Child Psychiatry Hum Dev DOI 10.1007/s10578-013-0414-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Psychometric Qualities of the Short Form of the Self-efficacy for Parenting Tasks Index-Toddler Scale E. H. M. van Rijen • N. Gasanova A. M. Boonstra • J. Huijding

•

Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Parental self-efficacy (PSE; parental self-perceived competence in parenting) is known to have considerable impact on parenting quality. Although PSE is particularly under pressure during the turbulent period of toddlerhood, most studies so far have focused on PSE in parents of older children. The current study presents the psychometric qualities of the Short Form of the Self-Efficacy for Parenting Tasks Index-Toddler Scale (SEPTI-TS). Parents from a normal (n = 282) and clinical sample (n = 27) of children filled in the SEPTI-TS, and other questionnaires concerning PSE, general self-evaluation, and psychological problems. Factor analysis resulted in a 26-item instrument, representing four domains of PSE with a strong factor structure and high reliability: nurturance, discipline, play, and routine. For this new Short Form of the SEPTI-TS, good face, discriminative, concurrent, and divergent validity were found. Cut-offs for normal PSE were provided. The Short Form SEPTI-TS enables identifying problematic PSE in specific domains of parenting during toddlerhood. Keywords Parental self-efficacy
Parenting
Toddlers
Preschool
Psychometric properties

E. H. M. van Rijen (&)
N. Gasanova
A. M. Boonstra
J. Huijding Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, PO Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Boonstra CED Groep, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Introduction Parental behaviors affect child outcome from an early age [1, 2]. Research on parenting has shown that parents’ perceived ability to positively influence the behavior and development of their child plays an important role in competent parenting behaviors as well as in child functioning [3]. The subjective experiences or cognitions that parents hold about their parenting competence are referred to as parental self-efficacy (PSE) [4]. In line with the construct of self-efficacy that was originally introduced by Bandura [5], parents with high PSE are more likely to engage in promotive parenting strategies, thereby enhancing the child’s chances of successful development, while parents with low PSE may give up more easily when faced with challenges in their parental role [6]. Indeed, high PSE in parents of young children is positively related to parental warmth [1, 7], acceptance [8], and control and limit setting [7, 9, 10]. In contrast, low PSE is associated with lax and permissive discipline [11, 12], overreactive and harsh parenting strategies [9, 11, 12], and parental hostility [1]. PSE has also repeatedly been demonstrated to operate as a mediator in the link between risk factors and parenting competence [3]. Child risk factors, such as behavior problems [10, 13] and difficult temperament [14, 15], as well as parent risk factors, such as maternal depression [14], social support [7, 9, 14], and parental emotional distress [16], have been found to affect parenting behaviors indirectly, through their effect on PSE. Eventually, PSE may affect child outcome through mediation of parenting behaviors [1]. Taken together, when PSE is undermined by adversity, destructive effects on parenting and child outcome seem inevitable. However, PSE can also operate as a buffer

123

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev

against adversity and help parents to develop adequate parenting strategies [3]. Since interventions with young children usually are directed to parents, PSE may be an interesting entry to modify parental as well as child behavior [17, 18]. Previously, PSE has been found to be amenable to intervention [17–20]. Significant improvements in PSE have been shown following behavioral parent training for parents of toddlers [17], which were maintained at 1-year follow-up [18]. Improvements in parenting and child outcome after intervention were found to be related to increase in PSE [17]. Triple P—Positive Parenting Program [19] has been shown effective in increasing PSE and improving parental management of child problem behavior. Sofronoff and Farbotko [20] found an increase in PSE and a decrease in reported child problem behavior in parents of children with Asperger syndrome, who participated in a parent management training, at both 1- and 3-months follow-up. In sum, interventions that focus on improving PSE not only show enduring positive effects on PSE, but also result in gains in parenting and child outcome. Furthermore, PSE has been studied as a successful predictor of treatment outcome [21]. According to Bandura [5] self-efficacy is not a fixed personality trait, but a dynamic construct that is shaped by one’s own experiences and interpretations, as well as by environmental influences. In contrast to other factors that are known to have a considerable impact on child development (e.g., socio-economic status and child temperament) but which cannot easily be altered, PSE is a more modifiable factor. Since PSE also affects parenting behavior and child developmental outcome, the proposition that interventions for parents of young children should focus on PSE has recently gathered increasing support [10, 22, 23]. Unfortunately, there is a paucity in literature on PSE in parents of toddlers (age range 12–36 months), in comparison to other developmental periods [24]. This is remarkable, since PSE is particularly under pressure during toddlerhood. During toddlerhood, children commonly show obstinate and defiant behaviors as they strive to acquire more autonomy. At the same time, parents, while attempting to meet their expectations of compliance, begin to exert more control over their child’s behavior. Given these conflicting interests, it is hardly surprising that parent–child conflict peaks in the toddler years [25]. As toddlers rapidly acquire new skills, parents need to adjust their way of responding, to keep in line with their child’s changing developmental demands [26]. Toddlers are particularly dependent on parental support to develop ageappropriate competencies (e.g., self-regulation [27]). The peak of parent–child conflict, the rapid pace of toddler development, and the high dependence on parental support during this turbulent but highly significant developmental

123

period, altogether make high demands on the PSE of a toddler’s parent. Toddlerhood thus seems a highly vulnerable period for parents with low PSE to develop maladaptive parenting behaviors, and an important period for initiating (preventive) interventions. A major prerequisite for targeted prevention and the intervention programs, as well as adequate evaluation of the efficacy of such programs, however, is the availability of sound and valid instruments to assess PSE in this specific developmental period. Instruments that measure PSE can be categorized in three different approaches [4]. First, the task-specific approach focuses on PSE in one specific domain (e.g., involvement in school activities [28]). Second, the domain-specific approach, uses task-specific items as well, but focuses on multiple domains of PSE (e.g., discipline, play, instrumental care [4]). Third, the domaingeneral approach focuses on global feelings of PSE without referral to specific tasks or domains of parenting. As stated by Bandura [5] task-related self-efficacy is a more precise predictor of performance, as behavior on particular tasks is driven by specific self-efficacy beliefs. Accordingly, Coleman and Karraker [4] and Sanders and Woolley [12] found that domain-specific instruments of PSE were better predictors of child and parenting behaviors respectively compared to domain-general PSE instruments. With regard to clinical practice, domain-specific instruments provide more specific information about specific domains of parenting in which parents of toddlers may encounter difficulties, in comparison to domain-general instruments, which reflect global feelings of competency. Among the few domain-specific instruments of PSE that are available for parents of toddlers (Toddler Care Questionnaire [29]; Maternal Self-Efficacy Scale [14]), the Self-Efficacy for Parenting Tasks index-Toddler Scale (SEPTI-TS [4]) is the only instrument that provides information of PSE on specific domains of parenting tasks that are relevant to toddlers’ parents. Despite this unique quality, the SEPTI-TS has only been applied in a modest number of studies [24, 30]. A possible reason is that extensive psychometric analyses were not provided in the original article. Meunier and Roskam [31] performed a psychometric study on a French questionnaire for PSE amongst parents of young children, that was partly based on the SEPTI-TS. The current study aims to enlarge possibilities for assessing domain-specific PSE in parents of young children by presenting the psychometric qualities of the Dutch translation of the SEPTI-TS. In the original study, Coleman and Karraker [4] included a sample of 19- to 25-month-old-toddlers from a normal population. In the current study, children up to 48 months were included, to make the SEPTI-TS applicable to a larger age range. The defined toddler age range (12–36 months) is thereby extended with a year and

