Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1991
Psychopathology and Personality Characteristics of Criminal Sexual Offenders as a Function of Victim Age Seth C. Kalichman, Ph.D. 1,2
The affective, personality and psychopathological characteristics of incalverated adult sex offenders was studied. Subjects' were 144 men divided into three groups based on the age of their victims: prepubescent children, postpubescent adolescents, and adults. Results indicated significant differences between groups in trait anxiety and anger, self-esteem, and 7 of13 M M P I scales. Results suggest a linear relationship between victim age and psychopathology, with chiM offenders displaying the greatest affective and thought disturbance. Adolescent offenders scored between child and adult offenders" on most measures'. Results are discussed in the context of theoretical explanations fbr sexual aggression and treatment. KEY WORDS: sex offenders; rapists; child molesters; deviant behavior; criminal personality.
INTRODUCTION
Sex offenders are a heterogeneous population whose psychological characteristics are poorly understood (Erickson et al., 1987; Hall et al., 1986; Levin and Stava, 1987). While several theories have been developed to explain the psychological makeup of sex offenders, they have primarily been psychoanalytic in nature, based on clinical interviews, and difficult to
1University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina. 2Correspondence should be sent to: Psychology Department, Damen Hall, Loyola University of Chicago, 6525 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, Illinois 60626. 187 0004-000219J/0400-0187506,5010 © 1991 Plcnunl PublishingCorporation
188
Kalichman
research (e.g., Groth, 1979; Groth and Birnbaum, 1978; Prentky et al., 1985). Based on an extensive review of the literature, Finkelhor and Araji (1986) have suggested a multifactorial model of pedophilia. This model hypothesizes that men who sexually molest children are socially and emotionally immature, and have poor social skills, low levels of self-esteem, poor impulse control, and more signs of psychotic thinking (Araji and Finkelhor, 1985; Finkelhor and Araji, 1986). Finkelhor and Araji (1986) suggested that the personality characteristics of sex offenders tend to be congruent with the developmental period of their victims. While Finkelhor and Araji do not provide a description or explanation for sex offenders of adult victims, their model of pedophilia implies that affective and personality differences can be found between child and adult sex offenders. Few studies have examined sex offenders using psychological assessment instruments. However, some studies using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) provide support for describing child offenders as emotionally and socially immature. Child sex offenders frequently have high scores on scales Depression ( D ) , Paranoia (Pa), Schizophrenia (Sc), and Social Introversion (Si) on the MMPI as compared to sex offenders against adults (Levin and Stava, 1987). In addition, the MMPI has been shown to make reliable distinctions among incarcerated rapists (Kalichman, 1990). Although studies using the MMPI provide information about psychopathology, they are limited in their ability to describe personality functioning (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978). Thus, most of the studies using psychometric instruments fail to identify affective and personality characteristics of sex offenders independent of psychopathology. The present study investigates the psychopathological and psychological characteristics of sex offenders as they are differentiated by their victim's age. Sex offenders are discussed in three groups formed on the basis of their victim's age: prepubescent child offenders, offenders against postpubescent adolescents, and offenders against women (Araji and Finkelhot, 1985). Based on previous research (Levin and Stava, 1987; Shealy, 1989) and Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) model, it is hypothesized that signs of psychopathology will be greater in offenders of younger victims. Specifically, offenders with younger victims are expected to show higher levels of emotional disturbance, psychotic thinking, social alienation, and social inadequacy. In addition, offenders of younger victims are expected to report lower levels of self-esteem and less of a tendency to present themselves in a socially desirable fashion.
Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders
189
METHOD
Subjects and Procedures
The subjects were adult male criminal sex offenders incarcerated in state prisons. Subjects were grouped on the basis of their victim's age into three offender groups. The first group consisted of 54 men who assaulted or molested children of prepubescent age, defined as 12 years and under (Araji and Finkelhor, 1985; Levin and Stava, 1987). The second group consisted of 42 men with postpubescent adolescent victims, between the ages of 13 and 17 years. The third group included 48 offenders of adult victims, 18 years of age and older. Subjects in each group had no previous history of criminal Sexual offenses against victims of varying ages. Demographic characteristics for each of the three groups are presented in Table I. Data were collected as a part of initial psychological evaluations for a sex offender treatment program conducted within state prisons. Entry into the treatment program was required for inmate advancement within the corrections department programs. Psychological assessments were conducted prior to any treatment procedures. All the assessment instruments were administered in groups of 10 to 15 subjects. Standardized audio tape administration procedures were used with all subjects to control for variability in reading level (Wolf et al., 1964). Measures
Demographic Variables. Correction department files were used to obtain subject age, race, victim age, criminal history information, highest level of education, and Revised Beta Examination IQ scores. State-Trait Personality Inventory. The STPI is a 60-item empirically derived self-report measure that yields six subscales: State and Trait Anxiety, Anger, and Curiosity (Spielberger et al., 1979). The State scales reflect the intensity of these emotions at the time of testing, while the Trait scales measure an individual's propensity to experience these emotions across a variety of situations. Only the Anxiety and Anger scales were used in the present study. Spielberger et al. (1979) have demonstrated this measure to be reliable and valid. Self-Esteem Scale. The SES is a 20-item self-report inventory developed to measure the self-perception of adults (Kalichman, 1988).
