Perceptual and Motor Shills, 1975,41,449-450. @ Perceptual and Motor Skills 1975
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE, SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS, AND FIELD INDEPENDENCE LEOPOLD W. GRUENFELD AND ANN E. MACEACHRON New York State School of Indurtkal and Labor Reldions Cosnell University Summary.-The hypothesis was supported that socioeconomic variables confound the relationship between age ( 2 0 to 60 yr.) and field independence measured on the rod-and frame task for 54 adult women (nurses). With the recent history of rising levels of education, higher incomes, and better health services, younger age cohorts are likely to be of higher socioeconomic status than their older peers. Thus, there is reason to hypothesize that cross-sectional comparisons of age cohorts on the dimension of field articulation may be confounded by socioeconomic variables, particularly since field articulation is a developmental construct where the progression from perceptual/intellectual globality to differentiation occurs over time (Witkin, er al., 1962). Schaie (1974) has also noticed that age differences are likely to be confounded by generational or quasi-cultural differences on various intelligence tests. Relatedly, Gruenfeld and MacEachron (1975) have found that differences in variability associated with field-independent cognitive style may be accounted for by cultural variables referenced by social-class membership. Witkin, Goodenough, and Karp (1967) observed a discrepancy between crosssectional and longitudinal age trends on measures of field independence.' The crosssectional data showed a cleat decrease in field independence, whereas the longitudinal data showed no change in level of field independence with age. Witkin, et al. noted the possibility that differences due to age on measures of field independence in the crosssectional study may have been confounded by socioeconomic status variables. The crosssectional study compared grammar, high school, and college students. Most noteworthy for the present study was that the sample of neighborhood college students showed a selection-bias because the neighborhood college students came from relatively lower socioeconomic backgrounds than students who attended out-of-town colleges. Witkin, et a/. also pointed out that the neighborhood college students were less field independent and they cited Fliegel (1955) who reported that "young people who leave home at a telauvely early age tend to be more field independent than those who do not." These findings suggest that cross-sectional age differences in field independence may be explained by socioeconomic status differences among age cohorts. Ss were 54 adult females on the nursing staff of an urban pediatric hospital. Their ages were self-reported in 5 class intervals from ( 1 ) 20 to 29 yr. to ( 5 ) 60 yr. or older. The mean age was approximately 42 yr. Information on socioeconomic status was also obtained from all Ss by self-report in 5 class intervals from ( 1 ) less than high school to ( 5 ) a post-graduate degree and the approximate mean level of education was 2 yr. of college (junior college). Fathers' education was also obtained in 5 class intervals from ( 1 ) less than high school to ( 5 ) a post-graduate degree. The approximate mean of fathers' level of education was 2 yr. of college. Mothers' education was simi!arly obtained 'In attempting to review the literature on this issue, it was noted that an overwhelming number of published smdies using the field-independence framework are done with subjects of about the same age and data on socioeconomic levels of the samples are not provided. Generalizabilicy to different ages and socioeconomic strata is difficult.
L. W. GRUENFELD
450
& A.
E. MAC EACHRON
and the average number of years mothers' education was 2 yr. of college. Fathers' occupation ranged from (1) unskilled work to ( 8 ) professional ( M = 3.25, S D = 2.31). Ss' salary ranged from $3,000 to $8,700 (M = $5,008.10, SD = $1,846.44). Thus, these 54 Ss represented a wide range of socioeconomic differences. The above demographic information was obtained in class intervals in order to preserve the anonymity of the subjects on a questionnaire which asked several confidential questions unrelated to the present study. This procedure may have resulted, due to a possible restriction of range, in an attenuation of the Pearsonian coefficients. The portable Rod-and-Frame Test (Olunan, 1968) was administered individually to Ss ( M = 8.33", SD = 7.01 absolute deviation from the vertical). The odd-even Spearman-Brown estimate of reliability was .91 for eight trials. Mean degrees of displacement from the true vertical on eight trials for each S were converted to standard T scores. Field independence was indicated by a high standard score, and field dependence was indicated by a low standard score. As expected, the Pearson correlation between age and rod-and-frame scores was -.31 ( p .05). Older Ss, therefore, tended to be somewhat more field dependent. .05) and fathers' educaAge also correlated significantly with Ss' education (-.33, p tion (-.35, p .05), indicating that the educational background of older Ss was lower than that of younger Ss. The second-order partial correlation of -.13, between age and rod-and-frame performance was nonsignificant. Educational differences, then, accounted for the significant but small negative reladonship between age and field independence. Thus, socioeconomic variables, especially those referencing educational differences, may confound the relationship between age and field independence. As Botwick (1973) observed, the confounding of age with generational or other cohort differences is most apparent in cross-sectional studies. In such analyses, therefore, the potential confounding effect of socioeconomic level on age in comparing age cohorts on the dimension of field independence should be observed and accounted for before concluding that age explains differing levels of field independence. Relatedly, longitudinal studies may confound age and cohort effects as well as time of measurement effects (Schaie, 1965). Any studies testing the developmental hypothesis should provide adequate statistical controls for potential confounding effects before concluding that data support a developmental perspective of field independence.