Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1974
Psychotherapy and Catholic Confession V A L E R I E WORTHEN The problem of easing h u m a n anguish and guilt m ost o f t e n falls u p o n two categories o f individuals--psychotherapists and the clergy. As the problems present themselves in increasing p r o p o r t i o n and c o m p l e x i t y , b o t h psychotherapists and clergymen are forced to examine their calling a little m o r e closely. How does the role of the ps yc h ot herapi st differ, for example, f r o m th at o f the priest hearing confession in terms of guiding the individual who comes to him with a pressing pr obl e m t hat has instilled much guil~? Carl Jung was perhaps among the first to examine critically the suppositions of Catholic confession and p s y c h o t h e r a p y . His article, " P s y c h o t h e r a p y and the Clergy, ''1 represented a composite of positive values of b o t h disciplines. He concludes that: 1) The Catholic Church possesses a rich i n s t r u m e n t (in the form of confession) that can be utilized as a ready-made pastoral technique. 2) The Catholic form of penance serves as a source for immediate release o f tension, however t e m p o r a r y . 3) The Catholic Church is rich in symbolism t hat appeals to the unconscious mind and t h e r e b y makes it m o r e accessible. 4) P s y c h o t h e r a p y involves no direct c o n d e m n a t i o n for any "bad behavior." 5) P s y c h o t h e r a p y is m or e objective and easier to handle because o f its comparative simplicity and lack of ritualism. 6) P s y c h o t h e r a p y can speak to almost every person on some level or o t h e r (in contrast to confession, which, as an activity, actually speaks to a few willing people). Th er e remains, however, the pr obl e m as to h o w the two disciplines are truly comparable in terms of cont r i but i n g to one another. Psychotherapists struggle under the light of r e c e nt research that reveals t hat m a n y of their clients could have progressed effectively w i t h o u t their therapists. In a similar light, the priests struggle under the laymen's const ant demands for t he church to help t hem find meaning in life. Bringing to ge t he r the potentialities o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y and confession to Valerie K. Worthen, M.A., is a graduate in clinical psychology from Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena and a part-time counselor at La Canada Counseling Center, La Canada, California--a Christian-oriented counseling center. 275
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p r o d u c e a possibly m o r e d y n a m i c a p p r o a c h seems to be an i n s u r m o u n t a b l e p r o b l e m . A n even m o r e critical p r o b l e m is t h e necessary u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h o s e Catholics w h o c h o o s e to use b o t h m e t h o d s - - f o r it requires t h a t t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t have full k n o w l e d g e o f t h e Catholic h i s t o r y o u t o f w h i c h the client speaks, arA t h a t the priest have sufficient k n o w l e d g e o f the therap e u t i c process so t h a t he m a y guide t h e client t o w a r d t h e " w h o l e n e s s " t h a t b o t h Christianity and p s y c h o t h e r a p y strive to achieve. The basic q u e s t i o n s to be asked are: 1) W h a t are c o n f e s s i o n and p s y c h o t h e r a p y ? 2) H o w is c o n f e s s i o n c o m p a r a b l e t o p s y c h o t h e r a p y ? 3) Can t h e t w o be resolved into one, m o r e efficient, m e t h o d ?
Definitions o f psychotherapy and confession C o n f e s s i o n is said to be " t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t a m a n m a k e s o f his o w n sins to a priest, with a view to necessary a b s o l u t i o n . ''2 C o n f e s s i o n , or m o r e correctly, t h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e , is s o u g h t w h e n m a n has m a d e an o f f e n c e against God, or, in o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n he has denied love o f God. C o n f e s s i o n is t h e n seen as a necessary c o n d i t i o n f o r receiving t h e forgiveness o f G o d (1 J o h n 1 : 8 ff) and represents the necessary link b e t w e e n t h a t sin and forgiveness.
Originally the Jews set aside a special day in which confessions were made to the person against whom the sin had been committed and from whom the offender desired and needed to receive forgiveness. Jesus emphasized this tradition, and Catholic doctrine that came into full bloom in the sixth c e n t u r y e x p a n d e d and clarified the s a c r a m e n t . S t o t t clarifies the s a c r a m e n t o f c o n f e s s i o n b y basing its source and c o n t i n u a n c e o n the d o c t r i n e o f Catholic p r i e s t h o o d itself. He writes: This is still the official teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, which (it is important to grasp) rests on their doctrine of the priesthood. Their view of confession arises and depends on their view of absolution. According to Ludwig Ott's book Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, the argument runs like this: when Jesus was on earth He forgave sins, Mr. 2:5 f.; Lk. 7:4 f (p. 419). This very same power to forgive sins He bestowed "on the Apostles and on their legitimate successors" (p. 417) who are not "all the faithful indiscriminately, but only . . . the members of the hierarchy" (p. 439)--that is, Catholic priests. He promised it to them in His words about the keys of the kingdom and about binding and loosing, both of which include "the power to forgive sins" (p. 410) and then actually transferred it to them "on the evening of the day of the Resurrection" when He said to them "As the Father hath sent me, I also send you . . . ; whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained" (p. 410 ff). This "power to forgive sins involves not merely the power of preaching the gospel of the forgiveness of sins as the Reformers interpreted it, but also the full power of really remitting sins" (p. 417). Again, "the Church firmly insists that the power of absolution is a true and real power of absolution, by which sins committed against God are immediately remitted. The Proof derives from John 20:23. According to the words of Jesus, the act of the remission of sins, performed by the apostles and by their successors, has the effect that sins are remitted by God. There is a causal connection between the active
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remitting and the passive being remitted" (p. 422). Priestly absolution "does not merely indicate forgiveness of sins, but also effects it" (p. 436). 3 T h e d e e p m e a n i n g b y which this s a c r a m e n t is carried o u t is, t h e r e f o r e , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h e priest plays t h e i m p o r t a n t role o f m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n t h e sinner and G o d and acts in a jurisdictional c a p a c i t y - - p e n a n c e i m p l y i n g a p e n a l t y i m p o s e d b y t h e priest for a c o m m i t t e d u n c o n s c i o u s sin. T h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e involves a t h r e e f o l d process. First is t h a t o f c o n t r i t i o n or the sinner's a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f his grief or h a t r e d o f the c o m m i t t e d sin with a strong resolve n o t t o r e p e a t it if at all possible. S e c o n d , the c o n f e s s i o n p r o p e r is h e a r d b y the priest. A n d third is the e l e m e n t o f satisfaction or the "willing a c c e p t a n c e or p e r f o r m a n c e o f s o m e task i m p o s e d as c o m p e n s a t i o n and as a t o k e n o f g o o d faith and willingness t o a c c e p t t h e penal c o n s e q u e n c e s o f sin. ''4 In c o m p a r i s o n , p s y c h o t h e r a p y is the process b y which e m o t i o n a l and m e n t a l disorders are alleviated as a result o f recalling material f r o m t h e unconscious. Maher states t h a t " p s y c h o t h e r a p y " as d e f i n e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n Psychological Association is " 'a process involving i n t e r p e r s o n a l relationships b e t w e e n a t h e r a p i s t and one or m o r e patients or clients b y w h i c h t h e f o r m e r e m p l o y s p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s based on s y s t e m a t i c k n o w l e d g e o f t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y in a t t e m p t i n g to i m p r o v e t h e m e n t a l health o f t h e latter.' ,,5 T h e key phrase in this d e f i n i t i o n is " i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s " ; the process o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y involves c o n f r o n t a t i o n on a o n e - t o - o n e basis, the same e l e m e n t t h a t exists in Catholic confession. Here, h o w e v e r , conscious recall is stressed o n l y in t h e beginning stages o f t h e r a p y with t h e u l t i m a t e goal being t h a t o f recalling u n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i n g material. T h e means b y which the u n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i n g material is laid b a r e are diverse and varied. Y e t the u l t i m a t e goal, t h a t o f i m p r o v i n g t h e m e n t a l h e a l t h t o m a x i m u m efficiency, is the same regardless o f h o w t h e p r o b l e m is app r o a c h e d . P s y c h o t h e r a p y is based n o t o n l y o n t h e principle t h a t " s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g in m y life," as is also f o u n d in confession, b u t also o n the f a c t t h a t " m u c h o f w h a t is w r o n g lies b e n e a t h h i d d e n m o t i v a t i o n . " B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to e x a m i n e these t w o disciplines m o r e closely, I wish to m a k e an abbreviated c o m m e n t or t w o o n t h e d e f i n i t i o n and d y n a m i c s o f " s i n " as viewed b y t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t and t h e priest-confessor. T h u r i a n sta~es t h a t : The Church recognizes, in fact, that sin--which is essentially a revolt against God [my italics], that is to say a lack of love for him and for what he has created--brings in its train a whole series of psychological ar.d even physical consequences . . . . Within its own limits psychoanalysis, whether practiced by a Christian or an agnostic, is not called upon to consider the theological or metaphysical causes of what we call sin. 6 It can be f u r t h e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t p s y c h o t h e r a p y s e l d o m goes b e y o n d t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f sin as an act t h a t is l o o k e d u p o n b y s o c i e t y as m o r a l l y w r o n g or damaging to the p a t i e n t and his c o n t a c t s . I n d e e d , s o m e p s y c h o -
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t h e r a p i s t s e v e n go so far as to e n c o u r a g e " s i n " if it will u l t i m a t e l y b e n e f i t t h e t o t a l g r o w t h o f t h e p e r s o n , (e.g., such as having p r e m a r i t a l i n t e r c o u r s e to o v e r c o m e c h i l d h o o d fears o f sex). White says: For all this is not of course to say that no good and no integration can come as an indirect consequence of sin, of willing and doing evil. Indirect, because directly and in itself sin is wholly destructive of good and of integration. But indirectly, good can and has come of it ever since the felix culpa (the "happy fault") of Adam, the certe necessarium peccatum (the "truly necessary sin" of Adam). Where sin abounds, there does grace the more abound; though we may not sin that grace may abound. The neurotic, all too often, is unable to sin freely: his very repressions and fears of the "shadow" prevent it, and the same fear can produce an equally compulsive and largely spurious "goodness." Just for this reason, the Christian Gospel and the rites of the Church have no real meaning for him, for they presuppose the experience of sin and the power to respond to them freely. The actual experience of having sinned may (as, according to the Epistle to the Romans, it did for the whole Gentile and Hebrew worlds) enable him to appreciate his need for faith and the healing Christ. But sin remains sin, and the end does not justify the means. Psychotherapists who assure their patients that their sins are no sins, because of the benefits to their health which may come from them, are not only transgressing their professional competence; they are encouraging the accompanying guilt-sense to be repressed into unconsciousness, and hence, likely to form another, and even more intractable "shadow. ''7 I t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e priests and p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s h a v e t w o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s . Y e t a closer l o o k m i g h t suggest o t h e r w i s e . F o r t h e priest, sin is a t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d ' s love and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g lack o f love f o r H i m . It is b o t h an i n t e n s e l y p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n " I " and G o d , b u t also a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n " I " and c o m m u n i t y . While t h e w o r d " s i n " w o u l d rarely b e used b y p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , the c o n f l i c t o f a n y o n e individual is u l t i m a t e l y " I " a n d c o m m u n i t y . F o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y t h e o f t e n missing link h e r e is t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n " I " and Him. This d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , d e s t r o y a n y c o m m o n a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e t w o views o f sin, f o r o n e i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t is clear. W h e t h e r o n e is s p e a k i n g o f sin in t e r m s o f t u r n i n g f r o m G o d , or in t e r m s o f a b r e a k f r o m s o c i e t y ' s m o r a l i t i e s or t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f conflicts, b o t h views are f i r m l y b a s e d on t h e n o t i o n o f e g o c e n t r i s m - - t h e t u r n i n g f r o m H i m and f r o m t h e c o m m u n i t y to t h e selfish " I . " In this r e s p e c t b o t h t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e p r i e s t l o o k u p o n sin as c o r r u p t i v e . It is crucial to t h e Catholic view o f sin and to t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c view t h a t c o n s c i o u s sin o r s h o r t c o m i n g s n o t o n l y p r o d u c e p a t h o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s f o r t h e p e r s o n involved, b u t u l t i m a t e l y adversely a f f e c t t h e p e a c e and j o y o f t h e c o m m u n i t y at large. T h u r i a n states: " . . . n o t o n l y has it [sin] p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h shed a b r o a d s o m e degree o f d i s o r d e r and suffering; a n y sin, h o w e v e r secret, since it is a sin o f a m e m b e r o f t h e b o d y , is a drag on t h e C h u r c h b e c a u s e it causes a r u p t u r e in h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d . ''s T h e s a m e is t r u e o f t h e c o n f l i c t o f p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y as v i e w e d b y t h e therapist. E g o c e n t r i s m has a negative e f f e c t o n t h e " I " and o n t h e c o m m u n i t y .
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T h e subtleties o f t h e t o p i c o f sin are m a n y and are f u r t h e r c o m p o u n d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t m a n is n o n e t o o eager to express t h e guilt b e h i n d sin a n d so c o n s i s t e n t l y covers u p his t r a c k s a n d sidesteps sin b y s t a t i n g t h a t 1) it is m o r b i d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n sin; 2) m a n is p e r f e c t i o n , since h e was c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e o f G o d , or 3) m a n was m e a n t to h i d e his sins or guilt in t h e s a m e m a n n e r t h a t A d a m hid f r o m G o d a f t e r t h e Fall. O r m a n c a n a t t e m p t t o avoid sin a l t o g e t h e r a n d lead a t r u l y n e u r o t i c life lacking a n y f o r m o f u n i t y . It is possible, no doubt, to be afraid of God's punishments in such a way that sin is avoided simply because of the penalties attaching to it, so that the sinner remains with all the will and the desires of sin, if only he could escape from the consequences. This, as most people would admit, is a wholly unworthy state of mind, and is not the sort of fear that the Council would accept as sufficient for true sorrow. 9 U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , even as p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s and priests t r y t o struggle w i t h t h e a p p a r e n t similarities o f t h e i r disciplines, t h e c o n f u s i o n d e e p e n s w h e n o n e tries to tease o u t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s , m o t i v a t i o n s , a n d d e f e n s e o f sin.