190
Kalichman Table I. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
Demographics Offender
Beta IQ
Education
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
W%
B%
Child offenders
32
10.5
8.7
2.4
85
17
10
2.4
65
35
Adolescent offenders
31.3
9.7
14.6
1.3
89
14
10.9
2.4
48
52
Adult offenders
31.5
7.9
25.2
3.3
90
15
10.8
2.2
42
48
group
Age
Victim age
Race
Items were taken from the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory (1967) and are endorsed as either "like me" or "unlike me," scored in the positive self-esteem direction. Scores are summed to reflect an individual's tendency to view himself or herself in a positive light. The SES has demonstrated sufficient reliability with alpha coefficients of .74 and 2-week interval testretest reliability of .87. The SES has also shown convergent and divergent validity with other measures of self-esteem and personality functioning (Kalichman, 1988). Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. The MC-SDS was developed to measure an individual's need for social approval (Crowne and Marlowe, 1960). The 33 true-false items are summed to yield a score reflecting the endorsement of culturally approved attitudes and behaviors. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Raw scores from the three validity and 10 clinical scales of Form R were utilized for group comparisons (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978), and K-corrected T scores were used to present group profiles.
RESULTS Preliminary analyses indicated that there were no significant differences between groups on any of the demographic variables, with the exception of victim age. Because victim sex has been identified as a significant variable in child sex offenders (Hall et aL, 1986; Levin and Stava, 1987), preliminary analyses were conducted to investigate differences between child offenders with male (n = 13) and female (n = 41) victims. Results indicated that there were no significant differences between subjects on any measure. All 54 child offenders were therefore combined
Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders
191
for further analyses. All of the victims for the other two groups were female. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted between the three groups with the raw scores of the validity and clinical scales of the MMPI, state and trait anxiety and anger, self-esteem, and social desirability scores entered as dependent factors. Results indicated that the multivariate effect reached statistical significance, F ( 3 8 , 236) = 1.48, p < 0.04. For the MMPI, univariate tests of significance indicated that there were significant differences on scales F, F (2, 141) = 5.2, p < 0.01, Hypochondriasis (Hs), F (2, 141) = 4.8, p < 0.01, Hysteria (Hy), F (2, 141) = 3.4, p < 0.04, Pa, F (2, 141) = 5.6, p < 0.01, Psychasthenia (Pt), F (2, 141) = 4.9, p < 0.01, Sc, F ( 2 , 141) = 4.7, p < 0.01, and Si, F ( 2 , 141) = 6.2, p < 0.01. Also, scale D approached significance, F ( 2 , 141) = 2.5, p < 0.08. For the measures independent of the MMPI, univariate tests indicated significant differences on the Trait Anxiety, F (2, 141) = 3.5, p < 0.05, Trait Anger, F ( 2 , 141) = 6.1, p < 0.01, and Self-esteem scales, F ( 2 , 141) = 5.6, p < 0.01. Pairwise comparisons were conducted using Tukey's Honest Significant Difference (HSD) tests at the p < 0.05 level of significance. Results indicated that child offenders scored significantly higher on scales Hs, Hy, Pt, Sc, and Si than the adult offenders, and the adolescents offenders were not significantly different from either of the other two groups on these scales. On scale F, the child offenders scored significantly higher than the adolescent offenders while the adult offenders did not differ from either group. Finally, the child offenders scored significantly higher than both the adolescent and adult offenders on scale Pa and the latter two groups did not differ from each other on this scale (see Table II). This pattern of results suggests that offenders with younger victims evidence greater degrees of psychopathology as reflected in the scales of the MMPI. However, offenders against adolescents obtained scores on most scales that fell between the child and adult offenders. Tukey's HSD tests for the scales independent of the MMPI showed a similar pattern of results. The child offenders were significantly higher in trait anxiety and trait anger and lower in self-esteem than the adult offenders and the adolescent offenders were not different from either of these groups (see Table III). Thus, converging with the MMPI, measures of affectivity and self-esteem provide further support for the prediction that sexual offenders against younger victims display greater degrees of emotional disturbance. Figure 1 presents the mean K-corrected MMPI profiles for the three offender groups. While group profiles obscure individual profiles and are difficult to interpret (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978), they provide aggregate
Kalichman
192
Table II. Mean MMPI Raw Scores and Significant Differences for the Three Offender Groupsa Offender group Child (n = 54) Scale L F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si
X 5.1 11.4 a 11.8 9.6 a 22.4 21.2 a 23.5 25.4 14.9 a 17.9 a 22.7 a 20.5 31.1 a
SD 2.8 6.3 5.9 6.5 5.6 6.8 5.7 5.1 5.4 10.3 13.2 5.6 9.8
Adolescent (n = 42) X 5.2 8b 13.9 7 20.9 19.2 22.8 24.1 12.3 b 13.5 17.5 20 28.6
SD 2.1 6 5.1 5.3 4.7 5.4 5.4 4.1 4.6 8.9 11.8 5.7 8.2
Adult (n = 48) X 5.7 8.8 13.7 6.1 b 20.1 17.8 b 21.8 23.9 12b 12.4 b 15.8 b 20.5 24.9 b
SD 2.1 4.9 4.9 5.2 4.8 5.3 5.2 4.4 4.4 9.1 9.8 4.8 6.5
a Subscripts a and b represent significantly different groups p < 0.05.
information about the groups. In addition, Table IV presents the frequencies of K-corrected T scores over 70 on the MMPI for each group.