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev

includes young preschoolers as well. For reasons of convenience, the complete samples will be referred to as ‘toddlers’. Several psychometric qualities were examined. Face validity was explored to determine whether SEPTITS items truly reflect experiences of parenthood and parenting in parents of young children. Analyses on factor structure and reliability were used to reveal statistically coherent and reliable domains of PSE. In this process, the original SEPTI-TS of 53 items was reduced to a Short Form of 26 items. For clinical purposes, discriminative validity and cut-offs for normal PSE were studied by comparing Short Form SEPTI-TS scores of a normal sample with those of a clinical sample (parents who participated in a day treatment program together with their young child with psychiatric problems). Previously, Sanders and Woolley [12] found significantly lower PSE in mothers from a clinical sample, compared to a normal sample. Since parenting in the current clinical sample is very likely to be under strain, their PSE was hypothesized to be significantly lower compared to the normal sample. Concurrent and divergent validity was studied by comparing correlations between the Short Form SEPTI-TS and related measures. Considering the fact that Short Form SEPTI-TS is a domain-specific instrument for PSE, it was hypothesized that its correlation with another domainspecific PSE instrument would be stronger than its correlation with a domain-general PSE instrument. Correlations of the Short Form SEPTI-TS with both the domain-specific and -general PSE instruments were expected to be stronger compared to its correlation with a general measure of selfevaluation. Concurrent validity of the Short Form SEPTITS was further analysed by its correlation with parental psychological problems in the clinical sample. Low PSE has frequently found to be related to parental stress and depression, as well as to hostile parenting styles [3]. Therefore, in the current study, anxiety, depression, and hostility were hypothesized to be inversely related to PSE in the clinical sample. Finally, effects of several biographical variables (age of the child (B36 vs. [36 months), age of the mother (B30 vs. [30 years), gender of the child, whether or not the child was the first child, whether or not the parents were living together, educational attainment of the mother, and occupational status of the mother) on Short Form SEPTI-TS scores were analysed, to rule out that potential differences in PSE between the normal versus clinical group could be explained by differences in the biographical variables. The effect of some of these variables (e.g., age of the mother, whether the child is the first or subsequent child in the family) on PSE has not previously been studied. Studies on the effect of other variables (e.g., age of the child) have yielded inconclusive results so far [23, 32]. Predictors for PSE that have been reported so far mostly constitute of

parent and child risk factors [3], rather than demographic characteristics. In the current study, an effect of biographical variables on PSE was therefore not expected.

Methods Samples Two samples of parents were used in this study. The ‘normal’ sample, derived from child day care centres, was selected as a representation of the general population. The ‘clinical’ sample constituted of parents who, together with their young child, were enrolled in a day treatment program focused on improving the relationship between parent and child. Parents from the normal sample were recruited in 9 day care centres in Rotterdam and Barendrecht, respectively a large city (617,000 inhabitants) and smaller town (47,000 inhabitants) both situated in the province South Holland, in the Netherlands. Parents of 607 children were approached for participation. Questionnaires were returned by 288 parents (response rate: 47.4 %). Data provided by 6 parents was excluded for further analyses for different reasons: incomplete data (n = 4), age child outside the intended range (n = 1), and one was a statistical outlier. The final normal sample (n = 282) consisted of parents of 141 boys and 136 girls (gender unknown in 5 cases), in the age of 17–48 months. In 83.3 % of the sample, questionnaires were filled in by the mother and in 10.3 % by the father (informant unknown in 6.4 %). Parents from the clinical sample were participants of Babylon (Lucertis, Rotterdam). Babylon is a day treatment program for young children (up to 4 years) with psychiatric problems and their parents. Treatment takes place at the clinic in small groups of four dyads. A structured day program is followed, which involves activities (e.g., lunch, play, nap-time) similar to the home situation. During these routines, parents are given feedback on how to respond adequately to the child, how to be emotionally involved, etc. The program aims to clarify the children’s emotional and behavioral problems at an early stage and to stimulate their development by optimizing the parent–child relationship. Thirty-three parents who were about to start treatment at Babylon, agreed to participate. Data provided by 6 parents was excluded for further analyses because of incomplete data. The final clinical sample (n = 27) consisted of parents (only mothers) of 13 boys and 14 girls in the age of 19–47 months. Table 1 provides biographical data for the normal and clinical sample. A number of significant differences between the normal and clinical sample were found. In the normal sample, children were on average younger

123

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev Table 1 Biographical data of normal and clinical sample Variable

Normal sample (N total = 282)

Clinical sample (N total = 27)

M

M

SD

SD

Table 1 continued N

T

p

N

%

X2

p

–

–

Seeking help for parenting concerning child No Yes, within the previous year

Age

%

259

92.5

–a

–

14

5.0

–

–

7

2.5

–

–

Child (month)

31.5

7.9

38.0

8.1

4.10

.00

Yes, longer than 1 year ago

Mother (year)

33.9

4.5

29.8

4.9

-4.40

.00

Father (year)

36.4

4.9

35.3

6.1

-1.12

.26

Seeking help for parenting other children in the family (only if present)

N

%

N

%

Male

141

50.9

13

48.1

Female

136

49.1

14

51.9

0

93

33.9

10

37.0

1

148

54.0

14

51.9

2

29

10.6

3

11.1

4

1.5

0

0

140 131

51.7 48.3

15 12

272

96.8

9

3.2

Mother

228

Father

238

X

2

No

p

Gender child .08

.84

.49

.97

55.6 44.4

.15

.70

17

70.8

29.99

.00

7

29.2

81.4

22

81.5

85.9

17

68.0

5.60

.03

26

9.3

9

34.6

15.15

.00

Middle

124

44.3

9

34.6

High

130

46.4

8

30.8 21.80

.00

8.42

.01

1.66

.21

19.69

.00

3.56

.17

183

95.3

11

84.6

Yes, within the previous year

3

1.6

1

7.7

Yes, longer than 1 year ago

6

3.1

1

7.7

3.24

.15

a

Not applicable to the clinical group; all parents in this group seeked help for parenting the concerning child

