PSYCHOLOGY IN FRENCH ACADEMIC PUBLISHING IN THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY: ALFRED BINET, EDITORIAL DIRECTOR AT THE SCHLEICHER PUBLISHING HOUSE.

Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 51(3), 285–307 Summer 2015 View this article online at Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/jhbs.21730

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

PSYCHOLOGY IN FRENCH ACADEMIC PUBLISHING IN THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY: ALFRED BINET, EDITORIAL DIRECTOR AT THE SCHLEICHER PUBLISHING HOUSE SERGE NICOLAS

To date, historians of psychology have largely ignored the role of academic publishing and the editorial policies of the late nineteenth century. This paper analyzes the role played by academic publishing in the history of psychology in the specific case of France, a country that provides a very interesting and unique model. Up until the middle of the 1890s, there was no collection specifically dedicated to psychology. Alfred Binet was the first to found, in 1897, a collection of works specifically dedicated to scientific psychology. He chose to work with Reinwald-Schleicher. However, Binet was soon confronted with (1) competition from other French publishing houses, and (2) Schleicher’s management and editorial problems that were to sound the death knell for Binet’s emerging editorial ambitions. The intention of this paper is to encourage the efforts of the pioneers of modern psychology to have their C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. work published and disseminated.

The late nineteenth century was a formative period for the emerging discipline of psychology. In the past, historians have primarily studied the development of the discipline in the light of the biographies of pioneers (e.g., Fancher, 1985; Kimble, Wertheimer, & White, 1991; Kimble, Boneau, & Wertheimer, 1996), psychological research methodology (e.g., Danziger, 1990), descriptions of laboratories and techniques (e.g., Capshew, 1992; Nicolas & Young, 2014), etc. However, the importance of the publishing houses in the development of the new psychology, and science in general, should not be underestimated since it would not have been possible to disseminate the ideas of the various authors working in this field without the existence of specialist publishers. This new historical perspective is introduced here based on the example of French academic publishing that, along with the American, English, and German models, was one of the most developed of the time. This choice of approach was motivated by certain specificities of the French model in which a number of leading psychologists were involved in framing editorial policy. The first of these was Alfred Binet (1857–1911), who is now primarily known by psychologists and readers for his intelligence test that was published in the early 1900s (see Nicolas et al., 2013). To our knowledge, the history of psychology in France (see Nicolas, 2002), as well as that of psychology in general, has never been approached within this perspective (academic publishing and editorial policy). In the late 1890s, several French publishing houses took an interest in the development of the new psychology. The largest of these belonged to Félix Alcan (1841–1925), a publisher and bookseller who had taken over from the Germer Baillière publishing house. Alcan attracted French psychologists whose work he published along with translations of books by leading foreign psychologists of the time. One of the great figures in the French psychology of the time was Binet, an extremely diverse and productive general psychologist (see Wolf, 1973; SERGE NICOLAS is a professor of psychology at the University Paris Descartes, France. He received his PhD in cognitive psychology from the University of Grenoble in 1992 and his PhD in history of philosophy from the University of Paris VIII in 2007. His interests include the history of French psychology and history of French philosophy. His is director of L’Année Psychologique and this article is part of a larger project on Binet’s work. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Serge Nicolas, Institut de Psychologie, Laboratoire Mémoire et Cognition, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, INSERM UMR U894, 71 avenue Edouard Vaillant, 92774 Boulogne Billancourt, France; [email protected].