DISCUSSION
These results support descriptions of sex offenders that have been based on clinical interviews and theoretical propositions. In concert with Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) model of pedophila, the prepubescent child molesters in this study demonstrated significantly more psychopathology, emotional disturbance, and lower levels of self-esteem than the adult offenders. Offenders with postpubescent adolescent victims scored between the child and adult offenders on most measures. These findings suggest a somewhat linear relationship between victim age and psychological disturbance in criminal sexual offenders. Results from the MMPI suggest that men who commit sexual offenses may be differentiated psychologically when grouped on the basis of the developmental period of their victims. The child offender group presented higher scores than the adult offenders on 7 of the 13 scales of the MMPI, and offenders of adolescents fell between these two groups on most scales. The child offenders presented higher scores on two of the three scales of the so-called "neurotic triad" (Hs and Hy), on three of the four scales on
Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders
193
Table III. M e a n Scores and Significant Differences on the State-Trait Anxiety and A n g e r Inventories, the Self-Esteem and Social Desirability Scales a Offender group Child (n = 54) Scale
Adolescent (n = 42)
Adult (n = 48)
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
State anxiety
41.9
12.5
37.4
12.1
38,5
10.3
Trait anxiety
43.6 a
11.9
38.9
11.4
38,4 b
9.9
State anger
21
7
18.7
6.2
19.3
5.6
Trait anger
27.5 a
8.2
24.5
6.2
22.7 b
6.1
Self-esteem
13.1a
4.1
14.8
3.1
15.3 b
3.4
Social desirability
19.7
6.6
19.9
5.4
22.5
6
a Subscripts a and b represent significantly different groups p < 0.05.
the "psychotic tetrad" (Pa, Pt, and Sc) and scale Si (Graham, 1987). This pattern of scores on the MMPI has been described as characteristic of pedophiles (Meyer, 1989). High scores on scales Hs and Sc suggest significant difficulties in developing interpersonal relationships and the experience of social alienation (Duckworth and Anderson, 1987; Meyer, 1983). Also, higher scores on scales Hy and Sc suggest consistent immaturity in a variety of behavior settings and the frequent experience of unusual sexual ideations (Duckworth and Anderson, 1987; Meyer, 1989). In addition, their higher scores on scales F, Pa, and Pt provide further evidence that offenders of children experience higher levels of emotional disturbance and psychopathology (Graham, 1987). Scores on scale Si indicate that child offenders are socially inadequate and that they find themselves uncomfortable with others (Graham, 1987). Thus, offenders of younger victims present themselves as more psychologically distressed than offenders of adult victims, and adolescent offenders fall somewhere between the two. The results observed on the affective and self-esteem measures showed a similar pattern. While all of the groups were higher than normal populations in trait anxiety, the child offender group was nearly 1 standard deviation higher than normative samples (Spielberger et al., 1983). In addition, the child offender group was higher than the adult offender group in trait anxiety. The child offenders also reported greater levels of trait anger than adult offenders. In addition, the pattern of self-esteem scores suggests that offenders of younger victims experience greater selfdegradation than offenders of older victims. Taken together, these results show offenders of children to be more emotionally expressive, lacking in
194
Kalichman
Table IV. Frequencies of Scale Elevations Over T Scores of 70 for the Three Offender Groups Offender groups Child (n = 54)
Adolescent (n = 42)
Adult (n = 48)
Scale
n
%
n
%
n
%
L F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si
5 25 4 15 9 13 32 7 29 17 31 19 6
9 46 7 28 17 25 59 13 54 32 57 35 11
1 11 1 7 4 7 25 3 14 6 14 15 1
2 26 2 16 9 16 58 7 33 14 33 35 2
1 11 2 6 4 6 26 3 12 8 15 20 1
2 22 4 12 8 12 53 6 25 16 31 41 2
self-confidence, and more self-effacing than offenders of adults, with offenders of adolescents falling between child and adult offenders on each of these characteristics. The mean M M P I profile provides additional information about the groups. Figure 1 shows that the three profile patterns track each other closely. Thus, while the three groups appear quite similar in profile pattern, they present a number of differences in scale elevations. Each group approximates the widely reported mean profile for sex offenders, the 4/8-8/4 profile pattern (Kalichman, 1990; Levin and Stava, 1987). T a k e n together, these results suggest that offenders of children present a different level of psychological disturbance than sexual offenders against adults. The child offenders in this study appeared more emotionally disturbed, immature, and distressed than their adult offender counterparts who appeared more antisocial, sociopathic, and defensive. These data support Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) hypothesis that the personality of sex offenders tends to be congruent with the developmental period of their victims. Thus, it appears that offenders of children are more regressed in their pathology whereas sexual offenders against adults are more emotionally r e s t r a i n e d a n d antisocial in their p a t h o l o g y . O f f e n d e r s against adolescents also appear developmentally congruent with their victims, showing pathology that is intermediate with respect to child and adult offenders.