Number of siblings in family

3 or more First child Yes No Parents living together Yes No

(p \ 0.01), mothers were on average older (p \ 0.01), parents were more often living together (p \ 0.01), fathers more often originated from the Netherlands (p \ 0.05), mothers’ and fathers’ educational attainments were more often middle to high (both p \ 0.01), mothers were more often employed (p \ 0.05), and mothers were treated for mental health problems less often (p \ 0.01) compared to the clinical sample. Measures

Country of origin the Netherlands .00 1.00

Educational attainment mother Low

Educational attainment father Low

31

11.4

11

45.8

Middle

111

40.7

7

29.2

High Occupational status mother

131

48.0

6

25.0

Employed

251

89.0

18

69.2

31

11.0

8

30.8

272

96.5

20

90.9

10

3.5

2

9.1

Unemployed Occupational status father Employed Unemployed

Treatment for mental health problems mother No

253

90.0

16

64.0

Yes, within the previous year

11

3.9

6

24.0

Yes, longer than 1 year ago

17

6.0

3

12.0

Treatment for mental health problems father No

263

95.6

19

90.5

Yes, within the previous year

5

1.8

0

0

Yes, longer than 1 year ago

7

2.5

2

9.5

123

Domain-Specific PSE The Self-Efficacy for Parenting Tasks Index-Toddler Scale (SEPTI-TS [4]) was designed as a domain-specific measure of PSE for parents of toddlers. Domains of PSE were selected based on previous work of Zeanah et al. [33] and Emde [34]. The original instrument contains 53 items, that are rated on a six-point Likert-scale with response categories varying from ‘‘Strongly agree’’ to ‘‘Strongly disagree’’. The SEPTI-TS has seven subscales that reflect domains of PSE: (1) Emotional availability (n = 7), (2) Nurturance, valuing the child, and empathetic responsiveness (n = 8), (3) Protection from harm or injury (n = 7), (4) Discipline and limit setting (n = 9), (5) Play (n = 7), (6) Teach (n = 7), and (7) Instrumental care and establishment of structure and routines (n = 8). Higher scores indicate stronger PSE. The full original scale showed good reliability (Cronbach’s a = .91), although reliability coefficients for the subscales varied from .46 to .92. Concurrent validity was sufficient; significant correlations were found between the SEPTI-TS and other domain-specific and domain-general measures of PSE [4]. The original items are presented in Coleman and Karraker [4]. The SEPTI-TS was translated to Dutch, using the back-translation method. First, the SEPTI-TS was translated to Dutch. Some long

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev

and difficult formulations were simplified, while maintaining the original intended content. The Dutch translation was then back-translated to English by two translators (Master-students in English language). Items were then compared to the original English questionnaire and showed high similarity. To explore face validity, the following question was added to the Dutch translation of the SEPTITS: ‘‘Do you feel the questions above allow you to express how you experience parenthood and parenting your child?’’, with the response categories ‘‘yes’’, ‘‘moderately’’, and ‘‘no’’, and the opportunity to provide further explanation. The Maternal Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES [14]) is also a domain-specific instrument, but was designed for parents of infants. Like the SEPTI-TS, we translated the MSES to Dutch. With a few small adjustments (e.g., replacing ‘‘baby’’ with ‘‘child’’) items were made applicable to parents of toddlers. The MSES contains 10 items, that are rated on a four-point Likert-scale. Nine items reflect domainspecific PSE for specific parenting tasks like comforting the child or getting the child’s attention. The 10th item measures global feelings of PSE, and can thus be considered to be more domain-general. High scores indicate high PSE. Teti and Gelfand [14] reported good reliability for the original MSES (Cronbach’s a = .86) in a sample of depressed and non-depressed mothers. Concurrent validity was good; strong correlations were found between the MSES and a domain-general PSE instrument [14]. Domain-General PSE The Sense of Competence subscale of the Parenting Stress Index (PSI-Competence, [35]) is a domain-general measure of PSE. PSI-Competence contains 13 items, that are rated on a six-point Likert scale. High scores indicate low PSE. A validated Dutch version of the questionnaire is available [36], for which good reliability (PSI-Competence: Cronbach’s a = .86) and validity have been reported. In addition, PSI-Competence was found to discriminate well between a clinical and normal sample.

Parental Psychological Problems The Symptom Checklist 90 Revised (SCL-90-R[38]) measures self-report of psychological problems. In the current study, only the subscales Anxiety, Depression, and Hostility are included, that contain 10, 16, and 6 items respectively. Items are scored on a five-point Likert scale. High scores indicate a high level of psychological problems. A validated Dutch version of the SCL-90-R is available, for which good reliability [SCL-90-R-Anxiety: Cronbach’s a = .88; -Depression: Cronbach’s a = .91; -Hostility: Cronbach’s a = .76 (reported alphas are for the normal population)] and validity have been reported [39]. Procedure Parents in the normal sample were approached at their child’s day care centre. They were informed by one of the day care providers about the study. When parents were interested, they were given an envelope with an informed consent letter, questionnaires, and return envelope. The parent who spent the most time with the child was invited to participate. Voluntary participation was emphasized and confidentiality was assured. Parents were asked to keep the concerning child in mind when answering questions regarding PSE. After filling in, parents were requested to return the informed consent letter and questionnaires in a closed envelope at the day care centre. Participating parents received a small present for their child. Parents in the clinical sample were approached for participation by the clinician. When they were interested they were given an informed consent letter. They were informed that their choice whether or not to participate in this study, had no consequences for the their treatment program. Voluntary participation was emphasized and confidentiality was assured. After informed consent was obtained, parents were asked to fill in questionnaires during their first or second week of treatment at the clinic. One of researchers was present for assistance and to collect the questionnaires. All research data was archived and processed separately from personal data. The study was approved by the medical ethic committee of the ErasmusMC, Rotterdam.

General Self-evaluation Statistical Analyses The Self-esteem subscale of the Dutch Personality Questionnaire (DPQ-Self-esteem [37]) provides a general measure of self-evaluation. DPQ-Self-esteem contains 19 items with a three-point Likert-scale that measure a global sense of both self-esteem (e.g., ‘‘I get along with other people’’) and self-efficacy (‘‘I can do a lot of work in a short amount of time’’). High scores indicate a low general self-evaluation. Good reliability (DPQ-Self-esteem: Cronbach’s a = .74) and validity have been reported [37].