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE, SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS, AND FIELD INDEPENDENCE LEOPOLD W. GRUENFELD AND ANN E. MACEACHRON New York State School of Indurtkal and Labor Reldions Cosnell University Summary.-The hypothesis was supported that socioeconomic variables confound the relationship between age ( 2 0 to 60 yr.) and field independence measured on the rod-and frame task for 54 adult women (nurses). With the recent history of rising levels of education, higher incomes, and better health services, younger age cohorts are likely to be of higher socioeconomic status than their older peers. Thus, there is reason to hypothesize that cross-sectional comparisons of age cohorts on the dimension of field articulation may be confounded by socioeconomic variables, particularly since field articulation is a developmental construct where the progression from perceptual/intellectual globality to differentiation occurs over time (Witkin, er al., 1962). Schaie (1974) has also noticed that age differences are likely to be confounded by generational or quasi-cultural differences on various intelligence tests. Relatedly, Gruenfeld and MacEachron (1975) have found that differences in variability associated with field-independent cognitive style may be accounted for by cultural variables referenced by social-class membership. Witkin, Goodenough, and Karp (1967) observed a discrepancy between crosssectional and longitudinal age trends on measures of field independence.' The crosssectional data showed a cleat decrease in field independence, whereas the longitudinal data showed no change in level of field independence with age. Witkin, et al. noted the possibility that differences due to age on measures of field independence in the crosssectional study may have been confounded by socioeconomic status variables. The crosssectional study compared grammar, high school, and college students. Most noteworthy for the present study was that the sample of neighborhood college students showed a selection-bias because the neighborhood college students came from relatively lower socioeconomic backgrounds than students who attended out-of-town colleges. Witkin, et a/. also pointed out that the neighborhood college students were less field independent and they cited Fliegel (1955) who reported that "young people who leave home at a telauvely early age tend to be more field independent than those who do not." These findings suggest that cross-sectional age differences in field independence may be explained by socioeconomic status differences among age cohorts. Ss were 54 adult females on the nursing staff of an urban pediatric hospital. Their ages were self-reported in 5 class intervals from ( 1 ) 20 to 29 yr. to ( 5 ) 60 yr. or older. The mean age was approximately 42 yr. Information on socioeconomic status was also obtained from all Ss by self-report in 5 class intervals from ( 1 ) less than high school to ( 5 ) a post-graduate degree and the approximate mean level of education was 2 yr. of college (junior college). Fathers' education was also obtained in 5 class intervals from ( 1 ) less than high school to ( 5 ) a post-graduate degree. The approximate mean of fathers' level of education was 2 yr. of college. Mothers' education was simi!arly obtained 'In attempting to review the literature on this issue, it was noted that an overwhelming number of published smdies using the field-independence framework are done with subjects of about the same age and data on socioeconomic levels of the samples are not provided. Generalizabilicy to different ages and socioeconomic strata is difficult.
L. W. GRUENFELD
450
& A.
E. MAC EACHRON
and the average number of years mothers' education was 2 yr. of college. Fathers' occupation ranged from (1) unskilled work to ( 8 ) professional ( M = 3.25, S D = 2.31). Ss' salary ranged from $3,000 to $8,700 (M = $5,008.10, SD = $1,846.44). Thus, these 54 Ss represented a wide range of socioeconomic differences. The above demographic information was obtained in class intervals in order to preserve the anonymity of the subjects on a questionnaire which asked several confidential questions unrelated to the present study. This procedure may have resulted, due to a possible restriction of range, in an attenuation of the Pearsonian coefficients. The portable Rod-and-Frame Test (Olunan, 1968) was administered individually to Ss ( M = 8.33", SD = 7.01 absolute deviation from the vertical). The odd-even Spearman-Brown estimate of reliability was .91 for eight trials. Mean degrees of displacement from the true vertical on eight trials for each S were converted to standard T scores. Field independence was indicated by a high standard score, and field dependence was indicated by a low standard score. As expected, the Pearson correlation between age and rod-and-frame scores was -.31 ( p .05). Older Ss, therefore, tended to be somewhat more field dependent. .05) and fathers' educaAge also correlated significantly with Ss' education (-.33, p tion (-.35, p .05), indicating that the educational background of older Ss was lower than that of younger Ss. The second-order partial correlation of -.13, between age and rod-and-frame performance was nonsignificant. Educational differences, then, accounted for the significant but small negative reladonship between age and field independence. Thus, socioeconomic variables, especially those referencing educational differences, may confound the relationship between age and field independence. As Botwick (1973) observed, the confounding of age with generational or other cohort differences is most apparent in cross-sectional studies. In such analyses, therefore, the potential confounding effect of socioeconomic level on age in comparing age cohorts on the dimension of field independence should be observed and accounted for before concluding that age explains differing levels of field independence. Relatedly, longitudinal studies may confound age and cohort effects as well as time of measurement effects (Schaie, 1965). Any studies testing the developmental hypothesis should provide adequate statistical controls for potential confounding effects before concluding that data support a developmental perspective of field independence.