Personality
Characteristics
195
of Sex Offenders
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D
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Solid
MMPI SCALES
Fig. l. Mean MMPI p r o f i l e s f o r t h e t h r e e o f f e n d e r Broken
= adolescent;
Dotted
= child,
The differences observed in this study suggest that the offender groups should be separated in treatment and that different treatment approaches should be implemented. For example, child offenders appear more amenable to traditional psychotherapies. Also, offenders of younger victims should be exposed to such programs as assertiveness and social skills training (Meyer, 1983). In contrast, offenders of adults present a less promising picture for treatment. Consistent signs of characterological disturbance and excessive denial make most traditional psychotherapies difficult to implement. The characteristics of these offenders suggest the use of more direct and confrontive approaches. It is difficult to make treatment suggestions for the offenders with adolescent victims. Because their levels of pathology and psychological characteristics fell between the other two groups with considerable consistency, it is possible that adults who sexually victimize adolescents present a clinical picture that combines moderate levels of psychological distress and sociopathy. Thus, blending the approaches to treatment described above may be an effective approach.
196
Kalichman
The results also support the use of psychological tests in designing and implementing treatment programs for sexual offenders. G r e a t e r levels of psychopathology, as indicated on psychological tests, may be used to index levels of psychological distress. Higher levels of distress may be indicative of greater levels of motivation to change. Although it is difficult to induce motivation to change deviant sexual behaviors, offenders who are motivated to change at the outset of treatment may represent better treatment candidates. For example, offenders presenting higher levels of psychopathology, across victim ages, may be better suited for traditional models of psychotherapy. T h e r e are several considerations that should be noted concerning the present study. First, the lack of significant differences between groups on the state affectivity and the social desirability measures suggests that reactivity to the assessment procedures and test-taking response sets may not be differentiated among groups of sexual offenders. These results provide evidence in support of the internal validity of this study. Second, the subjects were incarcerated criminal sex offenders. Therefore, caution should b e taken in attempting to generalize these results to nonconvicted and forensic hospital populations. Finally, while this study attempted to reduce the heterogeneity of this population by grouping offenders on the basis of victim age, other factors were not investigated, such as victim--offender relationships, and psychosocial history. Future research with large samples should investigate differences within the offender groups and further characterize this highly heterogeneous population.
REFERENCES Araji, S., and Finkelhor, D. (1985). Explanations of pedophilia: Review of empirical research. Bull. Am. Acad. Psychiat. Law 13: 17-37. Butcher, J. N., and Tellegen, A. (1978). Common methodological problems in MMPI research. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 46: 620-628. Coopersmith, S. (1967). The Antecedents of Self-Esteem, Freeman, San Francisco. Crowne, D., and Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology.J. Consult. Psychol. 24: 349-354. Duckworth, J., and Anderson, W. (1987). MMPI Intelpretation Manual fi)r Counselors and Clinicians, 3rd ed., Accelerated Development, Muncie, IN. Erickson, W., Luxenberg, M., Walbek, N., and Seely, R. (1987). Frequency of MMPI two-point code types among sex offenders. 3". Consult. Clin. Psychol. 55: 566-570. Finkelhor, D., and Araji, S. (1986). Explanations of pedophila: A four factor model. J. Sex Res. 22: 145-161. Graham, J. R. (1987). The MMPI: A Practical Guide, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, New York. Groth, N. (1979). Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender, Plenum Press, New York. Groth, N., and Birnbaum, H. (1978). Adult sexual orientation and attraction to underage persons. Arch. Sex. Behav. 7: 175-181.
Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders
197
Hall, G. N., Maiuro, R., Vitaliano, P., and Proctor, W. (1986). The utility of the MMPI with men who have sexually assaulted children. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 54: 493-496. Kalichman, S. C. (1988). The development of a brief self esteem scale for forensic populations. (unpublished). Kalichman, S. C. (1990). Affective and personality characteristics of replicated MMPI profile subgroups of incarcerated adult rapists. Arch. Sex. Behav. 19, 443-459. Levin, S., and Stava, L. (1987). Personality characteristics of sex offenders: A review. Arch. Sex. Behav. 16: 57-79. Meyer, R. G. (1983). The Clinicians Handbook: The Psychopathology of Adulthood and Late Adolescence, Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Meyer, R. G. (1989). The Clinicians Handbook: The Psychopathology of Adulthood and Late Adolescence, 2nd ed., Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Prentky, R., Cohen, M., and Seghorn, T. (1985). Development of a rational taxonomy for the classification of rapists: The Massachusetts treatment center system. Bull. Am. Acad. Psychiat. Law 13: 39-70. Shealy, L. (1989). Offender-victim relationships as a determinant of p~ychopathological characteristics of incarcerated sex offenders. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Spielberger, C. D., Jacobs, G., Crane, R., Russell, R., Westberry, L., Barber, L., Johnson, E., Knight, J., and Marks, E. (1979). Preliminary Manual for the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI), University of South Florida, Human Resources Institute, Tampa. Spielberger, C. D., Gorusch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P., and Jacobs, G. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA. Wolf, S., Freink, W., and Shaffer, J. (1964). Comparability of complete oral and booklet forms of the MMPI. J. Clin. Psychol. 20: 375-378.
