Pediatric Exercise Science, 2015, 27, 26-29 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/pes.2015-0031 © 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Psychosocial Aspects of Exercise and Physical Activity in Childhood Lindsay E. Kipp University of Kentucky
A. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity— Evaluating Effectiveness Citation Weiss MR, Bolter ND, Kipp LE. Assessing impact of physical activity-based youth development programs: Validation of the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS). Res Q Exerc Sport. 2014; 85:263–278. PubMed doi:10.1080/02701367.2014.931558
Purpose: A signature characteristic of positive youth development (PYD) programs is the opportunity to develop life skills, such as social, behavioral, and moral competencies, that can be generalized to domains beyond the immediate activity. Although context-specific instruments are available to assess developmental outcomes, a measure of life skills transfer would enable evaluation of PYD programs in successfully teaching skills that youth report using in other domains. The purpose of our studies was to develop and validate a measure of perceived life skills transfer, based on data collected with The First Tee, a physical activity-based PYD program. Method: In 3 studies, we conducted a series of steps to provide content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the life skills transfer survey (LSTS), a measure of perceived life skills transfer. Results: Study 1 provided content validity for the LSTS that included 8 life skills and 50 items. Study 2 revealed construct validity (structural validity) through a confirmatory factor analysis and convergent validity by correlating scores on the LSTS with scores on an assessment tool that measures a related construct. Study 3 offered additional construct validity by reassessing youth 1 year later and showing that scores during both time periods were invariant in factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated internal consistency reliability of the LSTS. Conclusion: Results from 3 studies provide evidence of content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the LSTS, which can be used in evaluation research with youth development programs.
Commentary It is clear from past research that sport and physical activity for youth can bring about psychosocial benefits such as greater self-esteem, positive emotions, and selfdetermined motivation (e.g., 5). However, these benefits are not an automatic consequence; thus, it is important to explore how to promote positive outcomes. Recently, a positive youth development (PYD) theoretical framework has been used to study how to promote benefits of physical activity for youth (4,8). According to the framework, a safe, supportive environment with competent adults and skill-building opportunities will lead to positive develThe author is with the Dept. of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Address author correspondence to Lindsay E. Kipp at [email protected].
26
opmental outcomes for young participants. Many PYD programs aim to teach life skills, defined as behaviors or attitudes learned in one domain (e.g., sport) that can be generalized or transferred to other domains like school, family, or peers. Life skills such as goal setting, managing emotions, and helping others can prepare youth to be successful members of their community. PYD research has assessed aspects such as life skills learning, coaching behaviors, and psychological climate (e.g., 1,3). However, prior studies have not assessed the transfer of life skills to other relevant domains. The highlighted study by Weiss et al. (6) addressed this gap in the literature—in three studies, they developed and provided evidence for validity and reliability of the life skills transfer survey (LSTS). The authors created the measure as part of their own evaluation of a physical activity-based PYD program, The First Tee, which uses golf as a context to teach
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life skills and develop core values such as honesty and responsibility. Weiss and colleagues (6) also recommend future researchers use the LSTS to evaluate the effectiveness of PYD programs that aim to teach competencies that generalize to other domains. Weiss et al.’s (6) study is significant because it presents a new measure relevant for researchers and practitioners interested in physical activity-based positive youth development (PA-PYD) programs. PA-PYD programs use sport or physical activity as a vehicle to teach psychosocial and behavioral skills (e.g., managing emotions, making healthy choices) that maximize positive developmental outcomes for youth. In study 1, Weiss et al. (6) created a measure to assess whether youth believed life skills learned in The First Tee were used in other domains such as school, friends, and family. The authors methodically followed a series of six steps: review the literature; conduct interviews with The First Tee youth, coaches, and parents; create an initial pool of items; enlist an expert panel; conduct pilot studies; and finalize the measure. The final measure comprised 