Confession vs. psychotherapy: a comparison O f p r i m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n is t h e a t t i t u d e b y w h i c h o n e a p p r o h c h e s t h e p r o b lems o f t h e client or p e n i t e n t . B e l g u m writes: The role in which a person perceives himself will greatly influence how he reacts to his situation in life. For example, two roommates in a hospital are incapacitated by a physical or mental illness. One considers himself the victim of an impersonal disease over which he has little or no control; the other views himself as a sinner who is receiving just reward for his evil life. Such a basic difference in viewpoint has profound implications for diagnosis of the disease, responsibility for the cure, type of therapy to be used, the locus of the problem, as well as for the question of one's philosophy of life. 10 What, specifically, are t h e " c o n t e m p o r a r y " c o m p a r i s o n s in v i e w p o i n t established b y t h e s e t w o p r o f e s s i o n s t h a t deal w i t h this issue? 1) A l t h o u g h t h e basic aim o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y is t o aid t h e individual to f u n c t i o n b e t t e r in his e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e r a p y is, f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , individualistically o r i e n t e d . T h e c o m m u n i t y is s e l d o m i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e r a p y . T h e v e r y n a t u r e o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y implies t h a t m a n c a n " d e t e r m i n e " his fate. C o n f e s s i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t a t r a n s g r e s s i o n is n o t o n l y against G o d , b u t is p e r f o r m e d in a m a n n e r t h a t necessarily a f f e c t s all o t h e r s in t h e c o m m u n i t y . R e s t o r a t i o n w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e grace o f G o d are necessarily " p r e d e t e r m i n e d " b y G o d ' s o w n free will to i m p a r t grace a n d reassurance. 2) P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s d o n o t h a v e a universal f o r m a t o f p r o c e d u r e s to f o l l o w such as t h e Catholics have. T h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e is b a s e d o n an a l m o s t universally a c c e p t e d p r o c e d u r e ; a p e n i t e n t e n t e r i n g t h e c o n f e s s i o n a l in alm o s t a n y c o u n t r y can b e assured o f t h e s a m e basic p r o c e d u r e .
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3) The priest-confessor views sin as a weak h u m a n act t hat lacks the ultimate goodness--that o f striving to attain c o n f o r m i t y with the divine mind. Sin is the c a u s e of the unhappiness. The psychotherapist o f t e n views sin or egocentrism as the end r e s u l t of an involuntary process contrary to the individual's will. It is m or e a question of something t hat happens to the client (i.e., puts him in a bad position t h a t forces him toward egocentricism), rather than something he succumbs to himself. 4) It is o f t e n stated t hat confession deals with the evils of hum an f r e e d o m while p s y c h o t h e r a p y deals with the results of h u m a n compulsion. Contrary to this statement, however, there is really no difference between the confessing individual who is fighting problems of h u m a n freedom and the neurotic individual who must necessarily deal with the choice of freedom, too. It can be just as vicious and evil n o t to choose as to choose. 5) The sacrament o f penance is called upon to deal with w i l l f u l misdeeds and thoughts while p s y c h o t h e r a p y m ost oft en sees itself dealing with dynamics o f unconscious motivation. 6) The "confessing a c t " in p s y c h o t h e r a p y and confession differs in content. The psychotherapist is n o t normally concerned with the confession of a moral offense, but rather looks for causes of the problem. The Catholic confession requires the priest to act as a judge of subjective moral rightness or wrongness. 7) While the sacrament of penance was n o t ordained to cure, it may help prevent problems if the individual keeps a continual open heart in speaking to his confessor. Similarly, p s y c h o t h e r a p y , while n o t ordained to forgive sins, does muc h to free the individual from those compulsions that make sin, and r ep en tan c e of sin, difficult. 8) Sheerin states: " . . . it is not enough simply to r e m e m b e r t hat y o u did such and such a wrong act. The core o f the sin is in the intention and unless y o u had a sinful intention, the e x t e m a l act was n o t a sin. ''1 1 The intention, or egocentrism, is equated to the conscious cause of t he problem. Psychoth er ap y also endorses the view of the intention (i.e., motivation) of the external act as a result rather than as a cause. The sin, i.e., egocentrism, is a result o f the individual's inability to cope effectively with outside influences. These issues are further c o m p l i c a t e d by the general disagreement within the church itself as to the involvement of the priest in the confessing individual's life and the disagreement among psychotherapists as to the use o f techniques and the inclusion of the religious aspect in the life of the patient. With regard to the first o f these disagreements, it is admittedly difficult for the priests to separate the sacrament from personal counseling. Most admit that confession should first be an e n c o u n t e r in the m y s t e r y o f Christ's redemption. Moralizing and intervention on the psychological level should follow second, if at all. T he younge r priests who have m ore education in psychological dynamics tend to c o n c e n t r a t e m ore on this secondary level. Snoeck points out that this is an error on their part since "Much harm has been caused by pr e m at ur e l y drawing a person's at t ent i on to those elements
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o f h i s u n c o n s c i o u s w i t h w h i c h h e h a d c o n t e n t e d h i m s e l f t o live, e v e n i f in a n u n h e a l t h y w a y . ''1 2 E l a b o r a t i n g o n t h i s p o i n t , h e w r i t e s : Neither should the examination of the conscience inquire into the hidden structures which influence our lives without our will. This examination is not a consideration of depth psychology in which one traces all the concomitants that had some bearing upon the sinful decision of our acts. Such concomitants as instincts, endogenic drives, fixations, inhibitions, the devious ways of uncontrolled and uncontrollable orientations of sentiment, which run through the obscurity of the subconscious, are things over which the conscious will has no power and of which the healthy intellect knows nothing. 1 3 He further concludes: Man has, generally, little or no control over his life of emotions and sentiment. They are passive phenomena usually accompanying man's efforts and strivings. Only over his external will does man have direct control, and it is in this that his freedom consists. Therefore, if it is a matter of contrition insofar as it should be stirred up by the penitent himself, this must be fundamentally in t h e will and not in the emotions over which man has no control. 14 There can be no doubt at this point that Snoeck represents the more dogmatic of the Catholic priests. He and many others vouch for a belief that a difference exists between moral and emotional problems; emotional problems must be dealt with outside of the confessional. Haring represents the other side of the above view and suggests that a b r o a d e r b a c k g r o u n d is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r i e s t - c o n f e s s o r . There is a definite need for the priest to study psychology and sociology if he is to be an effective guide in the direction of penitents. Psychology will make him aware o f the frustrations, conflicts and maladjustments prevalent in this day and age. Sociology will reveal the impact of the environment on the people. Both will serve to bridle his impulse at times to say: "You have to do this and if you d o n ' t obey, y o u ' r e showing y o u r bad will." Finally, there seems to be a need for some sort of common pastoral planning which, perhaps could be achieved through Episcopal Conferences. One of the aims of the Conferences could be to try to reduce the inconsistencies of practice that people meet within the confessional. It is not uncommon to hear people themselves complaining that Father So-and-So says that this is perfectly all right whereas Father Such-and-Such finds it objectionable and wrong. Inconsistencies of this nature tend to make people suspect that perhaps the priest in the confessional does not represent the Church. These people do not understand that there are areas in theology that are open to different opinions. However, each priest should seek to explain as clearly as possible the doctrine of the Church and then let his penitent see that his counsel is based on an interpretation of that doctrine.1 s T h e p r o b l e m o f w h a t c o n f e s s i o n t r u l y i n v o l v e s is, as y e t , u n c l e a r e v e n t o the clergy of the Church, particularly with regard to the extent of involvement into the personal problems of the sinner.