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Fancher, 1997). Most of his early works on hypnotism (Binet, 1886, 1892; Binet & Féré, 1887) and experimental psychology (Binet, 1894a) were published by the leading publisher Alcan. However, it was another publishing house, named Reinwald-Schleicher, that gave Binet the opportunity to launch a collection of volumes dedicated to experimental psychology at the very time when he was beginning to develop his own original work in the field of intelligence (see Nicolas & Sanitioso, 2012). This was the publishing house that was to bring out Binet’s most important works of the years 1898–1903, which were to form a prelude to his famous works on intelligence testing. It was the desire of French psychologists to propose encyclopedic collections, combined with the competition between the French publishing houses in their search for innovation, that brought about the development of collections specifically dedicated to psychology. However, the publishers were not patrons but businessmen. Situated halfway between philosophy and the sciences, psychology attracted new readers whose loyalty the publishers wished to secure through the establishment of special collections of works. In the majority of cases, the leading Parisian publishing houses spent most of their time engaged not in selling books or in printing activities, but in reading manuscripts, meeting authors, and, above all, acquiring capital (cf., Chartier & Martin, 1990). This was the context that led certain publishers to set out to attract young authors by first printing their doctoral theses. All the leading French psychologists of the age such as Bergson (1889), Binet (1894b), Bourdon (1892), Dumas (1895), Janet (1889), etc. started out by having their theses published free of charge by Alcan. Even if they did not bring much reward to the publishers in financial terms, such gestures allowed them to secure exclusive future access to the works of these up-and-coming academics. It was within this context that the Baillière-Alcan publishing house first launched its famous Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine (Library of contemporary philosophy) whose catalogues brought together the names of France’s greatest philosophers and psychologists during the years 1880–1890. Nevertheless, this change in the way booksellers and publishers went about their business was not without its risks and whenever such undertakings revealed a more hazardous side, publishers would not hesitate to terminate their contracts with the authors who were bound to them. For example, when Binet published L’Année Psychologique (The Psychology Yearbook, AP) at Alcan in 1895, he had to advance the publishing costs and, as sales did not live up to the publisher’s expectations, Binet was obliged to search for another publisher just two years later. It was at this time that new bookseller publishers were developing an interest in works specializing in psychology. With the idea in mind of building up a collection of psychological works, Binet’s choice fell on the Reinwald-Schleicher publishing house because of this 50-year-old firm’s reputation for seriousness and innovation. It was this same publisher that was to take over responsibility for printing the AP as of 1897. Binet proposed an interesting innovation to the Reinwald-Schleicher publishing house, namely the development of a collection that combined psychology with pedagogy within an experimental perspective. From the moment he joined the laboratory of psychology at the Sorbonne at the start of the 1890s, Binet became aware that the question that was to dominate his thinking was the psychology of children in combination with the issue of pedagogy. Indeed, the initial research conducted by Binet (see Binet & Henri, 1895a, 1895b, 1896), which was published in L’Année Psychologique (AP), was characterized by this growing interest in the pedagogical psychology of children. Here, he saw a new field of application for psychology but, unlike the American approach based on questionnaires (see White, 1990), he chose to address it using an experimental approach to pedagogy. When F. Buisson founded the Société Libre pour l’Etude Psychologique de l’Enfant (Free Society for the Psychological Study of Children—SLEPE) in 1899, Binet was called on to place the recent advances in the field of JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs

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experimental psychology in the service of pedagogy. From then on, Binet was to invest all his efforts in developing a genuinely experiment-driven pedagogical discipline. In effect, his aim was to impose psychology and its scientific methods in the realm of pedagogical investigation. It was within this context that he was to ask the Reinwald-Schleicher publishing house, on the one hand, to create a collection of works devoted to pedagogy and psychology (the Bibliothèque de pédagogie et de psychologie/Library of pedagogy and psychology), and, on the other, to publish the three journals of which he was editor: L’Année Psychologique (AP), a review founded in 1895, L’intermédiaire des Biologistes (The Biologists’ Intermediary), which was founded in 1897, and the SLEPE Bulletins, which were first published in 1900. The paper deals first with the importance of the leading publishing house Germer Baillière, which was subsequently to become Félix Alcan. This publishing house was notable for the absence of a collection dedicated specifically to psychology and Binet’s works were, at that time, published in various collections issued by this publishing house. The second part of the paper is devoted to the Schleicher Frères publishing house, successors to Ch. Reinwald and promoters of scientific psychology. It was Binet who proposed to Schleicher the establishment of the first collection of psychological works in 1897. Binet thereby initiated a new direction in French editorial policy in which leading psychologists were directly involved in the work of publishing houses. The third part of the paper addresses the editorial policy of various French and foreign publishing houses in order to encourage comparative and international research in this domain. THE PUBLICATION OF THE BIBLIOTHE` QUE DE PHILOSOPHIE CONTEMPORAINE BY LADRANGE-BAILLIE` RE-ALCAN At the end of the nineteenth century, French psychology was represented by numerous authors, the most famous of whom is undoubtedly the founder of the school: Théodule Ribot (1839–1916) (Nicolas & Murray, 1999; Nicolas, 2005). This author first became known because of his innovative philosophical and psychological writings that were published during the 1870s (Ribot, 1870, 1873) by the renowned Parisian publisher Jean-Baptiste Ladrange (1793–1879). In 1835, Ladrange had founded a bookshop devoted to philosophy, which he continued to expand over a period of nearly 40 years. From this period onwards, he published the greatest philosophers of the age, including Victor Cousin (1792–1867) and Théodore Jouffroy (1796–1842), and had also started to publish the works of Maine de Biran (1766–1824) and Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). He had just finished printing Ribot’s French translation of The Principles of Psychology by Herbert Spencer (1874), when, at the insistence of his children, he sold his business to Gustave Germer Baillière (born in 1837) in 1874. Ribot’s reputation became established above all in 1876 when he founded a new philosophical review (cf., Nicolas, 2013), which devoted a considerable number of its pages to the field of psychology: the Revue philosophique de la France et de l’Etranger (French and Overseas Philosophical Review). The creation and development of this review, which was published by Baillière, together with the publication of the many works by Ribot, which helped shape the period (Ribot, 1879, 1881, 1883, 1885, 1889), were made possible due to the strong links he had forged within the publishing world. In 1883, the Germer Baillière publishing house was bought by its associate Félix Alcan (1841–1925). A friend of Ribot’s, who had graduated in the same year as him at the Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS), Alcan was to help Ribot showcase the new psychology that was emerging in France. The success of Ribot’s works made it possible to introduce the teaching of psychology, first at the Sorbonne (Nicolas, 2000) and then at the Collège de France (Nicolas & Charvillat, 2001). As far as Alcan was concerned, its position as the leading publishing house JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs

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of the age was strengthened in the fields of philosophy and psychology because of the support of Ribot and his colleagues. In the Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine (Library of contemporary philosophy), only 12 books were published in the field of psychology between 1870 and 1883 (Baillière as publisher), with 40 percent of these being written by Ribot (1870, 1873, 1879, 1881, 1883) and 25 percent being translations of foreign works of psychology (Bain, 1874; Spencer, 1874; Lotze, 1876). In contrast, between 1884 and 1896 (Alcan as publisher), 43 such books were published, with 7 percent being written by Ribot (1885, 1889, 1896) and 28 percent being translations of works written by foreign psychologists (e.g., Bain, 1885; Mosso, 1886, 1894; Wundt, 1886, 1893; Lombroso, 1887, 1889; Preyer, 1887; Sergi, 1888; Romanes, 1891; Lange, 1895). Other books were written by great French philosophers and psychologists (e.g., Richet, 1884, 1887; Binet, 1886, 1894a; Bergson, 1889, 1896; Janet, 1889; Bourdon, 1892; Le Bon, 1895). To summarize, throughout the period 1870–1896, we can note: (1) A constant increase in the number of works devoted to psychology, with the 1890s witnessing a veritable explosion in the number of publications; (2) the continuation of the policy of publishing foreign works of psychology (nearly 30 percent of titles); (3) the proportion of new French authors being published reached a significant level between 1884 and 1896, a clear sign of the development of the new psychology in France (see Table 1). Alcan therefore succeeded in publishing all the authors who contributed to the renaissance of French philosophical and psychological thought at around the turn of the century (cf., Tesnières, 1990), that is to say all the academic authors. However, this leading position did not come without its problems insofar as no collection specifically devoted to psychology was established. In the Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine no distinction was made between works of scientific psychology (e.g., Wundt, 1886; Sergi, 1888; Binet, 1894a) and works of philosophical psychology (e.g., Bergson, 1889, 1896). The domination of philosophy over psychology was therefore still clearly visible. Nevertheless, a perusal of Alcan’s general catalogue undoubtedly shows that a theoretical, although hypothetical, collection of this type could have been created (see Table 2 for an attempt) with the publications of leading psychologists: Beaunis (1888), Binet (1894a), Delboeuf (1876, 1883a, 1883b), Flournoy (1893), Ribot (1879), Sergi (1888), van Biervliet (1895), and Wundt (1886). With the purchase of the titles owned by Ladrange and Baillière, Alcan was to become the most important publisher of works of philosophy and psychology in France, and quite probably in the world, during the 1880s. During this period, Alcan published not only Ribot but also many other of the leading French and overseas authors of the age (Bain, Lombroso, Mosso, Preyer, Romanes, Sergi, Wundt; see Table 1). Three young French psychologists were to emerge during this period: Henri Bergson (1859–1941) with his book entitled Les données immédiates de la conscience (An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness) (Bergson, 1889), Pierre Janet (1859–1947) who published L’automatisme psychologique (Of Psychological Automatism) and related works (Janet, 1889), and Alfred Binet (1857–1911) whose works included La psychologie du raisonnement (The Psychology of Reasoning) (Binet, 1886), and Le magnétisme animal (Animal Magnetism) (Binet & Féré, 1887). It was therefore natural that Binet should turn to Alcan when, during the 1890s, he started to take an interest in laboratory-based experimental psychology. Since Ribot did not adopt an experimental method, Binet decided to develop this scientific approach to psychology when, in 1891, he joined the psychology laboratory of the Sorbonne, which had been founded by Henry Beaunis (1830– 1921) (cf., Nicolas, 1995; Nicolas & Sanitioso, 2012). It was at this time that Binet’s works Les altérations de la personnalité (Alterations of Personality) (Binet, 1892) and Introduction a` la psychologie expérimentale (Introduction to Experimental Psychology) (Binet, 1894a) were published by Alcan. Full of enthusiasm, he decided to set up a review dedicated exclusively JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs


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TABLE 1. List of Works of Psychology (Classified By Year of Publication) in the Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine (Library of Contemporary Philosophy) Published By Germer Baillière and Then Subsequently By Félix Alcan Author

Date

Title

Publisher: Germer Bailliere (1863–1883) Ribot, Th. 1870 La psychologie anglaise contemporaine (English Psychology) Ribot, Th. 1873 L’hérédité: Etude psychologique sur ses phénomènes, ses lois, ses causes, ses conséquences (Heredity: a Psychological Study of its Phenomena, Laws, Consequences and Causes) Bain, A. 1874 Les sens et l’intelligence (The Senses and the Intellect) Spencer, H. 1874 Principes de psychologie (Principles of Psychology) Lotze, H. 1876 Principes généraux de psychologie physiologique (Outlines of Physiological Psychology) Pérez, B. 1878 Les trois premières années de l’enfant (The first three years of childhood) Ribot, Th. 1879 La psychologie allemande contemporaine (German psychology of to-day) Colsenet, E. 1880 Etudes sur la vie inconsciente de l’esprit (The Unconscious Life of the Mind) Egger, V. 1881 La parole intérieure. Essai de psychologie descriptive (Inner speech. An Essay in Descriptive Psychology) Ribot, Th. 1881 Les maladies de la mémoire (Diseases of Memory) Ferri, L. 1883 La psychologie de l’association (The Psychology of Association) Ribot, Th. 1883 Les maladies de la volonté (Diseases of the Will) Publisher: Félix Alcan (1884–1896) Richet, Ch. 1884 L’homme et l’intelligence (Man and Intelligence) Ribot, Th. 1885 Les maladies de la personnalité (Diseases of Personality) Bain, A. 1885 Les e´ motions et la volonté (The emotions and the will) Ballet, G. 1886 Le langage intérieur et les diverses formes de l’aphasie. (Inner Language and the different Kinds of Aphasia) Binet, A. 1886 La psychologie du raisonnement (The psychology of reasoning) Mosso, A. 1886 La peur (Fear) Pérez, B. 1886 L’enfant de trois a` sept ans (Childhood from age three to seven) Wundt, W. 1886 Eléments de psychologie physiologique (Principles of Physiological Psychology) Féré, Ch. 1887 Sensation et mouvement. (Sensation and movement) Lombroso, C. 1887 L’homme criminel (The Criminal Man) Paulhan, F. 1887 Les phénomènes affectifs et les lois de leur apparition (Affective phenomena and the laws of their appearance) Preyer, W. 1887 L’âme de l’enfant (The soul of the child) Richet, Ch. 1887 Essai de psychologie générale (Essay on general psychology) Sergi, G. 1888 La psychologie physiologique (Physiological Psychology) Bergson, H. 1889 Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience (Essay on the Immediate data of Consciousness) Bertrand, A. 1889 La psychologie de l’effort et les doctrines contemporaines (The psychology of effort and contemporary doctrines) Janet, P. 1889 L’automatisme psychologique (Of Psychological Automatism) Lombroso, C. 1889 L’homme de génie (The Man of Genius) Paulhan, F. 1889 L’activité mentale et les e´ léments de l’esprit (Mental activity and the elements of the mind) Ribot, Th. 1889 La psychologie de l’attention (The Psychology of Attention) Romanes, G. 1891 L’évolution mentale chez l’homme (Mental evolution in Man) Sollier, P. 1891 Psychologie de l’idiot et de l’imbécile (Psychology of the idiot and imbecile) Bourdon, B. 1892 L’expression des e´ motions et des tendances dans le langage (The expression of emotions and language tendencies) Dewaule, L. 1892 Condillac et la psychologie anglaise contemporaine (Condillac and contemporary psychology) Fouillée, A. 1893 La psychologie des idées-forces (The psychology of idées-forces) Wundt, W. 1893 Hypnotisme et suggestion (Hypnotism and Suggestion) Martin, F. 1894 La Perception extérieure et la science positive. (External Perception and Positive Science) (Continued)

