Psychological Reports, 1992, 71, 1179-1186. O Psychological Reports 1992
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPTIMISM AND COPING STRATEGIES I N T H E WORK ENVIRONMENT ' DAVID STRUTTON Acadiana Bottling Professor University of Southwestern Louisiana
AND
JAMES LUMPKIN Gene Brauns Professor University of Southwestern Louisiana
Summary.-The work environment is often stressful; however, the specific coping strategies used by individuals to deal with such stress have received limited attention. While the benefits associated with optimism have long been touted, little insight has been developed regarding the rnechanism(s) that may contribute to optimists' superior job performance. It is possible that optimism is associated with higher performance because it influences the coping strategies used by salespeople. This possibihty was addressed in a cross-sectional study of 101 salespeople. Dispositionally optimistic salespersons were observed to rely more on problem-focused coping strategies, while pessir:ists engaged in emotion-focused coping. But the specific coping tactics that emerged and the extent to which these tactics were used differed substantially from those which research conducted in other, nonsales settings would have predicted.
Many environments, including the work environment, are stressful because it is necessary to balance the desires of incompatible parties. While researchers have considered the sources and consequences of the stress that workers routinely experience (Yeh, Lester, & Tauber, 1986), the specific coping strategies used to deal with job-related stress have received less attention. Workers regularly encounter stressful situations in which they have no experience with the source of the stress or in which the stressful event unfolds slowly over time. Generalized expectancies, such as the belief one can (cannot) work out the problem causing the stress, should play a major role in determining the outcome to the problem. The generalized predisposition toward expecting positive outcomes, labeled dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1987), may influence how and how well people cope with work-related stress. Coping refers to an individual's efforts to manage the psychological demands that strain the person's resources. Two general coping strategies exist (Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & Dehngis, 1986). One, problem-focused coping, involves activities driven by the goal of eliminating or going around the source of the stress. The second strategy, emotion-focused coping, involves attempts to reduce or eliminate the emotional distress associated with or caused by the stressful circumstances. The two strategies can occur together, but one or the other generally predominates (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). Our research objective is to ex-
'Address enquiries to J. R. Lumpkin, PO Box 44372, Lafayette, LA 70504.
1180
D. STRUTTON & J. LUMPKIN
amine whether dispositionally optimistic and pessimistic workers differ in the strategies they use to cope with job stress. The view that people's actions are affected by their beliefs about the probable outcomes of these actions is a longstanding principle (Lewin, 1938). It has been observed that problem-focused coping is more likely to occur when the stressful situations appear amenable to positive change or when people believe the stressor can be constructively handled (Selling, 1984). However, when outcomes are judged as sufficiently unattainable (either through perceived personal or external impediments), individuals often reduce their efforts and disengage themselves from goal pursuit (Carver & Scheier, 1983). People who believe they can only endure rather than ameliorate stressful situations likely turn coping efforts inward to assuage their own negative feelings. Consequently, it was hypothesized that dispositionally optimixtic individuals would be more likely to deal with work-related stress through problem-focused coping and that pessimistic individuals would be more likely to use emotion-focused coping strategies. Subjects The workplace environment chosen for study was the sales organizations for three different companies. Salespeople were chosen because the sales environment is dynamic and salespeople must constantly engage in mutually reciprocal relationships. Because salespeople are organizational-boundary spanners, they must regularly balance the desires of incompatible parties which creates inherent stress. Using an internally administered questionnaire, a total of 101 responses were obtained from the three organizations. The sample was 59% male (60), with 71% (71) being 39 or younger and 74% (75) being married. Chisquared analysis indicated the presence of significant differences on four of five demographic distributions across the three organizations [gender, age, years of experience, and income ( p < .01)] due to the nature of the products sold (textiles, furniture, and communications technology); see Table 1. The possible influence of these demographic factors on the relationship between optimism and coping strategies was controlled through covariate analysis. The marital status of those responding did not differ across the participating firms. Measures Dispositional optimism was measured using the Life Orientation Test, a 4-item, 5-point agree-disagree scale devised by Scheier and Carver (1987). Responses to the Life Orientation Test items were subjected to factor analysis to verify the unidimensionality of the construct, with a resulting Cronbach alpha of .77 and a mean of 3.5 (SD = .9). Mean values on the sum-
1181
WORK: OPTIMISM AND COPING TABLE 1
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTER~S~CS OF RESPONDENTSACROSSTHREE COMPANIES Over-all
-
Firm Percentage* Firm 1 Firm 2 Firm 3
Sex Men Women Age, yr.
