Death Studies, 39: 288–295, 2015 Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0748-1187 print=1091-7683 online DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2014.991953
Psychopathy, Depression, and Anxiety as Predictors of Suicidal Ideation in Offenders Charlotte R. Pennington, Robert J. Cramer, Holly A. Miller, and Jeffrey S. Anastasi Department of Psychology & Philosophy, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA
Compared to nonoffenders, offenders are at increased risk for suicidal ideation and psychopathy. However, literature currently lacks sufficient understanding of moderating pathways linking psychopathy to suicidal ideation among offenders. This study investigated anxiety and depressive symptoms as potential moderators using a sample of 162 male offenders in the New Jersey correctional system. Results supported a significant positive correlation between secondary psychopathy and suicidal ideation. In addition, depression and physiological anxiety moderated the association between secondary psychopathy and suicidal ideation. Present findings may assist in determining relevant suicide risk factors (i.e., depression, physiological anxiety, secondary psychopathy) to assess for in offenders.
Suicide is a serious risk among offender populations. In 2011, suicide accounted for 35.0% of jail inmate deaths and 5.5% of state prisoner deaths in the United States (Bureau of Justice, 2013). Prisoners are also at a greater risk for suicidal ideation and attempts compared to the general population (Fazel, Cartwright, Norman-Nott, & Hawton, 2008; Smith, Selwyn, Wolford-Clevenger, & Mandracchia, 2014). In addition, compared to the general population, offenders experience greater depression, anxiety (Shinkfield, Graffam, & Meneilly, 2009), and psychopathy (Andersen, 2004). For example, among 23,000 prisoners depressive diagnoses occurred between two and four times as often as individuals in the general population (Fazel & Danesh, 2002). Despite the increased risk for suicide and psychiatric disorders, literature currently lacks sufficient understanding of how psychopathy, depression, and anxiety may interact with regard to suicidal desire. Psychopathy can be divided into two distinct but related subtypes: primary and secondary (Hicks, Markon, Patrick, Krueger, & Newman, 2004). Primary Received 28 March 2014; accepted 19 November 2014. Address correspondence to Charlotte Pennington, Sam Houston State University, Department of Psychology & Philosophy, Box 2447, Huntsville, TX 77341. E-mail: [email protected]
psychopathy refers to affective and interpersonal characteristics, such as manipulativeness, callousness, and a lack of remorse (Cooke & Michie, 2001; Hicks et al., 2004). Secondary psychopathy refers to social deviance characteristics, such as impulsivity, aggression, and irresponsibility (Cooke & Michie, 2001; Hicks et al., 2004). Among offenders, there appears to be an overall positive, albeit modest, relation between secondary psychopathy and suicide (Douglas, Herbozo, Poythress, Belfrage, & Edens, 2006; Verona, Hicks, & Patrick, 2005; Verona, Patrick, & Joiner, 2001). Concerning risk factors for suicide, compared to non-attempters, suicide attempters possess greater negative emotionality (e.g., anxiousness, hostility) and less constraint (e.g., high impulsivity, sensation-seeking; Verona et al., 2001). Moreover, among psychopathic inmates, high secondary psychopathy was associated with high negative emotionality and low constraint (Verona et al., 2001), as well as a suicide attempt history (Verona et al., 2005). Finally, significantly negative, albeit small, relations occurred between suicide history and primary psychopathy (Verona et al., 2005). Thus, preliminary evidence exists to examine psychopathy with other aspects of suicidality; suicidal ideation also merits some attention in light of its role in increasing suicide risk.