50 items that represented 8 life skills: meeting and greeting, managing emotions, goal setting, resolving conflicts, making healthy choices, appreciating diversity, getting help from others, and helping others. Items are consistent with the PYD theoretical framework and are not specific to golf or The First Tee. Thus, the scale can be used to evaluate any PYD program. Studies 2 and 3 provided evidence for validity and reliability of the LSTS with youth ages 10–18 in The First Tee. Evidence for structural validity was demonstrated by a good fit of the data to an 8-factor model (i.e., the 8 life skills), showing that life skills transfer is a multidimensional construct, as measured by the LSTS. Convergent validity was demonstrated by moderate correlations between subscales on the LSTS and another established measure assessing life skills learning. These moderate correlations show that life skills transfer is similar but distinct from general life skills learning. Weiss et al. (6) showed preliminary evidence of generalizability of the LSTS with youth in a variety of organized activities. Results showed support for validity of this measure across various youth programs. To show structural validity over time, youth were assessed at two time points, one year apart. The LSTS demonstrated acceptable invariance for factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances over time. Thus, the measure can be used to assess stability or change in perceived life skills transfer. This is particularly important for evaluation research to determine whether participants are maintaining, increasing, or decreasing their use of life skills in other domains. Results can inform practitioners what they are doing well and what can be improved in regard to teaching life skills. This article is exciting because it emphasizes the importance of PA-PYD programs, which use physical activity as a context to teach valuable physical and psychosocial skills and promote positive developmental outcomes (4,8). For example, youth may learn to set specific goals in sport and then use that knowledge to set goals for school. Or, youth may learn to manage their emotions
during competition and then use that skill while interacting with peers. The transferring of competencies to other domains is a hallmark goal of PYD programs. Youth gain assets in physical activity that can be used in other areas of their life as well as in the future, which helps make them successful, contributing members of society. Weiss et al.’s (6) LSTS provides a quantitative measure to assess impact of PYD programs on youths’ life skill use in a variety of domains. Petitpas et al. (4) emphasize a need for evaluation studies to document effectiveness of PYD programs, but few evaluations have been conducted (e.g., 2,7,9). The LSTS will be key in future evaluation of existing and new PA-PYD programs. Research in this area can help inform practitioners what they are doing well and what can be improved in regard to teaching life skills. Physical activity-based PYD programs can then modify curricula if necessary to optimize physical, social, and psychological skill learning and promote positive developmental experiences for youth.
References 1. Camiré M, Trudel P, Forneris T. High school athletes’ perspectives on support, communication, negotiation and life skill development. Qual Res Sport Exerc. 2009; 1:72–88. doi:10.1080/19398440802673275 2. DeBate RD, Gabriel KP, Zwald M, Huberty J, Zhang Y. Changes in psychosocial factors and physical activity frequency among third- to eighth-grade girls who participated in a developmentally focused youth sport program: a preliminary study. J Sch Health. 2009; 79:474–484. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00437.x 3. Gano-Overway LA, Newton M, Magyar TM, Fry MD, Kim M, Guivernau MR. Influence of caring youth sport contexts on efficacy-related beliefs and social behaviors. Dev Psychol. 2009; 45:329–340. PubMed doi:10.1037/a0014067 4. Petitpas AJ, Cornelius AE, Van Raalte JL, Jones T. A framework for planning youth sport programs that foster psychosocial development. Sport Psychol. 2005; 19:63–80. 5. Smoll, FL, and RE Smith, editors. Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt; 2002. 6. Weiss MR, Bolter ND, Kipp LE. Assessing impact of physical activity-based youth development programs: Validation of the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS). Res Q Exerc Sport. 2014; 85:263–278. PubMed doi:10.1080/ 02701367.2014.931558 7. Weiss MR, Stuntz CP, Bhalla JA, Bolter ND, Price MS. ‘More than a game’: impact of The First Tee life skills programme on positive youth development: project introduction and Year 1 findings. Qual Res Sport Exerc Health. 2013; 5:214–244. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2012.712997 8. Weiss MR, Wiese-Bjornstal DM. Promoting positive youth development through physical activity. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. 2009; 10(3):1–8. 9. Wright PM, Burton S. Implementation and outcomes of a responsibility-based physical activity program integrated into an intact high school physical education class. J Teach Phys Educ. 2008; 27:138–154.