Data from the normal sample was used to analyse face validity, factor structure and reliability, and concurrent and divergent validity. For the analyses pertaining to discriminative validity and cut-offs for normal PSE, comparisons between the clinical sample and normal sample were made. Since the clinical sample only included mothers, while the normal sample included fathers as well, comparisons were repeated for mothers only. Analyses into concurrent validity with regard to

123

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev

parental psychological problems were performed only in the clinical sample. Effects of biographical variables were analysed for both the normal and clinical sample. Principal component analysis with oblique rotation was used to analyse the factor structure of the SEPTI-TS. Oblique rotation (instead of orthogonal rotation) was chosen, because this method allows correlation between factors. Since factors were to represent different domains of PSE, it was considered very unlikely that they would be unrelated. Based on the sample size of 282, a cut-off of .40 for factor loadings was determined for items to be remained in the factors. Analyses were continued with the four factors (new Short Form SEPTITS scales) that were revealed by oblique rotation, for which Cronbach’s a’s were calculated. In order to analyse discriminative validity, scores on the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales were compared between the normal and clinical samples. Since the samples differed substantially in size and lacked homogeneity of variance, Mann–Whitney tests were performed. The 10th percentile in the normal sample was chosen as clinical cut-off, above which PSE was considered ‘normal’. This method is similar to clinical cut-off’s as established in the widely used questionnaires from the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA [40]), that are used to assess (mal)adaptive functioning. Differences in proportions scoring below the cut-offs for normal PSE between the normal and clinical sample were analysed by binominal testing, a method for comparing proportions. Concurrent and divergent validity (also with regard to parental psychological problems) were analysed by bivariate (Pearson) correlations, since assumptions of normally distributed data at interval level were met. Chen and Popovich’s [41] formula for comparing correlation coefficients was used to test for differences between correlations of the Short Form SEPTI-TS total score and MSES, PSI-Competence, and DPQ-self-esteem respectively. Effects of biographical variables were analysed by ANOVAs in the normal sample (for which assumptions of parametric data were met) and Mann–Whitney and Kruskal–Wallis tests in the clinical sample (for which assumptions of parametric data were not met). Analyses on moderating effects were performed for the normal and clinical sample separately, because error variance differed significantly across groups. To prevent effects of multiple testing, a selection of the most relevant biographical variables (concerning mother and child) from Table 1 was made. Analyses were performed with Statistical Package for the Social Sciences [42] .

Results Face Validity To explore face validity of the SEPTI-TS, parents were asked if they felt the SEPTI-TS allowed them to express

123

their experiences of parenthood and parenting. Within the normal sample, 67.3 % (n = 181) of the parents responded positively and 29.0 % (n = 78) indicated it did so moderately. Only 3.7 % (n = 10) of the parents felt the SEPTITS did not reflect their parenthood and parenting experiences very well. Criticism on specific items was concentrated around items that proved to have psychometric difficulties as well (mostly items from the subscales ‘Emotional Availability’, ‘Protection’, and ‘Teaching’).

Factor Structure and Reliability Preliminary analyses revealed that not all 53 items from the original SEPTI-TS [4] could be maintained in exploratory factor analysis. The determinant of the correlation matrix for all 53 items was much smaller than the necessary value of .00001, indicating too many low correlations between items. Items within the original Coleman and Karraker’s [4] subscales ‘Emotional Availability’, ‘Protection’, and ‘Teaching’ correlated too weakly with items within the same subscales (the majority of correlations were \.30), as well as with other items in the questionnaire, to be included in the exploratory factor analysis. Furthermore the following items were removed because they lacked sufficiently high inter-item correlations: ‘‘I find it very distressing when my child isn’t in a good mood’’ (from the subscale ‘Nurturance/Valuing/Empathetic Responsiveness’; 7 out of 7 correlations with items within the same subscale \.15), ‘‘I allow my child enough freedom to actively explore the environment’’ (from the subscale ‘Discipline/Limit Setting’; 6 out of 6 correlations with items within the same subscale\.30), ‘‘I feel like I have no control over my child’s sleep habits’’ (from the subscale ‘Instrumental Care/Structure/Routines’; 5 out of 7 correlations with items within the same subscale \.30), and ‘‘Although I have tried to train my child to eat well, my efforts have been met with very little success’’ (from the subscale ‘Instrumental Care/Structure/Routines’; 7 out of 7 correlations with items within the same subscale \.30). A principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted on the 26 remaining items with oblique rotation. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis, KMO = .87, and all KMO values for individual items were C.79, which is well above the acceptable limit of .05 [42]. Barlett’s test of sphericity X2 (325) = 2,812.71, p \ .001, indicated that correlations between items were sufficiently large for PCA. Haitovsky’s XH2 \:01 was found not to be significantly different from zero, thereby indicating that multicollinearity was not a problem. An initial analysis showed that four factors had eigenvalues of C1.78, and two factors had eigenvalues which

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev Table 2 Exploratory factor analysis Item

Rotated factor loadings Nurturance

I am able to sense when my child is starting to become distressed

Discipline

Play

Routine

.553

My toddler knows that I understand when his/her feelings are hurt

.671

I think my child knows by my behavior how much I really adore him/her

.803

My child feels very loved by me

.780

I think I am tolerant and understanding when my child displays negative emotions

.687

I definitely fulfill my parental duties when it comes to providing emotional support for my child

.656

When my child has a problem, he/she knows I will want to help

.684

Disciplining my child does not seem to be coming as naturally to me as other parts of parenting

.635

I have trouble getting my child to listen to me

.653

Other parents seem to have more success with setting limits for their children than I do with my child Setting limits for my toddler is relatively easy for me

.752 .482

When my toddler tests the limits that I have set up, I find myself becoming extremely discouraged

.645

Telling my child ‘‘no’’ when safety isn’t the issue is hard for me

.764

I can always think of something to play with my child

.531

I am a fun playmate for my toddler

.705

I find it hard to loosen up and just play with my child

.600

I am able to get actively involved in playing with my child

.642

Playing is part of my relationship with my child that I have very little difficulty with

.788

I really need to learn how to just have fun with my child

.607

I think I spend an appropriate amount of time just playing with my child

.579

I have been able to establish a daily routine with my toddler that feels comfortable to both of us

.668

I am able to provide my child with a comfortable amount of daily structure

.589

I have been successful in getting my child to eat on a fairly regular schedule

.752

I am not very good at getting my child to stick to a regular daily schedule

.650

I don’t seem to be able to establish a regular bed time routine with my child

.736

I have worked out a fairly regular morning routine with my toddler Eigenvalues Chronbach’s a

were substantially lower, but still above Kaiser’s criterion of 1 (respectively, 1.16 and 1.03). The scree plot however, showed a clear point of inflexion, justifying a four factor solution. Therefore, four factors were retained in the final analysis. Table 2 shows the factor loadings (pattern matrix) after rotation. All 26 items had factor loadings [.40 and were remained in the Short Form SEPTI-TS. The items that cluster on the same components are consistent with 4 of the original 7 subscales proposed by Coleman and Karraker’s [4]. Based on the content of the items (see Table 2) these four components reflect feelings of self-efficacy regarding parenting toddlers, in the domains of respectively Nurturance (expressing loving and caring feelings towards the child and responding empathically), Discipline (setting