PREDICTORS OF SUICIDAL IDEATION IN OFFENDERS
Experts recommend highlighting suicidal ideation as a core aspect of estimating suicide risk during evaluation (e.g., Van Orden et al., 2010) and previous literature has examined the relationship between suicidal ideation and psychopathy in a variety of populations. Among nonclinical, nonforensic adolescents, those with higher levels of primary psychopathy had elevated suicidal ideation (Chabrol & Saint-Martin, 2009). In addition, higher secondary psychopathy predicted suicidal ideation among individuals on probation (Gunter, Chibnall, Antoniak, Philibert, & Black, 2013), on parole (Gunter et al., 2013), and in psychiatric hospitals (Swogger, Conner, Meldrum, & Caine, 2009). Suicidal ideation also had a greater positive correlation with secondary psychopathy compared to the correlation between suicidal attempts and secondary psychopathy (Douglas et al., 2006). Moreover, suicidal ideation is correlated strongly with clinical factors such as depression and anxiety (Nock, Hwang, Sampson, & Kessler, 2010; Van Orden et al., 2010). As such, psychiatric comorbidity with psychopathy appears to be a good starting point to understand potential clinical moderators of the psychopathy-suicide relation. Significant positive correlations have been found between secondary psychopathy and anxiety (Hale, Goldstein, Abramowitz, Calamari, & Kosson, 2004). Individuals with greater levels of secondary psychopathy also exhibit greater levels of trait anxiety compared to individuals with greater levels of primary psychopathy (Skeem, Johansson, Andershed, Kerr, & Loudon, 2007). Furthermore, depression (Chabrol, Labeyrie, Rodgers, & Levenson, 2010), fearfulness, and emotional distress have been positively associated with secondary psychopathy (Hicks & Patrick, 2006). Typical symptoms indicative of higher suicide ideation proneness and suicide risk include anxiety and depressive symptoms such as low self-esteem, anhedonia, hopelessness, trait anxiety, and depressed moods (Van Orden et al., 2010). Thus, depression and anxiety diagnoses coinciding with psychopathy may help better understand the relationship between psychopathy and suicide. A recent study of male prisoners determined that high levels of secondary psychopathy combined with high levels of depression yielded the greatest suicidal ideation (Smith et al., 2014). Although Smith and colleagues (2014) advanced scientific understanding of the interaction of psychopathy and depression, they failed to examine the potentially impactful role of anxiety. Considering that anxiety is another factor highly related to suicidal ideation (Nock et al., 2010), it is reasonable to presume that anxiety may be another important consideration in the relationship of psychopathy and suicidal ideation. Such was the present purpose. We hypothesized that secondary psychopathy would significantly and positively predict suicidal ideation, whereas primary
289
psychopathy would not. We also hypothesized that depression and anxiety would interact with, or moderate, the effect of secondary psychopathy on suicidal ideation, such that the combination of high secondary psychopathy and high depression=anxiety would yield the greatest suicidal ideation.
METHOD Participants We used data previously collected among 162 male offenders in the New Jersey correctional system entering an assessment and treatment program approximately 60–90 days prior to their release to a half-way house setting (Miller, 2006). After 30 of the participants were dropped because of incomplete data (n ¼ 132), the mean age was 35 and the mean years of education was 11.5. In racial-ethnic background, 72% were African American, 18% Caucasian, and the remainder were of other backgrounds. In addition, 81% reported being single, 9% reported being married, and the remainder were divorced, widowed, or separated. Less than a quarter had violent offenses, the majority reported long histories of nonviolent crimes and had an average of five previous arrests.
Materials The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 2007) is 344-item self-report measure yielding 22 validity, clinical, treatment response, and interpersonal scales. Initially designed for adults in clinical settings, the PAI has also been found to be applicable in forensic settings (Douglas, Guy, Edens, Boer, & Hamilton, 2007). Consistent with standardized procedures in use of the PAI (Morey, 2007), raw scores for each tabulated subscale are converted to standardized T-scores (i.e., M ¼ 50, SD ¼ 10). Three specific scales were used for the present study, including Depression (DEP), Anxiety (ANX), and Suicidal Ideation (SUI). The DEP clinical scale consists of 24 items assessing feelings of unhappiness and apathy, pessimistic and negative selfexpectations and changes in sleep or eating patterns (Morey, 2007). Higher scores on the DEP scale are suggestive of an individual who is unhappy, pessimistic, and exhibits self-doubt (Morey, 2007). DEP had an alpha of .87 (census and college) and an alpha of .93 (clinical; Morey, 2007). The ANX clinical scale consists of 24 items assessing negative affect and tension across physiological, affective, and cognitive expressions of anxious symptoms (Morey, 2007). Higher scores (but still within the subclinical range; 60T–69T) on the ANX scale describe individuals who experience worry,