28 Kipp
B. Optimal Functioning in Youth Sport—The Contribution of Self-Determination Theory to Understanding Mental Toughness Citation
Downloaded by Northern Illinois University on 09/17/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
Mahoney JW, Gucciardi DF, Ntoumanis N, Mallett CJ. Mental toughness in sport: Motivational antecedents and associations with performance and psychological health. J Sport Exer Psychol. 2014; 36:281–292. PubMed doi:10.1123/jsep.2013-0260
We argue that basic psychological needs theory (BPNT) offers impetus to the value of mental toughness as a mechanism for optimizing human functioning. We hypothesized that psychological needs satisfaction (thwarting) would be associated with higher (lower) levels of mental toughness, positive affect, and performance and lower (higher) levels of negative affect. We also expected that mental toughness would be associated with higher levels of positive affect and performance and lower levels of negative affect. Further, we predicted that coaching environments would be related to mental toughness indirectly through psychological needs and that psychological needs would indirectly relate with performance and affect through mental toughness. Adolescent cross-country runners (136 male and 85 female, Mage = 14.36) completed questionnaires pertaining to BPNT variables, mental toughness, and affect. Race times were also collected. Our findings supported our hypotheses. We concluded that BPNT is generative in understanding some of the antecedents and consequences of mental toughness and is a novel framework useful for understanding mental toughness.
Commentary Basic psychological needs theory (BPNT) (7,8) is one subtheory of self-determination theory that has been useful for studying predictors of well-being among youth physical activity participants. According to BPNT, social contexts that promote satisfaction of three basic psychological needs will enhance optimal functioning and mental health. The three basic needs include perceived competence (judgment of ability in one’s sport), autonomy (sense of choice and volition), and relatedness (feeling of connection with the team). Research has shown positive relationships between psychological need satisfaction and social contextual factors such as autonomy-supportive coaching behaviors (e.g., providing athletes with choices within limits, acknowledging athletes’ feelings and ideas) and coaches who create a mastery motivational climate (e.g., emphasizing effort, self-improvement, and learning as keys to success). In turn, greater need satisfaction has been linked with aspects of well-being such as higher self-esteem and positive affect (e.g., 1,3,6). Much research in this area has assessed indicators of well- and ill-being such as self-esteem, positive and negative affect, subjective vitality, and physical illness symptoms. Recently, other markers of well-being that are relevant for young athletes have been examined using the BPNT framework, such as sportsmanship behaviors (e.g., 5), disordered eating (e.g., 3), and in the highlighted article by Mahoney et al. (4), mental toughness and objective sport performance. Thus, BPNT continues to be a useful and appropriate theory for understanding variations in a variety of psychological, physical, and behavioral well-being outcomes for young physical activity participants. BPNT is also a practical theory because results provide recommendations for coaches and physical activity instructors about which behaviors or mechanisms are likely to optimize young athletes’ well-being.
Mahoney et al. (4) make a case for situating mental toughness within an existing framework (i.e., BPNT) to further understand this construct because past research on mental toughness has lacked theoretical underpinnings. Gucciardi, Hanton, Gordon, Mallett, and Temby (2) defined mental toughness as a personal capacity to produce consistently high performance, including subjective (e.g., goal achievement) and objective successes (e.g., race time), while overcoming challenges. Gucciardi et al. (2) created a unidimensional measure of mental toughness that was used by Mahoney and colleagues (4) in the highlighted study. The items in the measure reflect eight facets of mental toughness, such as self-confidence, optimistic thinking, attention regulation, and emotion regulation. Mahoney and colleagues (4) operationalized mental toughness as a unidimensional construct and situated it within BPNT to explore possible antecedents and consequences. Using path analysis, Mahoney et al. (4) found support for all of their hypotheses with a sample of adolescent cross-country runners. Namely, psychological need satisfaction mediated the relationship between autonomysupportive coach behaviors and mental toughness. The authors also found that mental toughness served as a mediator of the relationship between need satisfaction and other well-being indices including positive and negative affect and objective performance (i.e., race time). Thus, runners who perceived their coaches provided them with choice and rationale for activities tended to report greater levels of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. In turn, they reported higher levels of mental toughness, which was associated with greater happiness, fewer feelings of sadness and anxiety, and faster run times. Results supported mental toughness as an indicator of well-being that can be explained by coaching behaviors and satisfaction of psychological needs, in line with BPNT. Interestingly, Mahoney and colleagues (4) found support for an indirect relationship where mental toughness was a mediator of
Downloaded by Northern Illinois University on 09/17/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