.705 5.220

4.128

4.440

4.231

.82

.79

.80

.79

limits for a child), Play (getting involved in child’s play), and Routine (establishing structure and routine in a child’s daily activities, eating, and sleeping). The subscales Nurturance, Discipline, Play, and Routine, all had good reliability (see Table 2). Deletion of items did not further improve Cronbach’s a’s. Overall, the four subscales showed high reliability (Cronbach’s a for the entire Short Form SEPTI-TS = .88). Discriminative Validity and Cut-Offs for Normal PSE Table 3 shows the descriptive data of the (new) Short Form SEPTI-TS scales scores for both the normal and the clinical sample. The normal sample showed significant higher PSE

123

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev Table 3 Descriptive data of scale scores for normal and clinical sample, based on short form SEPTI-TS scales Scale

Potential range

Normal sample N

Clinical sample

M

SD

Range

N

M

Sign. SD

Range

U

r

Nurturance

7–42

277

39.32

3.17

21–42

27

36.37

5.49

20–42

2,489.5b

-.17

Discipline

6–36

277

29.83

5.57

12–36

26

24.73

7.65

8–36

2,171.0c

-.19

Play

7–42

278

36.44

5.14

18–42

27

34.04

6.89

12–42

2,950.0a

-.11

b

Routine Total

6–36

278

32.25

4.71

6–36

27

29.93

5.26

18–36

2,668.5

-.15

26–156

266

137.94

13.81

85–156

26

124.88

19.19

91–155

2,083.5c

-.20

a

b

c

Monte Carlo significance (one-tailed): \.05, \.01, \.001

compared to the clinical sample on all subscales and the total score. The effects for group on these (sub)scales (r) however, could be considered small. Similar results were found when only mothers were included in the normal sample (the clinical sample consisted of only mothers). Compared to the clinical sample, mothers from the normal sample scored significantly higher on Nurturance (M = 39.43, SD = 3.16, U = 2,016.5, p \ .01, r = .-19), Discipline (M = 29.82, SD = 5.62, U = 1,822.0, p \ .001, r = - .21), Routine (M = 32.51, SD = 4.73, U = 2,093.0, p \ .01, r = - .18), and the Total score (M = 138.08, SD = 14.03, U = 1,730.0, p \ .001, r = - .21). For the subscale Play, only borderline significance was found (M = 36.23, SD = 5.21, U = 2,531, p = .05, r = - .10). We further explored whether the Short Form SEPTI-TS scores could be used to distinguish between normal versus abnormal levels of PSE. Therefore, we chose the 10th percentile of each scale within the normal sample as the cut-off above which PSE was considered ‘normal’. Table 4 shows the percentages of the normal and clinical sample falling below the cut-off for normal PSE. Parents from the clinical sample scored significantly more often below the cut-off for normal PSE on all scales, except for Play. Analyses with inclusion of only mothers revealed similar results. We recalculated cut-off scores for mothers only. All cut-off scores remained the same, except for Play, which was adjusted to 28. Compared to the mothers from the normal sample, mothers from the clinical sample scored significantly more often below the cut-off for normal PSE on the scales Nurturance (10.4 vs. 40.7 %, p \ .001), Discipline (11.2 vs. 38.5 %, p \ .001), Routine (11.7 vs. 25.9 %, p \ .05), and the Total score (10.3 vs. 38.5 %, p \ .001). The difference between the clinical mothers and normal mothers was not significant for the subscale Play (10.3 vs. 18.5 %, p = .14). Concurrent and Divergent Validity The Total scale of the Short Form SEPTI-TS was strongly correlated with MSES (r = .60, p \ .001) and

123

Table 4 Percentages of the normal sample and clinical sample scoring below the cut-off for normal PSE Scale

Cut-off score

Normal sample % Bcut-off

Clinical sample % Bcut-off

pa

Nurturance

35

10.5

42.9

\.001

Discipline

22

10.8

37.0

\.001

Play

29

11.5

17.9

.139

Routine

26

12.2

25.0

.032

118

10.5

40.7

\.001

Total a

Exact significance binomial test (one-tailed)

PSI-Competence (r = -.72, p \ .001), and moderately correlated with DPQ-Self-esteem (r = -.45, p \ .001), indicating good concurrent validity. All correlations differed significantly from each other (see Table 5). As expected, the Short Form SEPTI-TS showed stronger correlations with other measures of PSE (MSES and PSICompetence) compared with a more general measure of self-evaluation (DPQ-Self-esteem), thereby showing good divergent validity. However, the domain-specific Short Form SEPTI-TS correlated less strongly the MSES (which is also considered to be a domain-specific instrument), than with PSI-Competence (which is a domain-general instrument). Therefore, divergent validity on the domain-specific versus domain-general levels of PSE was not established in the expected direction. Concurrent Validity: Parental Psychological Problems Concurrent validity of the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales was further analysed within the clinical sample for the degree of parental psychological problems. Table 6 shows that, in line with our expectations, anxiety, depression and hostility were all negatively correlated with the Short Form SEPTITS Play and Total scales. Hostility also showed significant negative correlations with the Short Form SEPTI-TS Nurturance and Discipline scales. Of these significant correlations, three represented a medium effect ([.4) and four

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev Table 5 Absolute difference and tDifference between correlations of the short form SEPTI-TS total scale with related measures rSEPTI-TS/PSI-Competence

rSEPTI-TS/MSES

rSEPTI-TS/

Absolute difference

tDifference

.12

4.00

a

.15

3.93

a

Absolute difference

tDifference

.27

6.35a

PSI-Competence

rSEPTI-TS/ DPQ-Self-esteem a

p \ .01 (two-tailed)

Table 6 Correlation between SCL-90-R scales and Short Form SEPTI-TS scales in clinical sample SCL-90-Rscales

Short Form SEPTI-TS scales Nurturance

Discipline

Play

Anxiety

-.297

-.354 -.248

Depression Hostility

-.271 a

-.458

Significance (two-tailed):

-.544 a

Routine

Total

-.525b

-.030

-.431a

c

-.086

-.454a

b

-.555

-.193

-.612b

c

p \ .001

-.683 b

p \ .05;

b

p \ .01;

represented a large effect ([.5). However, neither anxiety, nor depression, were significantly correlated with Short Form SEPTI-TS Nurturance and Discipline, and none of the scales for psychological problems correlated significantly with Short Form SEPTI-TS Routine. Effects of Biographical Variables ANOVAs did not reveal significant effects on the Short Form SEPTI-TS Total score in the normal sample for either age of the child (B36 vs. [36 months), age of the mother (B30 vs. [30 years), gender of the child, whether or not the child was the first child, whether or not the parents were living together, educational attainment of the mother, or occupational status of the mother. Likewise, no significant effects of these variables were found in the clinical sample using Mann–Whitney and Kruskal–Wallis tests.