290
C. PENNINGTON ET AL.
stress, tension, and sensitivity (Morey, 2007). ANX had an alpha level of .90 (census), .89 (college), and a .94 (clinical; Morey, 2007). The SUI scale consists of 12 items addressing feelings of hopelessness, thoughts of dying or suicide, as well as thoughts involving specific plans for attempting a suicidal act. Scores on the SUI scale within the subclinical range (i.e., 60T–69T) indicate that an individual may have minimal hope about the future, or prospects for the future and is generally negative about his or her future (Morey, 2007). SUI had alpha levels of .85 (census), .87 (college), and .93 (clinical; Morey, 2007). The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP; Levenson, Kiehl, & Fitzpatrick, 1995) was used to measure psychopathy. The LSRP is a 26-item scale measuring primary and secondary psychopathy. Primary psychopathy and secondary psychopathy were used to measure the two dimensions of psychopathy that are frequently reported in the literature (Levenson et al., 1995). Although the LSRP was originally normed for psychopathy within noninstitutionalized populations, some literature suggests that it may be appropriate to use with forensic populations (Brinkley, Schmitt, Smith, & Newman, 2001). The primary psychopathy scale is comprised of 17 items including statements such as ‘‘I enjoy manipulating other people’s feelings’’ and ‘‘looking out for myself is a top priority’’ (Lynam, Whiteside, & Jones, 1999). High scores on the primary psychopathy scale describe someone who lacks remorse, is manipulative, and is callous (Levenson et al., 1995). The secondary psychopathy scale is comprised of nine items including statements such as ‘‘I quickly lose interest in the tasks I start’’ and ‘‘I find myself in the same kind of trouble, time after time’’ (Lynam et al., 1999). High scores on the secondary psychopathy scale describe an individual who is impulsive, quick-tempered, and lacks long-term goals (Levenson et al., 1995). The LSRP uses a 4-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 4 (agree strongly). Procedure The data used in the present study was completed through Psychological Assessment Resources and the New Jersey prison system. The New Jersey prison system’s Institutional Review Board approved the collection of data for this study. The PAI and LSRP, as part of the Inventory of Offender Risk, Needs, and Strengths (IORNS) validation study, were administered during a routine series of assessments to offenders entering a treatment center in New Jersey. Participants did not receive any compensation for their participation in the study (Miller, 2006).