Psychosocial Aspects of Exercise 29
the relationship between psychological need satisfaction with positive and negative affect and performance, suggesting that mental toughness may be a mechanism to enhance various aspects of well-being. Future longitudinal research would help uncover direction of causality and explain how multiple well-being indices are linked. The highlighted study is significant because it provides support for the relevance and practicality of BPNT for understanding youths’ optimal functioning and experiences in sport. Importantly, coaching behaviors and psychological need satisfaction helped explain holistic well-being outcomes, including mental toughness, affect, and objective performance. Future research in this area should continue to study various indicators of well-being that are relevant to the population of interest. For example, in the highlighted study mental toughness was especially relevant for cross-country runners who need to push through long distances, and in another study disordered eating was a well-being marker relevant for adolescent gymnasts who are at risk for unhealthy eating patterns (e.g., 3). Mahoney et al.’s (4) study was novel in showing the link between mental toughness with coach autonomysupportive behaviors and psychological need satisfaction. They conceptualized and tested psychological need satisfaction as a single variable that comprised items assessing perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Future studies might examine the three needs as separate constructs, along with various social contextual factors (e.g., motivational climate, feedback and reinforcement, peer influence) to determine whether certain social factors and psychological needs differentially predict mental toughness and other markers of well-being. Research in this area will help inform coaches and physical activity instructors about the specific behaviors and mechanisms necessary to optimize youths’ experiences in physical activity settings.
References 1. Bartholomew KJ, Ntoumanis N, Ryan RM, Bosch JA, Thøgersen-Ntoumani C. Self-determination theory and diminished functioning: The role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2011; 37:1459–1473. PubMed doi:10.1177/0146167211413125 2. Gucciardi DF, Hanton S, Gordon S, Mallett CJ, Temby P. The concept of mental toughness: Tests of dimensionality, nomological network, and traitness. J Pers. Epub 2014 Feb 27. PubMed 3. Kipp LE, Weiss MR. Social influences, psychological need satisfaction, and well-being among female adolescent gymnasts. Sport Exerc Perfor Psychol. 2013; 2:62–75. doi:10.1037/a0030236 4. Mahoney JW, Gucciardi DF, Ntoumanis N, Mallett CJ. Mental toughness in sport: Motivational antecedents and associations with performance and psychological health. J Sport Exer Psychol. 2014; 36:281–292. PubMed doi:10.1123/jsep.2013-0260 5. Ntoumanis N, Standage M. Morality in sport: A selfdetermination theory perspective. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2009; 21:365–380. doi:10.1080/10413200903036040 6. Quested E, Duda JL. Exploring the social-environmental determinants of well- and ill-being in dancers: A test of basic needs theory. J Sport Exer Psychol. 2010; 32:39–60. PubMed 7. Ryan RM, Deci EL. An overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-dialectical perspective. In: EL Deci and RM Ryan, editors. Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press; 2002. p. 3–33. 8. Ryan RM, Deci EL. Active human nature: Self-determination theory and the promotion and maintenance of sport, exercise, and health. In: MS Hagger and NLD Chatzisarantis, editors. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2007. p. 1–20.
Psychosocial Aspects of Exercise and Physical Activity in Childhood Lindsay E. Kipp University of Kentucky
A. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity— Evaluating Effectiveness Citation Weiss MR, Bolter ND, Kipp LE. Assessing impact of physical activity-based youth development programs: Validation of the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS). Res Q Exerc Sport. 2014; 85:263–278. PubMed doi:10.1080/02701367.2014.931558
Purpose: A signature characteristic of positive youth development (PYD) programs is the opportunity to develop life skills, such as social, behavioral, and moral competencies, that can be generalized to domains beyond the immediate activity. Although context-specific instruments are available to assess developmental outcomes, a measure of life skills transfer would enable evaluation of PYD programs in successfully teaching skills that youth report using in other domains. The purpose of our studies was to develop and validate a measure of perceived life skills transfer, based on data collected with The First Tee, a physical activity-based PYD program. Method: In 3 studies, we conducted a series of steps to provide content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the life skills transfer survey (LSTS), a measure of perceived life skills transfer. Results: Study 1 provided content validity for the LSTS that included 8 life skills and 50 items. Study 2 revealed construct validity (structural validity) through a confirmatory factor analysis and convergent validity by correlating scores on the LSTS with scores on an assessment tool that measures a related construct. Study 3 offered additional construct validity by reassessing youth 1 year later and showing that scores during both time periods were invariant in factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated internal consistency reliability of the LSTS. Conclusion: Results from 3 studies provide evidence of content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the LSTS, which can be used in evaluation research with youth development programs.