Discussion The current study presents psychometric qualities of the Short Form of the SEPTI-TS. The original questionnaire [4] was reduced to 26 items and four scales: Nurturance (expressing loving and caring feelings towards the child and responding empathically), Discipline (setting limits for a child), Play (getting involved in child’s play), and Routine (establishing structure and routine in a child’s daily activities, eating, and sleeping).

Analysis of face validity showed that the majority of parents felt that the SEPTI-TS (translation of the full original questionnaire) indeed reflected their experiences of parenthood and parenting. Overall parents responded positively to the questionnaire. Criticism was concentrated around items that were later omitted during analyses into the factor structure of the SEPTI-TS. Overall face validity for the new scales of the Short Form of the SEPTI-TS could therefore have been even higher. In the process of analysing the factor structure of the SEPTI-TS, the original Coleman and Karraker’s [4] subscales Emotional Availability, Protection, and Teaching were not maintained. Similar results were reported by Meunier et al. [31] who included the SEPTI-TS in a factor analysis on data from a French-speaking sample. Although they found that Emotional Availability and Nurturance loaded on a single factor, no items from the original subscale Emotional Availability were retained in the final factor Nurturance. Although Meunier et al. [31] did identify Teaching as a unique factor, only three out of six items were retained in the final factor Teaching. Coleman and Karraker [4] found relatively low reliability for the subscale Protection (not included by Meunier et al. [31]). In the current study, all items from the subscales Emotional Availability, Protection, and Teaching were omitted during the preliminary analyses because they lacked sufficiently high inter-item correlations. One reason for these findings could be that the items were not formulated clear enough. For instance, items from the subscale Emotional Availability reflected the ability to make oneself available to a child, while being distressed or occupied at the same time. Many parents indicated that they had difficulties with the double content of these items and found it confusing what their answer would reflect: being able to make yourself available, or being distressed or occupied. Another reason could be that the omitted subscales do not reflect the domains that parents of toddlers have the most difficulties with. Taking the necessary measures to protect a child from harm, could be considered a more basic, self-evident quality in a toddler’s parent, as opposed to taking measures to establish e.g., discipline and routine, which are skills that require more insight and self-reflection. Likewise, teaching a child might be a skill, that does not yet yield a lot of problems for parents of toddlers, because the content of teaching (e.g., colours, names of objects) does not make great demands on their own level of knowledge. Possibly, PSE in the domain of teaching becomes more important as the child reaches school age or adolescence. The four factors of PSE that were displayed by exploratory factor analysis in the current study, Nurturance, Discipline, Play, and Routine, very likely reflect domains of PSE that are relevant to toddler’s parents. Meunier et al. [31] found identical factors. Moreover, parents have been

123

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev

found to adjust their way of responding to a toddler’s rapid development in e.g., seeking attention, exploration, play [26], which make an appeal on a parent’s PSE in the domains of Nurturance (responding empathically), Discipline (setting limits for a child) and Play (getting involved in a child’s play) respectively. Also, interventions that focus on PSE often aim to establish improvements in parental behaviors or child outcome related to Discipline or Routine [11, 12]. The four factors were (besides omission of a few items) identical to the corresponding subscales originally formulated by Coleman and Karraker [4]. High factor loadings and Cronbach’s a’s were found, indicating that the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales reflect strong factors with high reliability. Good discriminative validity was found for the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales, especially for Nurturance, Discipline, Routine, and the Total score. As was expected, the normal sample showed significantly higher PSE, compared to the clinical sample. Similarly, when cut-offs were applied, parents from the clinical sample more often fell in the range of abnormal PSE compared to parents from the normal sample, on all scales except for Play. The results are in line with those of Sanders and Woolley [12], who found that clinical mothers reported lower PSE on a wide range of parenting tasks, compared to normal mothers. The discriminative quality of the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales increases its usefulness for clinical practice, particularly to reveal in which domain a parent’s feelings of PSE fall outside the ‘normal’ range. Good concurrent validity was reported, as the Short Form SEPTI-TS Total scale showed strong correlations with two other PSE instruments (MSES and PSI-Competence) and a moderate correlation with a more general measure of self-evaluation (DPQ-Self-esteem). Divergent validity for the Short Form SEPTI-TS was found for its correlations with other PSE instruments versus general self-evaluation. However divergent validity on the domainspecific versus domain-general levels of PSE was not in the expected direction, since the Short Form SEPTI-TS showed stronger correlations with the domain-general PSICompetence, compared to the domain-specific MSES. Previously, Coleman and Karraker [4] found similar results. Presumably, the MSES, which was originally developed for parents of infants, is despite the adjustments that were made, not very suitable for parents of toddlers. Some items, e.g., being able to let your child smile, are relevant for parents of infants, but probably not so much for parents of toddlers. Moreover, the MSES contains a domain-general items as well, so it is not completely a domain-specific instrument. However, the MSES was the only instrument available to measure PSE in parents of young children at an domain-specific level (as opposed to other instruments that are domain-general). The MSES was

123

included in this study, because it is a surplus to compare the Short Form SEPTI-TS to an instrument at the same level of PSE. Indeed the Short Form SEPTI-TS and MSES were found to be highly correlated, which confirms the validity of the Short Form SEPTI-TS as a domain-specific instrument of PSE. The fact that even higher correlations were found between the SEPTI-TS and a domain-general instrument, probably can be explained by the age-appropriateness of the MSES for toddlers. The Short Form SEPTI-TS scales showed good concurrent validity with regard to parental psychological problems in the clinical sample. Anxiety, Depression and Hostility all correlated well with Short Form SEPTI-TS Play and Total scale. The strong correlations of parental psychological problems with Short Form SEPTI-TS Play are remarkable, since discriminative validity for this specific scale was much weaker compared to the other Short Form SEPTI-TS scales. A possible explanation is that difficulties that parents experience in playing with their child, are not so much related to psychiatric problems of the child (for which dyads in the clinical sample were referred), but rather are associated with psychological problems of the parent. These results are in line with Feng et al. [43] who found that maternal depression, but not child emotion, was related to reduced maternal responsiveness and positive expression during mother–child play interactions. In clinical practice, this implies that parent’s self-perceived ability to play with their child may be impaired and may need attention in parents who suffer from psychological problems. In the current study, hostility was furthermore related to lower PSE in the domains of Nurturance and Discipline. Hostile feelings may hamper parents self-perceived ability to respond empathically to their child and to set limits in a constructive way. Recently, marital hostility has been found to predict harsh discipline, and thereby evoke toddler anger and frustration [44], which put adequate parenting strategies and related feelings of PSE even further under pressure. Finally, analyses on biographical variables showed that the clinical sample was different compared to the normal sample on quite a few variables, principally age of the child, age of the mother, whether or not parents were living together, and educational attainment of the mother. These differences mostly reflect the natural composition of both samples. Parents in the clinical group tend to have children at a younger age, more often live separately, have lower educational attainments, etc. Unfortunately difference in error variance between the normal and clinical sample did not allow including them both in ANOVAs to explore the moderating effects of these variables on the group difference. However, no effects of any of these variables were found on the Short Form SEPTI-TS Total score, neither in the normal nor in the clinical sample. Therefore it is very