RESULTS Correlations were run between demographic variables (e.g., age, ethnicity, offense type), substance use (i.e., alcohol and drug use PAI subscales), and clinical variables of interest (i.e., psychopathy factors, depression, anxiety) with suicidal ideation to determine covariate variables (see Table 1). Previous arrests, alcohol use, and drug use all displayed positive significant correlations with suicidal ideation and were therefore included as covariates in the analyses. In addition, primary psychopathy, secondary psychopathy, depression, and anxiety all showed moderate significant positive correlations with suicidal ideation. A simple linear regression model was conducted using the following predictor terms: times arrested, alcohol use, drug use, primary psychopathy, secondary psychopathy, anxiety, depression, primary psychopathy by anxiety interaction, primary psychopathy by depression
TABLE 1 Correlations and Descriptive Statistics of Demographic, Psychopathy, and Clinical Variables Variable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
M
SD
1. Age 2. Ethnicity 3. Marital status 4. Education 5. Previous times in jail=prison 6. Primary psychopathy 7. Secondary psychopathy 8. PAI T-Score: Anxiety 9. PAI T-Score: Depression 10. PAI T-Score: Suicidal Ideation 11. PAI T-Score: Alcohol Use 12. PAI T-Score: Drug Use
—
.03 —
.28 .18 —
.16 .10 .08 —
.12 .03 .02 .09 —
.05 .06 .07 .01 .27 —
.02 .04 .05 .05 .26 .47 —
.02 .09 .02 .09 .16 .27 .46 —
.05 .09 .06 .11 .25 .40 .54 .74 —
.01 .05 .02 .09 .32 .33 .40 .42 .55 —
.13 .07 .05 .05 .21 .22 .32 .43 .30 .27 —
.13 .09 .09 .04 .25 .16 .33 .30 .40 .30 .31 —
35.1 — — 11.5 5.4 31.3 19.8 51.7 54.1 49.6 58.1 74.9
10.3 — — 1.5 5.9 6.8 4.6 8.8 9.8 8.8 15.7 17.1
Note: PAI ¼ Personality Assessment Inventory. Ethnicity and marital status are represented with Kendall’s Tau correlations. Values in italics, p < .05; values in bold, p < .01; values in italics and bold, p < .001.
PREDICTORS OF SUICIDAL IDEATION IN OFFENDERS
291
TABLE 2 Psychopathy Linear Regression Model Predicting Suicidal Ideation Variable Times arrested Alcohol use Drug use Primary psychopathy Secondary psychopathy Anxiety Depression Pri. Psychopathy Anxiety Pri. Psychopathy Depression Sec. Psychopathy Anxiety Sec. Psychopathy Depression
B
SE B
T
p
1.11 0.86 0.65 0.17 0.99 0.48 3.52 0.66 1.01 2.52 2.39
0.75 0.72 0.70 0.74 0.80 0.98 1.11 1.00 0.99 1.11 1.09
1.49 1.19 0.93 0.23 1.24 0.49 3.18 0.66 1.01 2.26 2.19
.14 .24 .36 .82 .22 .63
Psychopathy, Depression, and Anxiety as Predictors of Suicidal Ideation in Offenders Charlotte R. Pennington, Robert J. Cramer, Holly A. Miller, and Jeffrey S. Anastasi Department of Psychology & Philosophy, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA
Compared to nonoffenders, offenders are at increased risk for suicidal ideation and psychopathy. However, literature currently lacks sufficient understanding of moderating pathways linking psychopathy to suicidal ideation among offenders. This study investigated anxiety and depressive symptoms as potential moderators using a sample of 162 male offenders in the New Jersey correctional system. Results supported a significant positive correlation between secondary psychopathy and suicidal ideation. In addition, depression and physiological anxiety moderated the association between secondary psychopathy and suicidal ideation. Present findings may assist in determining relevant suicide risk factors (i.e., depression, physiological anxiety, secondary psychopathy) to assess for in offenders.