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TABLE 1. Continued Author

Date

Title

Paulhan, F. Binet, A.

1894 1894

Godfernaux, A.

1894

Le Bon, G.

1894

Mosso, A. Dumas, G. Dunan, Ch. Ferrero, G.

1894 1895 1895 1895

Lange, C.

1895

Le Bon, G. Thomas, F.

1895 1895

Bergson, H.

1896

Dugas, L.

1896

Lachelier, J.

1896

Paulhan, F.

1896

Ribot, Th.

1896

Les caractères (Characters) Introduction a` la psychologie expérimentale (Introduction to Experimental Psychology) Le sentiment et la pensée et leurs principaux aspects physiologiques – Essai de psychologie expérimentale et comparée. (Feeling and thought and their principal physiological aspects—Essay on experimental and comparative psychology) Les lois psychologiques de l’évolution des peuples. (Psychological laws of the Evolution of Peoples) La fatigue intellectuelle et physique (Intellectual and Physical Fatigue) Les e´ tats intellectuels dans la mélancolie (Intellectual states in melancholy) Théorie psychologique de l’espace (A psychological theory of space) Les lois psychologiques du symbolisme. (The psychological laws of symbolism) Les e´ motions. Etude psychophysiologique (The Emotions. A psychophysiological study) Psychologie des foules (Psychology of Crowds) La suggestion: Son rôle dans l’éducation (Suggestion. Its Role in Education) Matière et Mémoire: Essai sur la relation du corps a l’esprit (Matter and Memory: Essay on the relation of body and spirit) Le psittacisme et la pensée symbolique. Psychologie du nominalisme. (Psittacism and symbolic thought. The psychology of nominalism) Du fondement de l’induction: suivie de psychologie et métaphysique (On the Foundation of Induction: a psychological and metaphysical examination) Les types intellectuels. Esprits logiques et esprits faux (Intellectual types: Logical and erroneous minds) La psychologie des sentiments (The Psychology of the Emotions)

The indicated publication dates are those of the first edition. Many of these works have been reprinted many times. This is particularly true of the various books by Ribot.

TABLE 2. Reconstruction of a Theoretical Collection of (French-Language) Contemporary Experimental Psychology Based on the Titles Held By the Alcan Publishing House Titles from the Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine Binet, A. 1894 Introduction a` la psychologie expérimentale (Introduction to Experimental Psychology) Ribot, Th. 1879 La psychologie allemande contemporaine (German psychology of to-day) Sergi, G. 1888 La psychologie physiologique (Physiological psychology) Wundt, W. 1886 Eléments de psychologie physiologique (Principles of Physiological Psychology) Titles from the Bibliothèque scientifique internationale Binet, A. 1892 Les altérations de la personnalité (Alterations of Personality) Beaunis, H. 1888 Les sensations internes (Inner feelings) Titles from the Questions de philosophie et de science (not published in collections) Biervliet, J.-J. 1895 Eléments de psychologie humaine (Principles of human psychology) Delboeuf, J. 1876 La psychologie comme science naturelle (Psychology as natural science) Delboeuf, J. 1883 Eléments de psychophysique générale et spéciale (Principles of general and special psychophysics) Delboeuf, J. 1883 Examen critique de la loi psychophysique (Critical examination of the laws of psychophysics) Flournoy, Th. 1893 Des phénomènes de synopsie (On the phenomena of synopsie)