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev

unlikely that biographical differences between the samples confounded the differences on Short Form SEPTI-TS scores that were found between the normal and clinical sample. Remarkably, no significant difference was found between the level of PSE of parents for whom the concerning child was a first versus subsequent child. Apparently, experience or newness in parenthood does not affect PSE in toddler’s parents. Previously, Bornstein et al. [26] found that mothers improved their knowledge in parenting from the first to second child. Hess et al. [45] however, found no association between parental knowledge of parenting and PSE. Presumably, PSE, unlike knowledge of parenting, is not a quality that is acquired or built up over time, but rather reflects how efficacious a parent feels in their child’s current developmental stage. So far, most studies on the effect of PSE in parents of young children focussed on self-reported parenting styles or strategies (e.g., [1, 7, 9]). Since domain-specific PSE (as is measured by the Short Form SEPTI-TS) is considered to be a better predictor of parent behaviors compared to domain-general PSE [5, 12], the focus in research should probably shift more to the relation between domain-specific PSE and more specific parental behaviors (preferably assessed by observation during parent–child interaction). For instance, PSE in the domain Nurturance could well be related to criticism or praise by the parent towards the child during interaction. If this would be the case, higher praise and lower criticism towards the child, could be pursued by altering parental feelings of PSE in the domain Nurturance. The relation between domain-specific PSE and actual parental behaviors however, is yet to be explored, but could nonetheless have great clinical relevance. Since PSE is an important mediator in the relation between various child and parent risk factors and parenting [3] and moreover is a construct that is susceptible to intervention [19, 20], the notion that interventions in young children and their parents should focus on PSE is increasingly receiving acknowledgement [10, 22, 23]. Instruments on PSE should therefore be included in effect studies into these interventions. To further expand the suitability of the Short Form SEPTI-TS for this purpose, longitudinal studies in both normal and clinical samples should be performed to study stability of PSE during toddlerhood and sensitivity of the Short Form SEPTI-TS for detecting change over time. Although extensive analyses on reliability and validity were performed, the current study had several limitations. The clinical sample was relatively small. Therefore, it was not possible to study the moderating effect of possibly confounding variables on group difference. Also, PSE was studied with regard to the primary caregiver, but not in mothers and fathers separately. Previously, Meunier et al. [31] found that PSE in mothers and fathers were correlated,

however mothers and fathers did not seem to feel equally competent on all domains. Future research with the Short Form SEPTI-TS should focus more on differences between both parents of a child. Another limitation is the response rate of nearly 50 % in the normal group. Since data of the non-participants, nor reasons for no response are available, it is hard to predict the effect on generalizability of the results. Despite these limitations, the Short Form SEPTITS proves to be a reliable and valid instrument, which, given its ability to identify problematic PSE in specific domains of parenting during toddlerhood, can be of great clinical relevance.

Summary The current study presented the psychometric qualities of the Short Form of the SEPTI-TS; a 26-item questionnaire to assess parental self-efficacy in parents of toddlers. The Short Form of the SEPTI-TS showed a strong factor structure with four subscales of domain-specific PSE (Nurturance, Discipline, Play, and Routine) that showed high reliability. Parent evaluation indicated good face validity. Regarding discriminative validity, the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales distinguished well between the normal and clinical sample, although less convincing for the subscale Play. Cut-offs for normal PSE were provided. Good concurrent validity was found; the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales correlated well with other PSE measures in the normal sample as well as psychological problems in the clinical sample. Divergent validity of the Short Form SEPTI-TS scales was found in the expected direction for PSE versus general self-evaluation, however not for domain-specific versus domain-general PSE. Overall, the Short Form of the SEPTI-TS showed good psychometric qualities. The great surplus value of the Short Form SEPTI-TS is that it assesses PSE on different domains of parenting that are relevant to toddlers’ parents. Since intervention for problems related to child mental health and parenting should take place at an early stage, good instruments to assess PSE in parents of young children are indispensable. The Short Form SEPTITS enables identifying problematic PSE with regard to specific parental tasks in toddlerhood, which increases opportunities for intervention, probably even before negative effects on child development are noticeable. Acknowledgments We thank the participating parents for their contribution to the study. The support of the staff at the participating day care centres as well as the health care professionals at Babylon, Lucertis, is highly appreciated. We thank Carine Knoester and Walter Oppenoorth for their essential clinical perception. We greatly acknowledge Dr. Coleman and Dr. Karraker, who developed the original SEPTI-TS, for their kind permission to perform a psychometric study on the Dutch translation and short form of the SEPTI-TS.

123

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev Conflict of interest of interest.

The authors declare that they have no conflict

20.