Commentary It is clear from past research that sport and physical activity for youth can bring about psychosocial benefits such as greater self-esteem, positive emotions, and selfdetermined motivation (e.g., 5). However, these benefits are not an automatic consequence; thus, it is important to explore how to promote positive outcomes. Recently, a positive youth development (PYD) theoretical framework has been used to study how to promote benefits of physical activity for youth (4,8). According to the framework, a safe, supportive environment with competent adults and skill-building opportunities will lead to positive develThe author is with the Dept. of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Address author correspondence to Lindsay E. Kipp at [email protected].
26
opmental outcomes for young participants. Many PYD programs aim to teach life skills, defined as behaviors or attitudes learned in one domain (e.g., sport) that can be generalized or transferred to other domains like school, family, or peers. Life skills such as goal setting, managing emotions, and helping others can prepare youth to be successful members of their community. PYD research has assessed aspects such as life skills learning, coaching behaviors, and psychological climate (e.g., 1,3). However, prior studies have not assessed the transfer of life skills to other relevant domains. The highlighted study by Weiss et al. (6) addressed this gap in the literature—in three studies, they developed and provided evidence for validity and reliability of the life skills transfer survey (LSTS). The authors created the measure as part of their own evaluation of a physical activity-based PYD program, The First Tee, which uses golf as a context to teach
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Psychosocial Aspects of Exercise 27
life skills and develop core values such as honesty and responsibility. Weiss and colleagues (6) also recommend future researchers use the LSTS to evaluate the effectiveness of PYD programs that aim to teach competencies that generalize to other domains. Weiss et al.’s (6) study is significant because it presents a new measure relevant for researchers and practitioners interested in physical activity-based positive youth development (PA-PYD) programs. PA-PYD programs use sport or physical activity as a vehicle to teach psychosocial and behavioral skills (e.g., managing emotions, making healthy choices) that maximize positive developmental outcomes for youth. In study 1, Weiss et al. (6) created a measure to assess whether youth believed life skills learned in The First Tee were used in other domains such as school, friends, and family. The authors methodically followed a series of six steps: review the literature; conduct interviews with The First Tee youth, coaches, and parents; create an initial pool of items; enlist an expert panel; conduct pilot studies; and finalize the measure. The final measure comprised 50 items that represented 8 life skills: meeting and greeting, managing emotions, goal setting, resolving conflicts, making healthy choices, appreciating diversity, getting help from others, and helping others. Items are consistent with the PYD theoretical framework and are not specific to golf or The First Tee. Thus, the scale can be used to evaluate any PYD program. Studies 2 and 3 provided evidence for validity and reliability of the LSTS with youth ages 10–18 in The First Tee. Evidence for structural validity was demonstrated by a good fit of the data to an 8-factor model (i.e., the 8 life skills), showing that life skills transfer is a multidimensional construct, as measured by the LSTS. Convergent validity was demonstrated by moderate correlations between subscales on the LSTS and another established measure assessing life skills learning. These moderate correlations show that life skills transfer is similar but distinct from general life skills learning. Weiss et al. (6) showed preliminary evidence of generalizability of the LSTS with youth in a variety of organized activities. Results showed support for validity of this measure across various youth programs. To show structural validity over time, youth were assessed at two time points, one year apart. The LSTS demonstrated acceptable invariance for factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances over time. Thus, the measure can be used to assess stability or change in perceived life skills transfer. This is particularly important for evaluation research to determine whether participants are maintaining, increasing, or decreasing their use of life skills in other domains. Results can inform practitioners what they are doing well and what can be improved in regard to teaching life skills. This article is exciting because it emphasizes the importance of PA-PYD programs, which use physical activity as a context to teach valuable physical and psychosocial skills and promote positive developmental outcomes (4,8). For example, youth may learn to set specific goals in sport and then use that knowledge to set goals for school. Or, youth may learn to manage their emotions
during competition and then use that skill while interacting with peers. The transferring of competencies to other domains is a hallmark goal of PYD programs. Youth gain assets in physical activity that can be used in other areas of their life as well as in the future, which helps make them successful, contributing members of society. Weiss et al.’s (6) LSTS provides a quantitative measure to assess impact of PYD programs on youths’ life skill use in a variety of domains. Petitpas et al. (4) emphasize a need for evaluation studies to document effectiveness of PYD programs, but few evaluations have been conducted (e.g., 2,7,9). The LSTS will be key in future evaluation of existing and new PA-PYD programs. Research in this area can help inform practitioners what they are doing well and what can be improved in regard to teaching life skills. Physical activity-based PYD programs can then modify curricula if necessary to optimize physical, social, and psychological skill learning and promote positive developmental experiences for youth.