Suicide is a serious risk among offender populations. In 2011, suicide accounted for 35.0% of jail inmate deaths and 5.5% of state prisoner deaths in the United States (Bureau of Justice, 2013). Prisoners are also at a greater risk for suicidal ideation and attempts compared to the general population (Fazel, Cartwright, Norman-Nott, & Hawton, 2008; Smith, Selwyn, Wolford-Clevenger, & Mandracchia, 2014). In addition, compared to the general population, offenders experience greater depression, anxiety (Shinkfield, Graffam, & Meneilly, 2009), and psychopathy (Andersen, 2004). For example, among 23,000 prisoners depressive diagnoses occurred between two and four times as often as individuals in the general population (Fazel & Danesh, 2002). Despite the increased risk for suicide and psychiatric disorders, literature currently lacks sufficient understanding of how psychopathy, depression, and anxiety may interact with regard to suicidal desire. Psychopathy can be divided into two distinct but related subtypes: primary and secondary (Hicks, Markon, Patrick, Krueger, & Newman, 2004). Primary Received 28 March 2014; accepted 19 November 2014. Address correspondence to Charlotte Pennington, Sam Houston State University, Department of Psychology & Philosophy, Box 2447, Huntsville, TX 77341. E-mail: [email protected]
psychopathy refers to affective and interpersonal characteristics, such as manipulativeness, callousness, and a lack of remorse (Cooke & Michie, 2001; Hicks et al., 2004). Secondary psychopathy refers to social deviance characteristics, such as impulsivity, aggression, and irresponsibility (Cooke & Michie, 2001; Hicks et al., 2004). Among offenders, there appears to be an overall positive, albeit modest, relation between secondary psychopathy and suicide (Douglas, Herbozo, Poythress, Belfrage, & Edens, 2006; Verona, Hicks, & Patrick, 2005; Verona, Patrick, & Joiner, 2001). Concerning risk factors for suicide, compared to non-attempters, suicide attempters possess greater negative emotionality (e.g., anxiousness, hostility) and less constraint (e.g., high impulsivity, sensation-seeking; Verona et al., 2001). Moreover, among psychopathic inmates, high secondary psychopathy was associated with high negative emotionality and low constraint (Verona et al., 2001), as well as a suicide attempt history (Verona et al., 2005). Finally, significantly negative, albeit small, relations occurred between suicide history and primary psychopathy (Verona et al., 2005). Thus, preliminary evidence exists to examine psychopathy with other aspects of suicidality; suicidal ideation also merits some attention in light of its role in increasing suicide risk.
PREDICTORS OF SUICIDAL IDEATION IN OFFENDERS
Experts recommend highlighting suicidal ideation as a core aspect of estimating suicide risk during evaluation (e.g., Van Orden et al., 2010) and previous literature has examined the relationship between suicidal ideation and psychopathy in a variety of populations. Among nonclinical, nonforensic adolescents, those with higher levels of primary psychopathy had elevated suicidal ideation (Chabrol & Saint-Martin, 2009). In addition, higher secondary psychopathy predicted suicidal ideation among individuals on probation (Gunter, Chibnall, Antoniak, Philibert, & Black, 2013), on parole (Gunter et al., 2013), and in psychiatric hospitals (Swogger, Conner, Meldrum, & Caine, 2009). Suicidal ideation also had a greater positive correlation with secondary psychopathy compared to the correlation between suicidal attempts and secondary psychopathy (Douglas et al., 2006). Moreover, suicidal ideation is correlated strongly with clinical factors such as depression and anxiety (Nock, Hwang, Sampson, & Kessler, 2010; Van Orden et al., 2010). As such, psychiatric comorbidity with psychopathy appears to be a good starting point to understand potential clinical moderators of the psychopathy-suicide relation. Significant positive correlations have been found between secondary psychopathy and anxiety (Hale, Goldstein, Abramowitz, Calamari, & Kosson, 2004). Individuals with greater levels of secondary psychopathy also exhibit greater levels of trait anxiety compared to individuals with greater levels of primary psychopathy (Skeem, Johansson, Andershed, Kerr, & Loudon, 2007). Furthermore, depression (Chabrol, Labeyrie, Rodgers, & Levenson, 2010), fearfulness, and emotional distress have been positively associated with secondary psychopathy (Hicks & Patrick, 2006). Typical symptoms indicative of higher suicide ideation proneness and suicide risk include anxiety and depressive symptoms such as low self-esteem, anhedonia, hopelessness, trait anxiety, and depressed moods (Van Orden et al., 2010). Thus, depression and anxiety diagnoses coinciding with psychopathy may help better understand the relationship between psychopathy and suicide. A recent study of male prisoners determined that high levels of secondary psychopathy combined with high levels of depression yielded the greatest suicidal ideation (Smith et al., 2014). Although Smith and colleagues (2014) advanced scientific understanding of the interaction of psychopathy and depression, they failed to examine the potentially impactful role of anxiety. Considering that anxiety is another factor highly related to suicidal ideation (Nock et al., 2010), it is reasonable to presume that anxiety may be another important consideration in the relationship of psychopathy and suicidal ideation. Such was the present purpose. We hypothesized that secondary psychopathy would significantly and positively predict suicidal ideation, whereas primary
289
psychopathy would not. We also hypothesized that depression and anxiety would interact with, or moderate, the effect of secondary psychopathy on suicidal ideation, such that the combination of high secondary psychopathy and high depression=anxiety would yield the greatest suicidal ideation.