References 1. Zimmer-Gembeck MJ, Thomas R (2010) Parents, parenting and toddler adaptation: evidence from a national longitudinal study of Australian children. Infant Behav Dev 33:518–529 2. Brody GH, Flor DL, Gibson NM (1999) Linking maternal efficacy beliefs, developmental goals, parenting practices, and child competence in rural single-parent African American families. Child Dev 70:1197–1208 3. Jones TL, Prinz RJ (2005) Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: a review. Clin Psychol Rev 25:341–363 4. Coleman P, Karraker K (2003) Maternal self-efficacy beliefs, competence in parenting, and toddlers’ behavior and developmental status. Infant Ment Health J 24:126–148 5. Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. WH Freeman, New York 6. Ardelt M, Eccles J (2001) Effects of mothers’ parental efficacy beliefs and promotive parenting strategies on inner-city youth. J Fam Issues 22:944–972 7. Izzo C, Weiss L, Shanahan T, Rodriguez-Brown F (2000) Parental self-efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting practices and children’s socioemotional adjustment in Mexican immigrant families. J Prev Interv Community 20:197–213 8. Dumka L, Stoerzinger H, Jackson K, Roosa M (1996) Examination of the cross-cultural and cross-language equivalence of the parenting self-agency measure. Fam Relat 45:216–222 9. MacPhee D, Fritz J, MillerHeyl J (1996) Ethnic variations in personal social networks and parenting. Child Dev 67:3278–3295 10. Meunier JC, Roskam I, Browne DT (2011) Relations between parenting and child behavior: exploring the child’s personality and parental self-efficacy as third variables. Int J Behav Dev 35:246–259 11. Gross D, Sambrook A, Fogg L (1999) Behavior problems among young children in low-income urban day care centers. Res Nurs Health 22:15–25 12. Sanders MR, Woolley ML (2005) The relationship between maternal self-efficacy and parenting practices: implications for parent training. Child Care Health Dev 31:65–73 13. Day D, Factor D, Szkibaday P (1994) Relations among discipline style, child-behavior problems, and perceived ineffectiveness as a caregiver among parents with conduct problem children. Can J Behav Sci 26:520–533 14. Teti D, Gelfand D (1995) Behavioral competence among mothers of infants in the first year: the mediational role of maternal selfefficacy. Child Dev 62:918–929 15. De Haan AD, Prinzie P, Dekovic M (2009) Mothers’ and fathers’ personality and parenting: the mediating role of sense of competence. Dev Psychol 45:1695–1707 16. Gondoli D, Silverberg S (1997) Maternal emotional distress and diminished responsiveness: the mediating role of parenting efficacy and parental perspective taking. Dev Psychol 33:861–868 17. Gross D, Fogg L, Tucker S (1995) The efficacy of parent training for promoting positive parent toddler relationships. Res Nurs Health 18:489–499 18. Tucker S, Gross D, Fogg L, Delaney K, Lapporte R (1998) The long-term efficacy of a behavioral parent training intervention for families with 2-year-olds. Res Nurs Health 21:199–210 19. Sanders M, Markie-Dadds C, Tully L, Bor W (2000) The Triple P-positive parenting program: a comparison of enhanced,

123

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28. 29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35. 36.

37.

38. 39.

standard, and self-directed behavioral family intervention for parents of children with early onset conduct problems. J Consult Clin Psychol 68:624–640 Sofronoff K, Farbotko M (2002) The effectiveness of parent management training to increase self-efficacy in parents of children with Asperger syndrome. Autism 6:271–286 Hoza B, Owens J, Pelham W, Swanson J, Conners C, Hinshaw S et al (2000) Parent cognitions as predictors of child treatment response in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol 28:569–583 Morawska A, Sanders MR (2007) Concurrent predictors of dysfunctional parenting and maternal confidence: implications for parenting interventions. Child Care Health Dev 33:757–767 Weaver CM, Shaw DS, Dishion TJ, Wilson MN (2008) Parenting self-efficacy and problem behavior in children at high risk for early conduct problems: the mediating role of maternal depression. Infant Behav Dev 31:594–605 Sevigny PR, Loutzenhiser L (2010) Predictors of parenting selfefficacy in mothers and fathers of toddlers. Child Care Health Dev 36:179–189 Laible D, Panfile T, Makariev D (2008) The quality and frequency of mother-toddler conflict: links with attachment and temperament. Child Dev 79:426–443 Bornstein MH, Tamis-Lemonda CS, Hahn CS, Haynes OM (2008) Maternal responsiveness to young children at three ages: longitudinal analysis of a multidimensional, modular, and specific parenting construct. Dev Psychol 44:867–874 Grolnick W, Kurowski C, McMenamy J, Rivkin I, Bridges L (1998) Mothers’ strategies for regulating their toddlers’ distress. Infant Behav Dev 21:437–450 Hooverdempsey K, Bassler O, Brissie J (1992) Explorations in parent-school relations. J Educ Res 85:287–294 Gross D, Rocissano L (1988) Maternal confidence in toddlerhood: its measurement for clinical practice and research. Nurse Pract 13:19–29 Salo S, Kivisto K, Korja R, Biringen Z, Tupola S, Kahila H et al (2009) Emotional availability, parental self-efficacy beliefs, and child development in caregiver-child relationships with buprenorphine-exposed 3-year-olds. Parent Sci Pract 9:244–259 Meunier J, Roskam I (2009) Self-efficacy beliefs amongst parents of young children: validation of a self-report measure. J Child Fam Stud 18:495–511 Pierce T, Boivin M, Frenette E, Forget-Dubois N, Dionne G, Tremblay RE (2010) Maternal self-efficacy and hostile-reactive parenting from infancy to toddlerhood. Infant Behav Dev 33:149–158 Zeanah C, Boris N, Heller S, HinshawFuselier S, Larrieu J, Lewis M et al (1997) Relationship assessment in infant mental health. Infant Ment Health J 18:182–197 Emde RN (1989) The infant’s relationship experience: developmental and clinical aspects. In: Sameroff AJ, Emde RN (eds) Relationship disturbances in early childhood. Basic Books, New York, pp 33–51 Abidin RR (1990) Parenting stress index manual. Pediatric Psychology Press, Charlottesville, VA De Brock AJJL, Vermulst AA, Gerris JRM, Abidin RR (1992) NOSI: Nijmeegse Ouderlijke Stress Index. Handleiding. Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse Luteijn F, Starren J, Van Dijk H (1985) Handleiding Nederlandse Persoonlijkheidsvragenlijst (herziene uitgave). Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse Derogatis LR (1994) SCL-90-R: administration, scoring and procedures manual. National Computer Systems, Minneapolis Arrindell WA, Ettema JHM (2003) SCL-90. Symptom Checklist. Handleiding bij een multidimensionele psychopathologie-indicator. Swets Test Publishers, Lisse

Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 40. Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA (2003) Manual for the ASEBA adult forms & profiles. University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth & Families, Burlington, VT 41. Chen PY, Popovich PM (2002) Correlation: parametric and nonparametric measures. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA 42. Field A (2009) Discovering statistics using SPSS, 3rd edn. Sage, London 43. Feng X, Shaw DS, Skuban EM, Lane T (2007) Emotional exchange in mother-child dyads: stability, mutual influence, and

associations with maternal depression and child problem behavior. J Fam Psychol 21:714–725 44. Rhoades KA, Leve LD, Harold GT, Neiderhiser JM, Shaw DS, Reiss D (2011) Longitudinal pathways from marital hostility to child anger during toddlerhood: genetic susceptibility and indirect effects via harsh parenting. J Fam Psychol 25:282–291 45. Hess C, Teti D, Hussey-Gardner B (2004) Self-efficacy and parenting of high-risk infants: the moderating role of parent knowledge of infant development. J Appl Dev Psychol 25:423–437

123