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Similarly, d i s a g r e e m e n t s exist f r o m w i t h i n t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c discipline. N o t o n l y is t h e r e dissension c o n c e r n i n g t h e various t y p e s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y and t h e i r m e a n s t o u l t i m a t e m e n t a l h e a l t h , b u t t h e r e is c o n t i n u o u s style c o n c e r n i n g t h e inclusion o f religion in p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c pursuits. I f p s y c h o l o g y is to vie w i t h the o t h e r scientific disciplines such as m e d i c i n e , physics, and b i o l o g y , it o f t e n implies t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t s u b j e c t i v e t o p i c o f religion be o m i t t e d . Menninger, q u o t i n g a s p e e c h b y Dr. D a v i d McClellan, writes: "Speaking publicly about religious matters presents many difficulties for a behavioral scientist today. To admit to a religious point of view, to some personal commitment, is to violate the most fundamental rule governing the behavior of a scientist--namely, to be objective. Personal bias serves only to distort the search for truth. So it is part of the professional role of the scientist, particularly if he is interested in human affairs, to keep himself free from entangling commitments, to remain in a state of suspended judgment so far as many of life's most serious issues are concerned. "And most of my colleagues live up to their professional role with great strictness so far as religion, and in particular Christianity, is concerned. I can hardly think of a psychologist, sociologist or anthropologist of my generation who would admit publicly or privately to a religious commitment of any kind . . . . .1 6 Menninger continues: This, I think, is a startling statement and one I find a little difficult to accept literally. I myself know quite a number of psychiatrists and psychologists who "admit" both privately and publicly of religious commitments. 1 7 P s y c h o l o g y is at p r e s e n t finding t h e dissension q u i t e s t r o n g on b o t h issues--a f a c t t h a t f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e s t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f c o n f e s s i o n in p s y c h o t h e r a p y and religion. A p o t e n t i a l resolution
T h e h i s t o r y and b a c k g r o u n d o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y and Catholic c o n f e s s i o n share m a n y similarities a n d conflicts. B o t h include as a goal (or o n e o f several goals) t h e h e a l t h y r e s t i t u t i o n to c o m m u n i t y life o n c e sin or e g o c e n t r i s m is r e 4 i i r e c t e d or e l i m i n a t e d . P s y c h o p a t h o l o g y n o t o n l y h a m p e r s m a n ' s a t t e m p t t o e l i m i n a t e egoc e n t r i s m and attain w h o l e n e s s in life; p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y also h a m p e r s m a n ' s ability t o a c k n o w l e d g e his real guilt b e f o r e G o d in t r u e c o n t r i t i o n . In c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e s e u n h e a l t h y t e n d e n c i e s , successful p s y c h o t h e r a p y att e m p t s t o give f r e e d o m to t h e i n n e r m a n and e n a b l e s h i m to r e s p o n d fully to his e n v i r o n m e n t in a w h o l l y i n t e g r a t e d , realistic m a n n e r . T h e C h u r c h sees as its f u n c t i o n t h e m e d i a t i o n b e t w e e n G o d and m a n : t h e H o l y Spirit seeks t h r o u g h t h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e to o r d e r t h e w h o l e o f m a n ' s physical, p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a n d spiritual life, i.e., c o m i n g to i n t e r n a l t r u t h b e f o r e G o d and
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before the c o m m u n i t y . Snoeck comments that " . . . while psychotherapy tries to integrate personal structures, spiritual direction tries to enable a person to find his calling and to fulfill his personal response to that calling.,,1 s Belgum, speaking from a Lutheran background, suggests three steps or "prescriptions" necessary for man to break away from his egocentrism, which includes sin, hypocrisy, and pride. The essential elements for a functional confession include the confession itself, amendment, and repentance.1 9 Amendment, or constructive change, suggests the usefulness or light that psychology might shed on the total adjustment toward the ultimate wholeness of man. A pattern is beginning to emerge at this point--one t h a t might suggest t h a t psychotherapy and Catholic confession can work in an integrative way toward individual understanding and truth. Psychotherapy can aid the individual to psychological freedom to respond to the environment. Confession (the next level above psychotherapy) can aid the individual in spiritual freedom to respond to the environment and, more importantly, to God. These separate functions of psychotherapy and confession can work on a progression toward the goal of being oneself in truth before God, i.e., wholly integrated psychologically and spiritually. The working reality of the foregoing discussion can be found 1) in the integrative attempts of psychology and religion to come together on what appears at first glance to be u n c o m m o n grounds, and 2) in church consultation services in which a therapist can work from within the church setting to aid the individual's total growth and in the growth of the c o m m u n i t y of the church itself. Conclusion
Two seemingly different conclusions can be drawn from the preceding presentation concerning the compatibility of psychotherapy and Catholic confession. First, one could conclude that the two disciplines could never c o m p l e m e n t one another on an equal basis, since they are based on different presuppositions and, therefore, could n o t logically come out with the same results. For example, confession presupposes man's conscious sin as a cause, the mediating j u d g m e n t of the priest, and the restituting grace of God. Psychotherapy presupposes the acceptance of sin as a s y m p t o m of some larger problem t h a t is unconsciously motivated. No j u d g m e n t is involved, and the restituting power depends on the individual's power to pull himself up by the b o o t straps and accept himself. The very fact, however, that psychotherapy and Catholic confession deal with the same problem~guilt, anger, hostility, loneliness, jealousy, and so on--would support the conclusion t h a t despite theoretical approaches, these two disciplines share c o m m o n a l i t y and could meet on a point of c o m m o n
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interest if p s y c h o t h e r a p y v i e w e d itself as "part o f " a total r e s t o r a t i o n p r o c e s s o f m a n t o w a r d truth. This is even m o r e critical to t h o s e C a t h o l i c individuals w h o utilize b o t h p s y c h o t h e r a p y and c o n f e s s i o n to order their lives.
References 1. Jung, C. G., "Psychotherapy and Religion." In Jung, Psychology and Religion. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1952. 2. Barton, J. M. T., Penance andAbsolution. New York, Hawthorn Books, 1961, p. 65. 3. Stott, J. R. W., Confess Your Sins. Waco, Texas, Word Books, Publisher, 1974. Used by permission. 4. White, V., God and the Unconscious. New York, World Publishing Co., 1952, p. 182. 5. Maher, B. A., Principles o f Psychotherapy: An Experimental Approach. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966. 6. Thurian, M., Confession. London, SCM Press, Ltd., 1958, pp. 80-81. 7. White, Soul and Psyche. New York, Harper & Bros., 1960, p. 164. Used with permission of Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. 8. Thurian, op. cit., p. 43. 9. Barton, op. cit., p. 58. 10. Belgum, D., Guilt: Where Religion and Psychology Meet. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963, p. 48. 11. Sheerin, J. B., The Sacrament o f Freedom: A Book in Confession. Milwaukee, The Bruce Publishing Co., 1961. 12. Snoeck, A., Confession and Pastoral Psychology. Westminster, Maryland, Newman Press, 1961, p. 10. 13. Ibid., p. 18. 14. Ibid., p. 30. 15. Haring, B., Shalom: Peace. New York, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1967, pp. 48-49. 16. Menninger, K., The Common Enemy. In Sadler, W. A., Jr., ed., Personality and Religion: The Role o f Religion in Personality Development. New York, Harper & Row, 1970, p. 234. 17. Ibid. 18. Snoeck, op. cit., p. 59. 19. Belgum, op. cit., p. 120.