METHOD Participants We used data previously collected among 162 male offenders in the New Jersey correctional system entering an assessment and treatment program approximately 60–90 days prior to their release to a half-way house setting (Miller, 2006). After 30 of the participants were dropped because of incomplete data (n ¼ 132), the mean age was 35 and the mean years of education was 11.5. In racial-ethnic background, 72% were African American, 18% Caucasian, and the remainder were of other backgrounds. In addition, 81% reported being single, 9% reported being married, and the remainder were divorced, widowed, or separated. Less than a quarter had violent offenses, the majority reported long histories of nonviolent crimes and had an average of five previous arrests.
Materials The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 2007) is 344-item self-report measure yielding 22 validity, clinical, treatment response, and interpersonal scales. Initially designed for adults in clinical settings, the PAI has also been found to be applicable in forensic settings (Douglas, Guy, Edens, Boer, & Hamilton, 2007). Consistent with standardized procedures in use of the PAI (Morey, 2007), raw scores for each tabulated subscale are converted to standardized T-scores (i.e., M ¼ 50, SD ¼ 10). Three specific scales were used for the present study, including Depression (DEP), Anxiety (ANX), and Suicidal Ideation (SUI). The DEP clinical scale consists of 24 items assessing feelings of unhappiness and apathy, pessimistic and negative selfexpectations and changes in sleep or eating patterns (Morey, 2007). Higher scores on the DEP scale are suggestive of an individual who is unhappy, pessimistic, and exhibits self-doubt (Morey, 2007). DEP had an alpha of .87 (census and college) and an alpha of .93 (clinical; Morey, 2007). The ANX clinical scale consists of 24 items assessing negative affect and tension across physiological, affective, and cognitive expressions of anxious symptoms (Morey, 2007). Higher scores (but still within the subclinical range; 60T–69T) on the ANX scale describe individuals who experience worry,
290
C. PENNINGTON ET AL.
stress, tension, and sensitivity (Morey, 2007). ANX had an alpha level of .90 (census), .89 (college), and a .94 (clinical; Morey, 2007). The SUI scale consists of 12 items addressing feelings of hopelessness, thoughts of dying or suicide, as well as thoughts involving specific plans for attempting a suicidal act. Scores on the SUI scale within the subclinical range (i.e., 60T–69T) indicate that an individual may have minimal hope about the future, or prospects for the future and is generally negative about his or her future (Morey, 2007). SUI had alpha levels of .85 (census), .87 (college), and .93 (clinical; Morey, 2007). The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP; Levenson, Kiehl, & Fitzpatrick, 1995) was used to measure psychopathy. The LSRP is a 26-item scale measuring primary and secondary psychopathy. Primary psychopathy and secondary psychopathy were used to measure the two dimensions of psychopathy that are frequently reported in the literature (Levenson et al., 1995). Although the LSRP was originally normed for psychopathy within noninstitutionalized populations, some literature suggests that it may be appropriate to use with forensic populations (Brinkley, Schmitt, Smith, & Newman, 2001). The primary psychopathy scale is comprised of 17 items including statements such as ‘‘I enjoy manipulating other people’s feelings’’ and ‘‘looking out for myself is a top priority’’ (Lynam, Whiteside, & Jones, 1999). High scores on the primary psychopathy scale describe someone who lacks remorse, is manipulative, and is callous (Levenson et al., 1995). The secondary psychopathy scale is comprised of nine items including statements such as ‘‘I quickly lose interest in the tasks I start’’ and ‘‘I find myself in the same kind of trouble, time after time’’ (Lynam et al., 1999). High scores on the secondary psychopathy scale describe an individual who is impulsive, quick-tempered, and lacks long-term goals (Levenson et al., 1995). The LSRP uses a 4-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 4 (agree strongly). Procedure The data used in the present study was completed through Psychological Assessment Resources and the New Jersey prison system. The New Jersey prison system’s Institutional Review Board approved the collection of data for this study. The PAI and LSRP, as part of the Inventory of Offender Risk, Needs, and Strengths (IORNS) validation study, were administered during a routine series of assessments to offenders entering a treatment center in New Jersey. Participants did not receive any compensation for their participation in the study (Miller, 2006).