Psychopathology and Personality Characteristics of Criminal Sexual Offenders as a Function of Victim Age Seth C. Kalichman, Ph.D. 1,2
The affective, personality and psychopathological characteristics of incalverated adult sex offenders was studied. Subjects' were 144 men divided into three groups based on the age of their victims: prepubescent children, postpubescent adolescents, and adults. Results indicated significant differences between groups in trait anxiety and anger, self-esteem, and 7 of13 M M P I scales. Results suggest a linear relationship between victim age and psychopathology, with chiM offenders displaying the greatest affective and thought disturbance. Adolescent offenders scored between child and adult offenders" on most measures'. Results are discussed in the context of theoretical explanations fbr sexual aggression and treatment. KEY WORDS: sex offenders; rapists; child molesters; deviant behavior; criminal personality.
INTRODUCTION
Sex offenders are a heterogeneous population whose psychological characteristics are poorly understood (Erickson et al., 1987; Hall et al., 1986; Levin and Stava, 1987). While several theories have been developed to explain the psychological makeup of sex offenders, they have primarily been psychoanalytic in nature, based on clinical interviews, and difficult to
1University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina. 2Correspondence should be sent to: Psychology Department, Damen Hall, Loyola University of Chicago, 6525 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, Illinois 60626. 187 0004-000219J/0400-0187506,5010 © 1991 Plcnunl PublishingCorporation
188
Kalichman
research (e.g., Groth, 1979; Groth and Birnbaum, 1978; Prentky et al., 1985). Based on an extensive review of the literature, Finkelhor and Araji (1986) have suggested a multifactorial model of pedophilia. This model hypothesizes that men who sexually molest children are socially and emotionally immature, and have poor social skills, low levels of self-esteem, poor impulse control, and more signs of psychotic thinking (Araji and Finkelhor, 1985; Finkelhor and Araji, 1986). Finkelhor and Araji (1986) suggested that the personality characteristics of sex offenders tend to be congruent with the developmental period of their victims. While Finkelhor and Araji do not provide a description or explanation for sex offenders of adult victims, their model of pedophilia implies that affective and personality differences can be found between child and adult sex offenders. Few studies have examined sex offenders using psychological assessment instruments. However, some studies using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) provide support for describing child offenders as emotionally and socially immature. Child sex offenders frequently have high scores on scales Depression ( D ) , Paranoia (Pa), Schizophrenia (Sc), and Social Introversion (Si) on the MMPI as compared to sex offenders against adults (Levin and Stava, 1987). In addition, the MMPI has been shown to make reliable distinctions among incarcerated rapists (Kalichman, 1990). Although studies using the MMPI provide information about psychopathology, they are limited in their ability to describe personality functioning (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978). Thus, most of the studies using psychometric instruments fail to identify affective and personality characteristics of sex offenders independent of psychopathology. The present study investigates the psychopathological and psychological characteristics of sex offenders as they are differentiated by their victim's age. Sex offenders are discussed in three groups formed on the basis of their victim's age: prepubescent child offenders, offenders against postpubescent adolescents, and offenders against women (Araji and Finkelhot, 1985). Based on previous research (Levin and Stava, 1987; Shealy, 1989) and Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) model, it is hypothesized that signs of psychopathology will be greater in offenders of younger victims. Specifically, offenders with younger victims are expected to show higher levels of emotional disturbance, psychotic thinking, social alienation, and social inadequacy. In addition, offenders of younger victims are expected to report lower levels of self-esteem and less of a tendency to present themselves in a socially desirable fashion.
Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders
189
METHOD
Subjects and Procedures
The subjects were adult male criminal sex offenders incarcerated in state prisons. Subjects were grouped on the basis of their victim's age into three offender groups. The first group consisted of 54 men who assaulted or molested children of prepubescent age, defined as 12 years and under (Araji and Finkelhor, 1985; Levin and Stava, 1987). The second group consisted of 42 men with postpubescent adolescent victims, between the ages of 13 and 17 years. The third group included 48 offenders of adult victims, 18 years of age and older. Subjects in each group had no previous history of criminal Sexual offenses against victims of varying ages. Demographic characteristics for each of the three groups are presented in Table I. Data were collected as a part of initial psychological evaluations for a sex offender treatment program conducted within state prisons. Entry into the treatment program was required for inmate advancement within the corrections department programs. Psychological assessments were conducted prior to any treatment procedures. All the assessment instruments were administered in groups of 10 to 15 subjects. Standardized audio tape administration procedures were used with all subjects to control for variability in reading level (Wolf et al., 1964). Measures
Demographic Variables. Correction department files were used to obtain subject age, race, victim age, criminal history information, highest level of education, and Revised Beta Examination IQ scores. State-Trait Personality Inventory. The STPI is a 60-item empirically derived self-report measure that yields six subscales: State and Trait Anxiety, Anger, and Curiosity (Spielberger et al., 1979). The State scales reflect the intensity of these emotions at the time of testing, while the Trait scales measure an individual's propensity to experience these emotions across a variety of situations. Only the Anxiety and Anger scales were used in the present study. Spielberger et al. (1979) have demonstrated this measure to be reliable and valid. Self-Esteem Scale. The SES is a 20-item self-report inventory developed to measure the self-perception of adults (Kalichman, 1988).
190
Kalichman Table I. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
Demographics Offender
Beta IQ
Education
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
W%
B%
Child offenders
32
10.5
8.7
2.4
85
17
10
2.4
65
35
Adolescent offenders
31.3
9.7
14.6
1.3
89
14
10.9
2.4
48
52
Adult offenders
31.5
7.9
25.2
3.3
90
15
10.8
2.2
42
48
group
Age
Victim age
Race
Items were taken from the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory (1967) and are endorsed as either "like me" or "unlike me," scored in the positive self-esteem direction. Scores are summed to reflect an individual's tendency to view himself or herself in a positive light. The SES has demonstrated sufficient reliability with alpha coefficients of .74 and 2-week interval testretest reliability of .87. The SES has also shown convergent and divergent validity with other measures of self-esteem and personality functioning (Kalichman, 1988). Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. The MC-SDS was developed to measure an individual's need for social approval (Crowne and Marlowe, 1960). The 33 true-false items are summed to yield a score reflecting the endorsement of culturally approved attitudes and behaviors. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Raw scores from the three validity and 10 clinical scales of Form R were utilized for group comparisons (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978), and K-corrected T scores were used to present group profiles.
RESULTS Preliminary analyses indicated that there were no significant differences between groups on any of the demographic variables, with the exception of victim age. Because victim sex has been identified as a significant variable in child sex offenders (Hall et aL, 1986; Levin and Stava, 1987), preliminary analyses were conducted to investigate differences between child offenders with male (n = 13) and female (n = 41) victims. Results indicated that there were no significant differences between subjects on any measure. All 54 child offenders were therefore combined
Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders
191
for further analyses. All of the victims for the other two groups were female. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted between the three groups with the raw scores of the validity and clinical scales of the MMPI, state and trait anxiety and anger, self-esteem, and social desirability scores entered as dependent factors. Results indicated that the multivariate effect reached statistical significance, F ( 3 8 , 236) = 1.48, p < 0.04. For the MMPI, univariate tests of significance indicated that there were significant differences on scales F, F (2, 141) = 5.2, p < 0.01, Hypochondriasis (Hs), F (2, 141) = 4.8, p < 0.01, Hysteria (Hy), F (2, 141) = 3.4, p < 0.04, Pa, F (2, 141) = 5.6, p < 0.01, Psychasthenia (Pt), F (2, 141) = 4.9, p < 0.01, Sc, F ( 2 , 141) = 4.7, p < 0.01, and Si, F ( 2 , 141) = 6.2, p < 0.01. Also, scale D approached significance, F ( 2 , 141) = 2.5, p < 0.08. For the measures independent of the MMPI, univariate tests indicated significant differences on the Trait Anxiety, F (2, 141) = 3.5, p < 0.05, Trait Anger, F ( 2 , 141) = 6.1, p < 0.01, and Self-esteem scales, F ( 2 , 141) = 5.6, p < 0.01. Pairwise comparisons were conducted using Tukey's Honest Significant Difference (HSD) tests at the p < 0.05 level of significance. Results indicated that child offenders scored significantly higher on scales Hs, Hy, Pt, Sc, and Si than the adult offenders, and the adolescents offenders were not significantly different from either of the other two groups on these scales. On scale F, the child offenders scored significantly higher than the adolescent offenders while the adult offenders did not differ from either group. Finally, the child offenders scored significantly higher than both the adolescent and adult offenders on scale Pa and the latter two groups did not differ from each other on this scale (see Table II). This pattern of results suggests that offenders with younger victims evidence greater degrees of psychopathology as reflected in the scales of the MMPI. However, offenders against adolescents obtained scores on most scales that fell between the child and adult offenders. Tukey's HSD tests for the scales independent of the MMPI showed a similar pattern of results. The child offenders were significantly higher in trait anxiety and trait anger and lower in self-esteem than the adult offenders and the adolescent offenders were not different from either of these groups (see Table III). Thus, converging with the MMPI, measures of affectivity and self-esteem provide further support for the prediction that sexual offenders against younger victims display greater degrees of emotional disturbance. Figure 1 presents the mean K-corrected MMPI profiles for the three offender groups. While group profiles obscure individual profiles and are difficult to interpret (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978), they provide aggregate
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192
Table II. Mean MMPI Raw Scores and Significant Differences for the Three Offender Groupsa Offender group Child (n = 54) Scale L F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si
X 5.1 11.4 a 11.8 9.6 a 22.4 21.2 a 23.5 25.4 14.9 a 17.9 a 22.7 a 20.5 31.1 a
SD 2.8 6.3 5.9 6.5 5.6 6.8 5.7 5.1 5.4 10.3 13.2 5.6 9.8
Adolescent (n = 42) X 5.2 8b 13.9 7 20.9 19.2 22.8 24.1 12.3 b 13.5 17.5 20 28.6
SD 2.1 6 5.1 5.3 4.7 5.4 5.4 4.1 4.6 8.9 11.8 5.7 8.2
Adult (n = 48) X 5.7 8.8 13.7 6.1 b 20.1 17.8 b 21.8 23.9 12b 12.4 b 15.8 b 20.5 24.9 b
SD 2.1 4.9 4.9 5.2 4.8 5.3 5.2 4.4 4.4 9.1 9.8 4.8 6.5
a Subscripts a and b represent significantly different groups p < 0.05.