Psychotherapy and Catholic Confession V A L E R I E WORTHEN The problem of easing h u m a n anguish and guilt m ost o f t e n falls u p o n two categories o f individuals--psychotherapists and the clergy. As the problems present themselves in increasing p r o p o r t i o n and c o m p l e x i t y , b o t h psychotherapists and clergymen are forced to examine their calling a little m o r e closely. How does the role of the ps yc h ot herapi st differ, for example, f r o m th at o f the priest hearing confession in terms of guiding the individual who comes to him with a pressing pr obl e m t hat has instilled much guil~? Carl Jung was perhaps among the first to examine critically the suppositions of Catholic confession and p s y c h o t h e r a p y . His article, " P s y c h o t h e r a p y and the Clergy, ''1 represented a composite of positive values of b o t h disciplines. He concludes that: 1) The Catholic Church possesses a rich i n s t r u m e n t (in the form of confession) that can be utilized as a ready-made pastoral technique. 2) The Catholic form of penance serves as a source for immediate release o f tension, however t e m p o r a r y . 3) The Catholic Church is rich in symbolism t hat appeals to the unconscious mind and t h e r e b y makes it m o r e accessible. 4) P s y c h o t h e r a p y involves no direct c o n d e m n a t i o n for any "bad behavior." 5) P s y c h o t h e r a p y is m or e objective and easier to handle because o f its comparative simplicity and lack of ritualism. 6) P s y c h o t h e r a p y can speak to almost every person on some level or o t h e r (in contrast to confession, which, as an activity, actually speaks to a few willing people). Th er e remains, however, the pr obl e m as to h o w the two disciplines are truly comparable in terms of cont r i but i n g to one another. Psychotherapists struggle under the light of r e c e nt research that reveals t hat m a n y of their clients could have progressed effectively w i t h o u t their therapists. In a similar light, the priests struggle under the laymen's const ant demands for t he church to help t hem find meaning in life. Bringing to ge t he r the potentialities o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y and confession to Valerie K. Worthen, M.A., is a graduate in clinical psychology from Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena and a part-time counselor at La Canada Counseling Center, La Canada, California--a Christian-oriented counseling center. 275
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p r o d u c e a possibly m o r e d y n a m i c a p p r o a c h seems to be an i n s u r m o u n t a b l e p r o b l e m . A n even m o r e critical p r o b l e m is t h e necessary u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h o s e Catholics w h o c h o o s e to use b o t h m e t h o d s - - f o r it requires t h a t t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t have full k n o w l e d g e o f t h e Catholic h i s t o r y o u t o f w h i c h the client speaks, arA t h a t the priest have sufficient k n o w l e d g e o f the therap e u t i c process so t h a t he m a y guide t h e client t o w a r d t h e " w h o l e n e s s " t h a t b o t h Christianity and p s y c h o t h e r a p y strive to achieve. The basic q u e s t i o n s to be asked are: 1) W h a t are c o n f e s s i o n and p s y c h o t h e r a p y ? 2) H o w is c o n f e s s i o n c o m p a r a b l e t o p s y c h o t h e r a p y ? 3) Can t h e t w o be resolved into one, m o r e efficient, m e t h o d ?
Definitions o f psychotherapy and confession C o n f e s s i o n is said to be " t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t a m a n m a k e s o f his o w n sins to a priest, with a view to necessary a b s o l u t i o n . ''2 C o n f e s s i o n , or m o r e correctly, t h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e , is s o u g h t w h e n m a n has m a d e an o f f e n c e against God, or, in o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n he has denied love o f God. C o n f e s s i o n is t h e n seen as a necessary c o n d i t i o n f o r receiving t h e forgiveness o f G o d (1 J o h n 1 : 8 ff) and represents the necessary link b e t w e e n t h a t sin and forgiveness.
Originally the Jews set aside a special day in which confessions were made to the person against whom the sin had been committed and from whom the offender desired and needed to receive forgiveness. Jesus emphasized this tradition, and Catholic doctrine that came into full bloom in the sixth c e n t u r y e x p a n d e d and clarified the s a c r a m e n t . S t o t t clarifies the s a c r a m e n t o f c o n f e s s i o n b y basing its source and c o n t i n u a n c e o n the d o c t r i n e o f Catholic p r i e s t h o o d itself. He writes: This is still the official teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, which (it is important to grasp) rests on their doctrine of the priesthood. Their view of confession arises and depends on their view of absolution. According to Ludwig Ott's book Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, the argument runs like this: when Jesus was on earth He forgave sins, Mr. 2:5 f.; Lk. 7:4 f (p. 419). This very same power to forgive sins He bestowed "on the Apostles and on their legitimate successors" (p. 417) who are not "all the faithful indiscriminately, but only . . . the members of the hierarchy" (p. 439)--that is, Catholic priests. He promised it to them in His words about the keys of the kingdom and about binding and loosing, both of which include "the power to forgive sins" (p. 410) and then actually transferred it to them "on the evening of the day of the Resurrection" when He said to them "As the Father hath sent me, I also send you . . . ; whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained" (p. 410 ff). This "power to forgive sins involves not merely the power of preaching the gospel of the forgiveness of sins as the Reformers interpreted it, but also the full power of really remitting sins" (p. 417). Again, "the Church firmly insists that the power of absolution is a true and real power of absolution, by which sins committed against God are immediately remitted. The Proof derives from John 20:23. According to the words of Jesus, the act of the remission of sins, performed by the apostles and by their successors, has the effect that sins are remitted by God. There is a causal connection between the active
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remitting and the passive being remitted" (p. 422). Priestly absolution "does not merely indicate forgiveness of sins, but also effects it" (p. 436). 3 T h e d e e p m e a n i n g b y which this s a c r a m e n t is carried o u t is, t h e r e f o r e , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h e priest plays t h e i m p o r t a n t role o f m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n t h e sinner and G o d and acts in a jurisdictional c a p a c i t y - - p e n a n c e i m p l y i n g a p e n a l t y i m p o s e d b y t h e priest for a c o m m i t t e d u n c o n s c i o u s sin. T h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e involves a t h r e e f o l d process. First is t h a t o f c o n t r i t i o n or the sinner's a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f his grief or h a t r e d o f the c o m m i t t e d sin with a strong resolve n o t t o r e p e a t it if at all possible. S e c o n d , the c o n f e s s i o n p r o p e r is h e a r d b y the priest. A n d third is the e l e m e n t o f satisfaction or the "willing a c c e p t a n c e or p e r f o r m a n c e o f s o m e task i m p o s e d as c o m p e n s a t i o n and as a t o k e n o f g o o d faith and willingness t o a c c e p t t h e penal c o n s e q u e n c e s o f sin. ''4 In c o m p a r i s o n , p s y c h o t h e r a p y is the process b y which e m o t i o n a l and m e n t a l disorders are alleviated as a result o f recalling material f r o m t h e unconscious. Maher states t h a t " p s y c h o t h e r a p y " as d e f i n e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n Psychological Association is " 'a process involving i n t e r p e r s o n a l relationships b e t w e e n a t h e r a p i s t and one or m o r e patients or clients b y w h i c h t h e f o r m e r e m p l o y s p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s based on s y s t e m a t i c k n o w l e d g e o f t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y in a t t e m p t i n g to i m p r o v e t h e m e n t a l health o f t h e latter.' ,,5 T h e key phrase in this d e f i n i t i o n is " i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s " ; the process o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y involves c o n f r o n t a t i o n on a o n e - t o - o n e basis, the same e l e m e n t t h a t exists in Catholic confession. Here, h o w e v e r , conscious recall is stressed o n l y in t h e beginning stages o f t h e r a p y with t h e u l t i m a t e goal being t h a t o f recalling u n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i n g material. T h e means b y which the u n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i n g material is laid b a r e are diverse and varied. Y e t the u l t i m a t e goal, t h a t o f i m p r o v i n g t h e m e n t a l h e a l t h t o m a x i m u m efficiency, is the same regardless o f h o w t h e p r o b l e m is app r o a c h e d . P s y c h o t h e r a p y is based n o t o n l y o n t h e principle t h a t " s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g in m y life," as is also f o u n d in confession, b u t also o n the f a c t t h a t " m u c h o f w h a t is w r o n g lies b e n e a t h h i d d e n m o t i v a t i o n . " B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to e x a m i n e these t w o disciplines m o r e closely, I wish to m a k e an abbreviated c o m m e n t or t w o o n t h e d e f i n i t i o n and d y n a m i c s o f " s i n " as viewed b y t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t and t h e priest-confessor. T h u r i a n sta~es t h a t : The Church recognizes, in fact, that sin--which is essentially a revolt against God [my italics], that is to say a lack of love for him and for what he has created--brings in its train a whole series of psychological ar.d even physical consequences . . . . Within its own limits psychoanalysis, whether practiced by a Christian or an agnostic, is not called upon to consider the theological or metaphysical causes of what we call sin. 6 It can be f u r t h e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t p s y c h o t h e r a p y s e l d o m goes b e y o n d t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f sin as an act t h a t is l o o k e d u p o n b y s o c i e t y as m o r a l l y w r o n g or damaging to the p a t i e n t and his c o n t a c t s . I n d e e d , s o m e p s y c h o -
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t h e r a p i s t s e v e n go so far as to e n c o u r a g e " s i n " if it will u l t i m a t e l y b e n e f i t t h e t o t a l g r o w t h o f t h e p e r s o n , (e.g., such as having p r e m a r i t a l i n t e r c o u r s e to o v e r c o m e c h i l d h o o d fears o f sex). White says: For all this is not of course to say that no good and no integration can come as an indirect consequence of sin, of willing and doing evil. Indirect, because directly and in itself sin is wholly destructive of good and of integration. But indirectly, good can and has come of it ever since the felix culpa (the "happy fault") of Adam, the certe necessarium peccatum (the "truly necessary sin" of Adam). Where sin abounds, there does grace the more abound; though we may not sin that grace may abound. The neurotic, all too often, is unable to sin freely: his very repressions and fears of the "shadow" prevent it, and the same fear can produce an equally compulsive and largely spurious "goodness." Just for this reason, the Christian Gospel and the rites of the Church have no real meaning for him, for they presuppose the experience of sin and the power to respond to them freely. The actual experience of having sinned may (as, according to the Epistle to the Romans, it did for the whole Gentile and Hebrew worlds) enable him to appreciate his need for faith and the healing Christ. But sin remains sin, and the end does not justify the means. Psychotherapists who assure their patients that their sins are no sins, because of the benefits to their health which may come from them, are not only transgressing their professional competence; they are encouraging the accompanying guilt-sense to be repressed into unconsciousness, and hence, likely to form another, and even more intractable "shadow. ''7 I t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e priests and p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s h a v e t w o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s . Y e t a closer l o o k m i g h t suggest o t h e r w i s e . F o r t h e priest, sin is a t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d ' s love and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g lack o f love f o r H i m . It is b o t h an i n t e n s e l y p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n " I " and G o d , b u t also a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n " I " and c o m m u n i t y . While t h e w o r d " s i n " w o u l d rarely b e used b y p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , the c o n f l i c t o f a n y o n e individual is u l t i m a t e l y " I " a n d c o m m u n i t y . F o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y t h e o f t e n missing link h e r e is t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n " I " and Him. This d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , d e s t r o y a n y c o m m o n a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e t w o views o f sin, f o r o n e i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t is clear. W h e t h e r o n e is s p e a k i n g o f sin in t e r m s o f t u r n i n g f r o m G o d , or in t e r m s o f a b r e a k f r o m s o c i e t y ' s m o r a l i t i e s or t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f conflicts, b o t h views are f i r m l y b a s e d on t h e n o t i o n o f e g o c e n t r i s m - - t h e t u r n i n g f r o m H i m and f r o m t h e c o m m u n i t y to t h e selfish " I . " In this r e s p e c t b o t h t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e p r i e s t l o o k u p o n sin as c o r r u p t i v e . It is crucial to t h e Catholic view o f sin and to t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c view t h a t c o n s c i o u s sin o r s h o r t c o m i n g s n o t o n l y p r o d u c e p a t h o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s f o r t h e p e r s o n involved, b u t u l t i m a t e l y adversely a f f e c t t h e p e a c e and j o y o f t h e c o m m u n i t y at large. T h u r i a n states: " . . . n o t o n l y has it [sin] p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h shed a b r o a d s o m e degree o f d i s o r d e r and suffering; a n y sin, h o w e v e r secret, since it is a sin o f a m e m b e r o f t h e b o d y , is a drag on t h e C h u r c h b e c a u s e it causes a r u p t u r e in h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d . ''s T h e s a m e is t r u e o f t h e c o n f l i c t o f p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y as v i e w e d b y t h e therapist. E g o c e n t r i s m has a negative e f f e c t o n t h e " I " and o n t h e c o m m u n i t y .
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T h e subtleties o f t h e t o p i c o f sin are m a n y and are f u r t h e r c o m p o u n d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t m a n is n o n e t o o eager to express t h e guilt b e h i n d sin a n d so c o n s i s t e n t l y covers u p his t r a c k s a n d sidesteps sin b y s t a t i n g t h a t 1) it is m o r b i d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n sin; 2) m a n is p e r f e c t i o n , since h e was c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e o f G o d , or 3) m a n was m e a n t to h i d e his sins or guilt in t h e s a m e m a n n e r t h a t A d a m hid f r o m G o d a f t e r t h e Fall. O r m a n c a n a t t e m p t t o avoid sin a l t o g e t h e r a n d lead a t r u l y n e u r o t i c life lacking a n y f o r m o f u n i t y . It is possible, no doubt, to be afraid of God's punishments in such a way that sin is avoided simply because of the penalties attaching to it, so that the sinner remains with all the will and the desires of sin, if only he could escape from the consequences. This, as most people would admit, is a wholly unworthy state of mind, and is not the sort of fear that the Council would accept as sufficient for true sorrow. 9 U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , even as p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s and priests t r y t o struggle w i t h t h e a p p a r e n t similarities o f t h e i r disciplines, t h e c o n f u s i o n d e e p e n s w h e n o n e tries to tease o u t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s , m o t i v a t i o n s , a n d d e f e n s e o f sin.