RESULTS Correlations were run between demographic variables (e.g., age, ethnicity, offense type), substance use (i.e., alcohol and drug use PAI subscales), and clinical variables of interest (i.e., psychopathy factors, depression, anxiety) with suicidal ideation to determine covariate variables (see Table 1). Previous arrests, alcohol use, and drug use all displayed positive significant correlations with suicidal ideation and were therefore included as covariates in the analyses. In addition, primary psychopathy, secondary psychopathy, depression, and anxiety all showed moderate significant positive correlations with suicidal ideation. A simple linear regression model was conducted using the following predictor terms: times arrested, alcohol use, drug use, primary psychopathy, secondary psychopathy, anxiety, depression, primary psychopathy by anxiety interaction, primary psychopathy by depression
TABLE 1 Correlations and Descriptive Statistics of Demographic, Psychopathy, and Clinical Variables Variable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
M
SD
1. Age 2. Ethnicity 3. Marital status 4. Education 5. Previous times in jail=prison 6. Primary psychopathy 7. Secondary psychopathy 8. PAI T-Score: Anxiety 9. PAI T-Score: Depression 10. PAI T-Score: Suicidal Ideation 11. PAI T-Score: Alcohol Use 12. PAI T-Score: Drug Use
—
.03 —
.28 .18 —
.16 .10 .08 —
.12 .03 .02 .09 —
.05 .06 .07 .01 .27 —
.02 .04 .05 .05 .26 .47 —
.02 .09 .02 .09 .16 .27 .46 —
.05 .09 .06 .11 .25 .40 .54 .74 —
.01 .05 .02 .09 .32 .33 .40 .42 .55 —
.13 .07 .05 .05 .21 .22 .32 .43 .30 .27 —
.13 .09 .09 .04 .25 .16 .33 .30 .40 .30 .31 —
35.1 — — 11.5 5.4 31.3 19.8 51.7 54.1 49.6 58.1 74.9
10.3 — — 1.5 5.9 6.8 4.6 8.8 9.8 8.8 15.7 17.1
Note: PAI ¼ Personality Assessment Inventory. Ethnicity and marital status are represented with Kendall’s Tau correlations. Values in italics, p < .05; values in bold, p < .01; values in italics and bold, p < .001.
PREDICTORS OF SUICIDAL IDEATION IN OFFENDERS
291
TABLE 2 Psychopathy Linear Regression Model Predicting Suicidal Ideation Variable Times arrested Alcohol use Drug use Primary psychopathy Secondary psychopathy Anxiety Depression Pri. Psychopathy Anxiety Pri. Psychopathy Depression Sec. Psychopathy Anxiety Sec. Psychopathy Depression
B
SE B
T
p
1.11 0.86 0.65 0.17 0.99 0.48 3.52 0.66 1.01 2.52 2.39
0.75 0.72 0.70 0.74 0.80 0.98 1.11 1.00 0.99 1.11 1.09
1.49 1.19 0.93 0.23 1.24 0.49 3.18 0.66 1.01 2.26 2.19
.14 .24 .36 .82 .22 .63