information about the groups. In addition, Table IV presents the frequencies of K-corrected T scores over 70 on the MMPI for each group.
DISCUSSION
These results support descriptions of sex offenders that have been based on clinical interviews and theoretical propositions. In concert with Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) model of pedophila, the prepubescent child molesters in this study demonstrated significantly more psychopathology, emotional disturbance, and lower levels of self-esteem than the adult offenders. Offenders with postpubescent adolescent victims scored between the child and adult offenders on most measures. These findings suggest a somewhat linear relationship between victim age and psychological disturbance in criminal sexual offenders. Results from the MMPI suggest that men who commit sexual offenses may be differentiated psychologically when grouped on the basis of the developmental period of their victims. The child offender group presented higher scores than the adult offenders on 7 of the 13 scales of the MMPI, and offenders of adolescents fell between these two groups on most scales. The child offenders presented higher scores on two of the three scales of the so-called "neurotic triad" (Hs and Hy), on three of the four scales on
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193
Table III. M e a n Scores and Significant Differences on the State-Trait Anxiety and A n g e r Inventories, the Self-Esteem and Social Desirability Scales a Offender group Child (n = 54) Scale
Adolescent (n = 42)
Adult (n = 48)
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
State anxiety
41.9
12.5
37.4
12.1
38,5
10.3
Trait anxiety
43.6 a
11.9
38.9
11.4
38,4 b
9.9
State anger
21
7
18.7
6.2
19.3
5.6
Trait anger
27.5 a
8.2
24.5
6.2
22.7 b
6.1
Self-esteem
13.1a
4.1
14.8
3.1
15.3 b
3.4
Social desirability
19.7
6.6
19.9
5.4
22.5
6
a Subscripts a and b represent significantly different groups p < 0.05.
the "psychotic tetrad" (Pa, Pt, and Sc) and scale Si (Graham, 1987). This pattern of scores on the MMPI has been described as characteristic of pedophiles (Meyer, 1989). High scores on scales Hs and Sc suggest significant difficulties in developing interpersonal relationships and the experience of social alienation (Duckworth and Anderson, 1987; Meyer, 1983). Also, higher scores on scales Hy and Sc suggest consistent immaturity in a variety of behavior settings and the frequent experience of unusual sexual ideations (Duckworth and Anderson, 1987; Meyer, 1989). In addition, their higher scores on scales F, Pa, and Pt provide further evidence that offenders of children experience higher levels of emotional disturbance and psychopathology (Graham, 1987). Scores on scale Si indicate that child offenders are socially inadequate and that they find themselves uncomfortable with others (Graham, 1987). Thus, offenders of younger victims present themselves as more psychologically distressed than offenders of adult victims, and adolescent offenders fall somewhere between the two. The results observed on the affective and self-esteem measures showed a similar pattern. While all of the groups were higher than normal populations in trait anxiety, the child offender group was nearly 1 standard deviation higher than normative samples (Spielberger et al., 1983). In addition, the child offender group was higher than the adult offender group in trait anxiety. The child offenders also reported greater levels of trait anger than adult offenders. In addition, the pattern of self-esteem scores suggests that offenders of younger victims experience greater selfdegradation than offenders of older victims. Taken together, these results show offenders of children to be more emotionally expressive, lacking in
194
Kalichman
Table IV. Frequencies of Scale Elevations Over T Scores of 70 for the Three Offender Groups Offender groups Child (n = 54)
Adolescent (n = 42)
Adult (n = 48)
Scale
n
%
n
%
n
%
L F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si
5 25 4 15 9 13 32 7 29 17 31 19 6
9 46 7 28 17 25 59 13 54 32 57 35 11
1 11 1 7 4 7 25 3 14 6 14 15 1
2 26 2 16 9 16 58 7 33 14 33 35 2
1 11 2 6 4 6 26 3 12 8 15 20 1
2 22 4 12 8 12 53 6 25 16 31 41 2
self-confidence, and more self-effacing than offenders of adults, with offenders of adolescents falling between child and adult offenders on each of these characteristics. The mean M M P I profile provides additional information about the groups. Figure 1 shows that the three profile patterns track each other closely. Thus, while the three groups appear quite similar in profile pattern, they present a number of differences in scale elevations. Each group approximates the widely reported mean profile for sex offenders, the 4/8-8/4 profile pattern (Kalichman, 1990; Levin and Stava, 1987). T a k e n together, these results suggest that offenders of children present a different level of psychological disturbance than sexual offenders against adults. The child offenders in this study appeared more emotionally disturbed, immature, and distressed than their adult offender counterparts who appeared more antisocial, sociopathic, and defensive. These data support Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) hypothesis that the personality of sex offenders tends to be congruent with the developmental period of their victims. Thus, it appears that offenders of children are more regressed in their pathology whereas sexual offenders against adults are more emotionally r e s t r a i n e d a n d antisocial in their p a t h o l o g y . O f f e n d e r s against adolescents also appear developmentally congruent with their victims, showing pathology that is intermediate with respect to child and adult offenders.