Confession vs. psychotherapy: a comparison O f p r i m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n is t h e a t t i t u d e b y w h i c h o n e a p p r o h c h e s t h e p r o b lems o f t h e client or p e n i t e n t . B e l g u m writes: The role in which a person perceives himself will greatly influence how he reacts to his situation in life. For example, two roommates in a hospital are incapacitated by a physical or mental illness. One considers himself the victim of an impersonal disease over which he has little or no control; the other views himself as a sinner who is receiving just reward for his evil life. Such a basic difference in viewpoint has profound implications for diagnosis of the disease, responsibility for the cure, type of therapy to be used, the locus of the problem, as well as for the question of one's philosophy of life. 10 What, specifically, are t h e " c o n t e m p o r a r y " c o m p a r i s o n s in v i e w p o i n t established b y t h e s e t w o p r o f e s s i o n s t h a t deal w i t h this issue? 1) A l t h o u g h t h e basic aim o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y is t o aid t h e individual to f u n c t i o n b e t t e r in his e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e r a p y is, f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , individualistically o r i e n t e d . T h e c o m m u n i t y is s e l d o m i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e r a p y . T h e v e r y n a t u r e o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y implies t h a t m a n c a n " d e t e r m i n e " his fate. C o n f e s s i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t a t r a n s g r e s s i o n is n o t o n l y against G o d , b u t is p e r f o r m e d in a m a n n e r t h a t necessarily a f f e c t s all o t h e r s in t h e c o m m u n i t y . R e s t o r a t i o n w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e grace o f G o d are necessarily " p r e d e t e r m i n e d " b y G o d ' s o w n free will to i m p a r t grace a n d reassurance. 2) P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s d o n o t h a v e a universal f o r m a t o f p r o c e d u r e s to f o l l o w such as t h e Catholics have. T h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e is b a s e d o n an a l m o s t universally a c c e p t e d p r o c e d u r e ; a p e n i t e n t e n t e r i n g t h e c o n f e s s i o n a l in alm o s t a n y c o u n t r y can b e assured o f t h e s a m e basic p r o c e d u r e .
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3) The priest-confessor views sin as a weak h u m a n act t hat lacks the ultimate goodness--that o f striving to attain c o n f o r m i t y with the divine mind. Sin is the c a u s e of the unhappiness. The psychotherapist o f t e n views sin or egocentrism as the end r e s u l t of an involuntary process contrary to the individual's will. It is m or e a question of something t hat happens to the client (i.e., puts him in a bad position t h a t forces him toward egocentricism), rather than something he succumbs to himself. 4) It is o f t e n stated t hat confession deals with the evils of hum an f r e e d o m while p s y c h o t h e r a p y deals with the results of h u m a n compulsion. Contrary to this statement, however, there is really no difference between the confessing individual who is fighting problems of h u m a n freedom and the neurotic individual who must necessarily deal with the choice of freedom, too. It can be just as vicious and evil n o t to choose as to choose. 5) The sacrament o f penance is called upon to deal with w i l l f u l misdeeds and thoughts while p s y c h o t h e r a p y m ost oft en sees itself dealing with dynamics o f unconscious motivation. 6) The "confessing a c t " in p s y c h o t h e r a p y and confession differs in content. The psychotherapist is n o t normally concerned with the confession of a moral offense, but rather looks for causes of the problem. The Catholic confession requires the priest to act as a judge of subjective moral rightness or wrongness. 7) While the sacrament of penance was n o t ordained to cure, it may help prevent problems if the individual keeps a continual open heart in speaking to his confessor. Similarly, p s y c h o t h e r a p y , while n o t ordained to forgive sins, does muc h to free the individual from those compulsions that make sin, and r ep en tan c e of sin, difficult. 8) Sheerin states: " . . . it is not enough simply to r e m e m b e r t hat y o u did such and such a wrong act. The core o f the sin is in the intention and unless y o u had a sinful intention, the e x t e m a l act was n o t a sin. ''1 1 The intention, or egocentrism, is equated to the conscious cause of t he problem. Psychoth er ap y also endorses the view of the intention (i.e., motivation) of the external act as a result rather than as a cause. The sin, i.e., egocentrism, is a result o f the individual's inability to cope effectively with outside influences. These issues are further c o m p l i c a t e d by the general disagreement within the church itself as to the involvement of the priest in the confessing individual's life and the disagreement among psychotherapists as to the use o f techniques and the inclusion of the religious aspect in the life of the patient. With regard to the first o f these disagreements, it is admittedly difficult for the priests to separate the sacrament from personal counseling. Most admit that confession should first be an e n c o u n t e r in the m y s t e r y o f Christ's redemption. Moralizing and intervention on the psychological level should follow second, if at all. T he younge r priests who have m ore education in psychological dynamics tend to c o n c e n t r a t e m ore on this secondary level. Snoeck points out that this is an error on their part since "Much harm has been caused by pr e m at ur e l y drawing a person's at t ent i on to those elements
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o f h i s u n c o n s c i o u s w i t h w h i c h h e h a d c o n t e n t e d h i m s e l f t o live, e v e n i f in a n u n h e a l t h y w a y . ''1 2 E l a b o r a t i n g o n t h i s p o i n t , h e w r i t e s : Neither should the examination of the conscience inquire into the hidden structures which influence our lives without our will. This examination is not a consideration of depth psychology in which one traces all the concomitants that had some bearing upon the sinful decision of our acts. Such concomitants as instincts, endogenic drives, fixations, inhibitions, the devious ways of uncontrolled and uncontrollable orientations of sentiment, which run through the obscurity of the subconscious, are things over which the conscious will has no power and of which the healthy intellect knows nothing. 1 3 He further concludes: Man has, generally, little or no control over his life of emotions and sentiment. They are passive phenomena usually accompanying man's efforts and strivings. Only over his external will does man have direct control, and it is in this that his freedom consists. Therefore, if it is a matter of contrition insofar as it should be stirred up by the penitent himself, this must be fundamentally in t h e will and not in the emotions over which man has no control. 14 There can be no doubt at this point that Snoeck represents the more dogmatic of the Catholic priests. He and many others vouch for a belief that a difference exists between moral and emotional problems; emotional problems must be dealt with outside of the confessional. Haring represents the other side of the above view and suggests that a b r o a d e r b a c k g r o u n d is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r i e s t - c o n f e s s o r . There is a definite need for the priest to study psychology and sociology if he is to be an effective guide in the direction of penitents. Psychology will make him aware o f the frustrations, conflicts and maladjustments prevalent in this day and age. Sociology will reveal the impact of the environment on the people. Both will serve to bridle his impulse at times to say: "You have to do this and if you d o n ' t obey, y o u ' r e showing y o u r bad will." Finally, there seems to be a need for some sort of common pastoral planning which, perhaps could be achieved through Episcopal Conferences. One of the aims of the Conferences could be to try to reduce the inconsistencies of practice that people meet within the confessional. It is not uncommon to hear people themselves complaining that Father So-and-So says that this is perfectly all right whereas Father Such-and-Such finds it objectionable and wrong. Inconsistencies of this nature tend to make people suspect that perhaps the priest in the confessional does not represent the Church. These people do not understand that there are areas in theology that are open to different opinions. However, each priest should seek to explain as clearly as possible the doctrine of the Church and then let his penitent see that his counsel is based on an interpretation of that doctrine.1 s T h e p r o b l e m o f w h a t c o n f e s s i o n t r u l y i n v o l v e s is, as y e t , u n c l e a r e v e n t o the clergy of the Church, particularly with regard to the extent of involvement into the personal problems of the sinner.
