidaciones. Quienes participaron en el estudio refieren intentos de convertirlos en te´rminos de su orientacio´n sexual, a trave´s de intervenciones que cobran forma mediante oraciones. Las etiquetas peyorativas y los actos discriminatorios asociados a estas, como la amenaza de violacio´n, determinaron que muchos estudiantes se vieran obligados a ocultar su identidad sexual, a no asistir a cursos especı´ficos, a poner fin a sus estudios e, incluso, a intentar el suicidio. Se concluye que las universidades debera´n impulsar polı´ticas encaminadas a promover mayor inclusio´n social y la aceptacio´n de los estudiantes lgbt. Al respecto, las polı´ticas correspondientes debera´n delinear los pasos o los enfoques que sera´n adoptados para hacer frente a las pra´cticas discriminatorias.
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