Personality
Characteristics
195
of Sex Offenders
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Fig. l. Mean MMPI p r o f i l e s f o r t h e t h r e e o f f e n d e r Broken
= adolescent;
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The differences observed in this study suggest that the offender groups should be separated in treatment and that different treatment approaches should be implemented. For example, child offenders appear more amenable to traditional psychotherapies. Also, offenders of younger victims should be exposed to such programs as assertiveness and social skills training (Meyer, 1983). In contrast, offenders of adults present a less promising picture for treatment. Consistent signs of characterological disturbance and excessive denial make most traditional psychotherapies difficult to implement. The characteristics of these offenders suggest the use of more direct and confrontive approaches. It is difficult to make treatment suggestions for the offenders with adolescent victims. Because their levels of pathology and psychological characteristics fell between the other two groups with considerable consistency, it is possible that adults who sexually victimize adolescents present a clinical picture that combines moderate levels of psychological distress and sociopathy. Thus, blending the approaches to treatment described above may be an effective approach.
196
Kalichman
The results also support the use of psychological tests in designing and implementing treatment programs for sexual offenders. G r e a t e r levels of psychopathology, as indicated on psychological tests, may be used to index levels of psychological distress. Higher levels of distress may be indicative of greater levels of motivation to change. Although it is difficult to induce motivation to change deviant sexual behaviors, offenders who are motivated to change at the outset of treatment may represent better treatment candidates. For example, offenders presenting higher levels of psychopathology, across victim ages, may be better suited for traditional models of psychotherapy. T h e r e are several considerations that should be noted concerning the present study. First, the lack of significant differences between groups on the state affectivity and the social desirability measures suggests that reactivity to the assessment procedures and test-taking response sets may not be differentiated among groups of sexual offenders. These results provide evidence in support of the internal validity of this study. Second, the subjects were incarcerated criminal sex offenders. Therefore, caution should b e taken in attempting to generalize these results to nonconvicted and forensic hospital populations. Finally, while this study attempted to reduce the heterogeneity of this population by grouping offenders on the basis of victim age, other factors were not investigated, such as victim--offender relationships, and psychosocial history. Future research with large samples should investigate differences within the offender groups and further characterize this highly heterogeneous population.
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Hall, G. N., Maiuro, R., Vitaliano, P., and Proctor, W. (1986). The utility of the MMPI with men who have sexually assaulted children. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 54: 493-496. Kalichman, S. C. (1988). The development of a brief self esteem scale for forensic populations. (unpublished). Kalichman, S. C. (1990). Affective and personality characteristics of replicated MMPI profile subgroups of incarcerated adult rapists. Arch. Sex. Behav. 19, 443-459. Levin, S., and Stava, L. (1987). Personality characteristics of sex offenders: A review. Arch. Sex. Behav. 16: 57-79. Meyer, R. G. (1983). The Clinicians Handbook: The Psychopathology of Adulthood and Late Adolescence, Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Meyer, R. G. (1989). The Clinicians Handbook: The Psychopathology of Adulthood and Late Adolescence, 2nd ed., Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Prentky, R., Cohen, M., and Seghorn, T. (1985). Development of a rational taxonomy for the classification of rapists: The Massachusetts treatment center system. Bull. Am. Acad. Psychiat. Law 13: 39-70. Shealy, L. (1989). Offender-victim relationships as a determinant of p~ychopathological characteristics of incarcerated sex offenders. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Spielberger, C. D., Jacobs, G., Crane, R., Russell, R., Westberry, L., Barber, L., Johnson, E., Knight, J., and Marks, E. (1979). Preliminary Manual for the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI), University of South Florida, Human Resources Institute, Tampa. Spielberger, C. D., Gorusch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P., and Jacobs, G. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA. Wolf, S., Freink, W., and Shaffer, J. (1964). Comparability of complete oral and booklet forms of the MMPI. J. Clin. Psychol. 20: 375-378.