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Similarly, d i s a g r e e m e n t s exist f r o m w i t h i n t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c discipline. N o t o n l y is t h e r e dissension c o n c e r n i n g t h e various t y p e s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y and t h e i r m e a n s t o u l t i m a t e m e n t a l h e a l t h , b u t t h e r e is c o n t i n u o u s style c o n c e r n i n g t h e inclusion o f religion in p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c pursuits. I f p s y c h o l o g y is to vie w i t h the o t h e r scientific disciplines such as m e d i c i n e , physics, and b i o l o g y , it o f t e n implies t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t s u b j e c t i v e t o p i c o f religion be o m i t t e d . Menninger, q u o t i n g a s p e e c h b y Dr. D a v i d McClellan, writes: "Speaking publicly about religious matters presents many difficulties for a behavioral scientist today. To admit to a religious point of view, to some personal commitment, is to violate the most fundamental rule governing the behavior of a scientist--namely, to be objective. Personal bias serves only to distort the search for truth. So it is part of the professional role of the scientist, particularly if he is interested in human affairs, to keep himself free from entangling commitments, to remain in a state of suspended judgment so far as many of life's most serious issues are concerned. "And most of my colleagues live up to their professional role with great strictness so far as religion, and in particular Christianity, is concerned. I can hardly think of a psychologist, sociologist or anthropologist of my generation who would admit publicly or privately to a religious commitment of any kind . . . . .1 6 Menninger continues: This, I think, is a startling statement and one I find a little difficult to accept literally. I myself know quite a number of psychiatrists and psychologists who "admit" both privately and publicly of religious commitments. 1 7 P s y c h o l o g y is at p r e s e n t finding t h e dissension q u i t e s t r o n g on b o t h issues--a f a c t t h a t f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e s t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f c o n f e s s i o n in p s y c h o t h e r a p y and religion. A p o t e n t i a l resolution
T h e h i s t o r y and b a c k g r o u n d o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y and Catholic c o n f e s s i o n share m a n y similarities a n d conflicts. B o t h include as a goal (or o n e o f several goals) t h e h e a l t h y r e s t i t u t i o n to c o m m u n i t y life o n c e sin or e g o c e n t r i s m is r e 4 i i r e c t e d or e l i m i n a t e d . P s y c h o p a t h o l o g y n o t o n l y h a m p e r s m a n ' s a t t e m p t t o e l i m i n a t e egoc e n t r i s m and attain w h o l e n e s s in life; p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y also h a m p e r s m a n ' s ability t o a c k n o w l e d g e his real guilt b e f o r e G o d in t r u e c o n t r i t i o n . In c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e s e u n h e a l t h y t e n d e n c i e s , successful p s y c h o t h e r a p y att e m p t s t o give f r e e d o m to t h e i n n e r m a n and e n a b l e s h i m to r e s p o n d fully to his e n v i r o n m e n t in a w h o l l y i n t e g r a t e d , realistic m a n n e r . T h e C h u r c h sees as its f u n c t i o n t h e m e d i a t i o n b e t w e e n G o d and m a n : t h e H o l y Spirit seeks t h r o u g h t h e s a c r a m e n t o f p e n a n c e to o r d e r t h e w h o l e o f m a n ' s physical, p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a n d spiritual life, i.e., c o m i n g to i n t e r n a l t r u t h b e f o r e G o d and
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before the c o m m u n i t y . Snoeck comments that " . . . while psychotherapy tries to integrate personal structures, spiritual direction tries to enable a person to find his calling and to fulfill his personal response to that calling.,,1 s Belgum, speaking from a Lutheran background, suggests three steps or "prescriptions" necessary for man to break away from his egocentrism, which includes sin, hypocrisy, and pride. The essential elements for a functional confession include the confession itself, amendment, and repentance.1 9 Amendment, or constructive change, suggests the usefulness or light that psychology might shed on the total adjustment toward the ultimate wholeness of man. A pattern is beginning to emerge at this point--one t h a t might suggest t h a t psychotherapy and Catholic confession can work in an integrative way toward individual understanding and truth. Psychotherapy can aid the individual to psychological freedom to respond to the environment. Confession (the next level above psychotherapy) can aid the individual in spiritual freedom to respond to the environment and, more importantly, to God. These separate functions of psychotherapy and confession can work on a progression toward the goal of being oneself in truth before God, i.e., wholly integrated psychologically and spiritually. The working reality of the foregoing discussion can be found 1) in the integrative attempts of psychology and religion to come together on what appears at first glance to be u n c o m m o n grounds, and 2) in church consultation services in which a therapist can work from within the church setting to aid the individual's total growth and in the growth of the c o m m u n i t y of the church itself. Conclusion
Two seemingly different conclusions can be drawn from the preceding presentation concerning the compatibility of psychotherapy and Catholic confession. First, one could conclude that the two disciplines could never c o m p l e m e n t one another on an equal basis, since they are based on different presuppositions and, therefore, could n o t logically come out with the same results. For example, confession presupposes man's conscious sin as a cause, the mediating j u d g m e n t of the priest, and the restituting grace of God. Psychotherapy presupposes the acceptance of sin as a s y m p t o m of some larger problem t h a t is unconsciously motivated. No j u d g m e n t is involved, and the restituting power depends on the individual's power to pull himself up by the b o o t straps and accept himself. The very fact, however, that psychotherapy and Catholic confession deal with the same problem~guilt, anger, hostility, loneliness, jealousy, and so on--would support the conclusion t h a t despite theoretical approaches, these two disciplines share c o m m o n a l i t y and could meet on a point of c o m m o n
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interest if p s y c h o t h e r a p y v i e w e d itself as "part o f " a total r e s t o r a t i o n p r o c e s s o f m a n t o w a r d truth. This is even m o r e critical to t h o s e C a t h o l i c individuals w h o utilize b o t h p s y c h o t h e r a p y and c o n f e s s i o n to order their lives.
References 1. Jung, C. G., "Psychotherapy and Religion." In Jung, Psychology and Religion. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1952. 2. Barton, J. M. T., Penance andAbsolution. New York, Hawthorn Books, 1961, p. 65. 3. Stott, J. R. W., Confess Your Sins. Waco, Texas, Word Books, Publisher, 1974. Used by permission. 4. White, V., God and the Unconscious. New York, World Publishing Co., 1952, p. 182. 5. Maher, B. A., Principles o f Psychotherapy: An Experimental Approach. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966. 6. Thurian, M., Confession. London, SCM Press, Ltd., 1958, pp. 80-81. 7. White, Soul and Psyche. New York, Harper & Bros., 1960, p. 164. Used with permission of Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. 8. Thurian, op. cit., p. 43. 9. Barton, op. cit., p. 58. 10. Belgum, D., Guilt: Where Religion and Psychology Meet. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963, p. 48. 11. Sheerin, J. B., The Sacrament o f Freedom: A Book in Confession. Milwaukee, The Bruce Publishing Co., 1961. 12. Snoeck, A., Confession and Pastoral Psychology. Westminster, Maryland, Newman Press, 1961, p. 10. 13. Ibid., p. 18. 14. Ibid., p. 30. 15. Haring, B., Shalom: Peace. New York, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1967, pp. 48-49. 16. Menninger, K., The Common Enemy. In Sadler, W. A., Jr., ed., Personality and Religion: The Role o f Religion in Personality Development. New York, Harper & Row, 1970, p. 234. 17. Ibid. 18. Snoeck, op. cit., p. 59. 19. Belgum, op. cit., p. 120.