References 1. Camiré M, Trudel P, Forneris T. High school athletes’ perspectives on support, communication, negotiation and life skill development. Qual Res Sport Exerc. 2009; 1:72–88. doi:10.1080/19398440802673275 2. DeBate RD, Gabriel KP, Zwald M, Huberty J, Zhang Y. Changes in psychosocial factors and physical activity frequency among third- to eighth-grade girls who participated in a developmentally focused youth sport program: a preliminary study. J Sch Health. 2009; 79:474–484. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00437.x 3. Gano-Overway LA, Newton M, Magyar TM, Fry MD, Kim M, Guivernau MR. Influence of caring youth sport contexts on efficacy-related beliefs and social behaviors. Dev Psychol. 2009; 45:329–340. PubMed doi:10.1037/a0014067 4. Petitpas AJ, Cornelius AE, Van Raalte JL, Jones T. A framework for planning youth sport programs that foster psychosocial development. Sport Psychol. 2005; 19:63–80. 5. Smoll, FL, and RE Smith, editors. Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt; 2002. 6. Weiss MR, Bolter ND, Kipp LE. Assessing impact of physical activity-based youth development programs: Validation of the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS). Res Q Exerc Sport. 2014; 85:263–278. PubMed doi:10.1080/ 02701367.2014.931558 7. Weiss MR, Stuntz CP, Bhalla JA, Bolter ND, Price MS. ‘More than a game’: impact of The First Tee life skills programme on positive youth development: project introduction and Year 1 findings. Qual Res Sport Exerc Health. 2013; 5:214–244. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2012.712997 8. Weiss MR, Wiese-Bjornstal DM. Promoting positive youth development through physical activity. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. 2009; 10(3):1–8. 9. Wright PM, Burton S. Implementation and outcomes of a responsibility-based physical activity program integrated into an intact high school physical education class. J Teach Phys Educ. 2008; 27:138–154.
28 Kipp
B. Optimal Functioning in Youth Sport—The Contribution of Self-Determination Theory to Understanding Mental Toughness Citation
Downloaded by Northern Illinois University on 09/17/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
Mahoney JW, Gucciardi DF, Ntoumanis N, Mallett CJ. Mental toughness in sport: Motivational antecedents and associations with performance and psychological health. J Sport Exer Psychol. 2014; 36:281–292. PubMed doi:10.1123/jsep.2013-0260
We argue that basic psychological needs theory (BPNT) offers impetus to the value of mental toughness as a mechanism for optimizing human functioning. We hypothesized that psychological needs satisfaction (thwarting) would be associated with higher (lower) levels of mental toughness, positive affect, and performance and lower (higher) levels of negative affect. We also expected that mental toughness would be associated with higher levels of positive affect and performance and lower levels of negative affect. Further, we predicted that coaching environments would be related to mental toughness indirectly through psychological needs and that psychological needs would indirectly relate with performance and affect through mental toughness. Adolescent cross-country runners (136 male and 85 female, Mage = 14.36) completed questionnaires pertaining to BPNT variables, mental toughness, and affect. Race times were also collected. Our findings supported our hypotheses. We concluded that BPNT is generative in understanding some of the antecedents and consequences of mental toughness and is a novel framework useful for understanding mental toughness.