59.5 40.5
94.7 5.3
85.0 15.0
41.3 58.7
20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 +
24.7 46.6 12.9 11.9 3.9
10.6 42.1 26.3 21.0
23.9 23.9 28.5 14.2 9.5
30.0 56.7 3.3 10.0
$
D
24.77
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPTIMISM AND COPING STRATEGIES I N T H E WORK ENVIRONMENT ' DAVID STRUTTON Acadiana Bottling Professor University of Southwestern Louisiana
AND
JAMES LUMPKIN Gene Brauns Professor University of Southwestern Louisiana
Summary.-The work environment is often stressful; however, the specific coping strategies used by individuals to deal with such stress have received limited attention. While the benefits associated with optimism have long been touted, little insight has been developed regarding the rnechanism(s) that may contribute to optimists' superior job performance. It is possible that optimism is associated with higher performance because it influences the coping strategies used by salespeople. This possibihty was addressed in a cross-sectional study of 101 salespeople. Dispositionally optimistic salespersons were observed to rely more on problem-focused coping strategies, while pessir:ists engaged in emotion-focused coping. But the specific coping tactics that emerged and the extent to which these tactics were used differed substantially from those which research conducted in other, nonsales settings would have predicted.
Many environments, including the work environment, are stressful because it is necessary to balance the desires of incompatible parties. While researchers have considered the sources and consequences of the stress that workers routinely experience (Yeh, Lester, & Tauber, 1986), the specific coping strategies used to deal with job-related stress have received less attention. Workers regularly encounter stressful situations in which they have no experience with the source of the stress or in which the stressful event unfolds slowly over time. Generalized expectancies, such as the belief one can (cannot) work out the problem causing the stress, should play a major role in determining the outcome to the problem. The generalized predisposition toward expecting positive outcomes, labeled dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1987), may influence how and how well people cope with work-related stress. Coping refers to an individual's efforts to manage the psychological demands that strain the person's resources. Two general coping strategies exist (Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & Dehngis, 1986). One, problem-focused coping, involves activities driven by the goal of eliminating or going around the source of the stress. The second strategy, emotion-focused coping, involves attempts to reduce or eliminate the emotional distress associated with or caused by the stressful circumstances. The two strategies can occur together, but one or the other generally predominates (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). Our research objective is to ex-
'Address enquiries to J. R. Lumpkin, PO Box 44372, Lafayette, LA 70504.
1180
D. STRUTTON & J. LUMPKIN
amine whether dispositionally optimistic and pessimistic workers differ in the strategies they use to cope with job stress. The view that people's actions are affected by their beliefs about the probable outcomes of these actions is a longstanding principle (Lewin, 1938). It has been observed that problem-focused coping is more likely to occur when the stressful situations appear amenable to positive change or when people believe the stressor can be constructively handled (Selling, 1984). However, when outcomes are judged as sufficiently unattainable (either through perceived personal or external impediments), individuals often reduce their efforts and disengage themselves from goal pursuit (Carver & Scheier, 1983). People who believe they can only endure rather than ameliorate stressful situations likely turn coping efforts inward to assuage their own negative feelings. Consequently, it was hypothesized that dispositionally optimixtic individuals would be more likely to deal with work-related stress through problem-focused coping and that pessimistic individuals would be more likely to use emotion-focused coping strategies. Subjects The workplace environment chosen for study was the sales organizations for three different companies. Salespeople were chosen because the sales environment is dynamic and salespeople must constantly engage in mutually reciprocal relationships. Because salespeople are organizational-boundary spanners, they must regularly balance the desires of incompatible parties which creates inherent stress. Using an internally administered questionnaire, a total of 101 responses were obtained from the three organizations. The sample was 59% male (60), with 71% (71) being 39 or younger and 74% (75) being married. Chisquared analysis indicated the presence of significant differences on four of five demographic distributions across the three organizations [gender, age, years of experience, and income ( p < .01)] due to the nature of the products sold (textiles, furniture, and communications technology); see Table 1. The possible influence of these demographic factors on the relationship between optimism and coping strategies was controlled through covariate analysis. The marital status of those responding did not differ across the participating firms. Measures Dispositional optimism was measured using the Life Orientation Test, a 4-item, 5-point agree-disagree scale devised by Scheier and Carver (1987). Responses to the Life Orientation Test items were subjected to factor analysis to verify the unidimensionality of the construct, with a resulting Cronbach alpha of .77 and a mean of 3.5 (SD = .9). Mean values on the sum-
1181
WORK: OPTIMISM AND COPING TABLE 1
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTER~S~CS OF RESPONDENTSACROSSTHREE COMPANIES Over-all
-
Firm Percentage* Firm 1 Firm 2 Firm 3
Sex Men Women Age, yr.
59.5 40.5
94.7 5.3
85.0 15.0
41.3 58.7
20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 +
24.7 46.6 12.9 11.9 3.9
10.6 42.1 26.3 21.0
23.9 23.9 28.5 14.2 9.5
30.0 56.7 3.3 10.0
$
D
24.77