Commentary Basic psychological needs theory (BPNT) (7,8) is one subtheory of self-determination theory that has been useful for studying predictors of well-being among youth physical activity participants. According to BPNT, social contexts that promote satisfaction of three basic psychological needs will enhance optimal functioning and mental health. The three basic needs include perceived competence (judgment of ability in one’s sport), autonomy (sense of choice and volition), and relatedness (feeling of connection with the team). Research has shown positive relationships between psychological need satisfaction and social contextual factors such as autonomy-supportive coaching behaviors (e.g., providing athletes with choices within limits, acknowledging athletes’ feelings and ideas) and coaches who create a mastery motivational climate (e.g., emphasizing effort, self-improvement, and learning as keys to success). In turn, greater need satisfaction has been linked with aspects of well-being such as higher self-esteem and positive affect (e.g., 1,3,6). Much research in this area has assessed indicators of well- and ill-being such as self-esteem, positive and negative affect, subjective vitality, and physical illness symptoms. Recently, other markers of well-being that are relevant for young athletes have been examined using the BPNT framework, such as sportsmanship behaviors (e.g., 5), disordered eating (e.g., 3), and in the highlighted article by Mahoney et al. (4), mental toughness and objective sport performance. Thus, BPNT continues to be a useful and appropriate theory for understanding variations in a variety of psychological, physical, and behavioral well-being outcomes for young physical activity participants. BPNT is also a practical theory because results provide recommendations for coaches and physical activity instructors about which behaviors or mechanisms are likely to optimize young athletes’ well-being.
Mahoney et al. (4) make a case for situating mental toughness within an existing framework (i.e., BPNT) to further understand this construct because past research on mental toughness has lacked theoretical underpinnings. Gucciardi, Hanton, Gordon, Mallett, and Temby (2) defined mental toughness as a personal capacity to produce consistently high performance, including subjective (e.g., goal achievement) and objective successes (e.g., race time), while overcoming challenges. Gucciardi et al. (2) created a unidimensional measure of mental toughness that was used by Mahoney and colleagues (4) in the highlighted study. The items in the measure reflect eight facets of mental toughness, such as self-confidence, optimistic thinking, attention regulation, and emotion regulation. Mahoney and colleagues (4) operationalized mental toughness as a unidimensional construct and situated it within BPNT to explore possible antecedents and consequences. Using path analysis, Mahoney et al. (4) found support for all of their hypotheses with a sample of adolescent cross-country runners. Namely, psychological need satisfaction mediated the relationship between autonomysupportive coach behaviors and mental toughness. The authors also found that mental toughness served as a mediator of the relationship between need satisfaction and other well-being indices including positive and negative affect and objective performance (i.e., race time). Thus, runners who perceived their coaches provided them with choice and rationale for activities tended to report greater levels of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. In turn, they reported higher levels of mental toughness, which was associated with greater happiness, fewer feelings of sadness and anxiety, and faster run times. Results supported mental toughness as an indicator of well-being that can be explained by coaching behaviors and satisfaction of psychological needs, in line with BPNT. Interestingly, Mahoney and colleagues (4) found support for an indirect relationship where mental toughness was a mediator of
Downloaded by Northern Illinois University on 09/17/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
Psychosocial Aspects of Exercise 29
the relationship between psychological need satisfaction with positive and negative affect and performance, suggesting that mental toughness may be a mechanism to enhance various aspects of well-being. Future longitudinal research would help uncover direction of causality and explain how multiple well-being indices are linked. The highlighted study is significant because it provides support for the relevance and practicality of BPNT for understanding youths’ optimal functioning and experiences in sport. Importantly, coaching behaviors and psychological need satisfaction helped explain holistic well-being outcomes, including mental toughness, affect, and objective performance. Future research in this area should continue to study various indicators of well-being that are relevant to the population of interest. For example, in the highlighted study mental toughness was especially relevant for cross-country runners who need to push through long distances, and in another study disordered eating was a well-being marker relevant for adolescent gymnasts who are at risk for unhealthy eating patterns (e.g., 3). Mahoney et al.’s (4) study was novel in showing the link between mental toughness with coach autonomysupportive behaviors and psychological need satisfaction. They conceptualized and tested psychological need satisfaction as a single variable that comprised items assessing perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Future studies might examine the three needs as separate constructs, along with various social contextual factors (e.g., motivational climate, feedback and reinforcement, peer influence) to determine whether certain social factors and psychological needs differentially predict mental toughness and other markers of well-being. Research in this area will help inform coaches and physical activity instructors about the specific behaviors and mechanisms necessary to optimize youths’ experiences in physical activity settings.
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