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to the new psychology in 1894 (Nicolas, Segui, & Ferrand, 2000a, 2000b), to which he gave the title L’Année Psychologique (AP). He turned to Alcan who, however, proved reticent and demanded guarantees in the form of subscriptions in order to ensure sales of the first volume, which was published in 1895, and the second volume, which followed it in 1896. However, Alcan refused to publish the following volumes and their printing and distribution were entrusted to another Parisian publishing house that Binet had contacted: Schleicher Frères, successors to the famous publishers C. Reinwald. THE FOUNDING OF THE BIBLIOTHE` QUE DE PÉDAGOGIE ET DE PSYCHOLOGIE AT THE SCIENTIFIC BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS CHARLES REINWALD AND SCHLEICHER FRE` RES For several years (1897–1903), Binet was to promote experimental psychology at Reinwald-Schleicher, in particular through the establishment of a remarkable collection of psychological works in 1897. At this same publisher, he was also responsible for introducing the publication of two other reviews in addition to L’Année Psychologique: L’intermédiaire des Biologistes. Organe International de Zoologie, Botanique, Physiologie et Psychologie (The Biologists’ Intermediary. International Journal for Zoology, Botany, Physiology, and Psychology) (1897–1898) and the Bulletin de la Société Libre pour l’Etude Psychologique de l’Enfant (1901–1903). The scientific publisher was looking for new ideas from its authors and Binet was to suggest new avenues to explore by proposing, in 1898, to direct a new collection of works as part of the Bibliothèque de pédagogie et de psychologie. Major works by Binet (1900, 1903; Binet & Henri, 1898) as well as those of other authors (Sanford, 1900; Bourdon, 1902) were to be published as part of this short-lived collection. Founder Charles Reinwald (1812–1891): Disseminator of Evolutionist and Materialist Ideas Charles Ferdinand Reinwald (see Figure 1) was born on February 19, 1812 in Frankfurton-Main in Germany. The son of a coachbuilder, his love of the printed word became clear even as a young child. From the age of 15 years, he worked at a printer’s and then, in 1828, he was employed by the bookseller Siegmund Schmerber (1801–1840). In 1831, his employer sent him to attend the Leipzig book fair. It was here that he met the French printer and publisher Ambroise Firmin-Didot (1790–1876) who quickly recognized the young German bookseller’s intelligence and qualities and invited him to come and work alongside him in Paris. After becoming a naturalized French citizen, he decided to leave his position as manager of the Firmin-Didot firm of booksellers and to set up his own bookshop. On January 1, 1849, he moved into premises at No. 8, rue des Saints-Pères, which he left again in 1852 to occupy new premises just a few metres away at No. 15 in the same street (see Figure 2). During the first few years, Reinwald focused primarily on publishing French translations of historical works originally written in German. However, his publishing house was known first and foremost for the publication of the French-language dictionary Dictionnaire de la langue française by Poitevin (1856–1859). At the same time, he was entrusted with the publication of the famous catalogues of the Librairie Française, which first appeared in 1858 and gave the titles and prices of the most important new publications in France as well as of French-language titles published in Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, etc., together with the names of the publishers or their agents in Paris. These monthly bulletins thus also advertised the productions of French publishing houses beyond the country’s borders. However, Reinwald was first and foremost a scientific publisher who was interested in disseminating new English and German works in France. Thus, at the editorial level, the 1860s and 1870s were characterized by the publication of, for example, works on anthropology, the theory of evolution, and German JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs

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FIGURE 1. The publisher Charles Reinwald (1812–1891) (private possession of S. Nicolas).

materialism. The catalogues of the period contain the names of the leading authors in all these different fields. Anthropology was represented by the publication of the works of Paul Broca (1824–1880) (cf., Broca, 1871, 1874, 1878, 1883, 1888), the theory of evolution by those of Charles Darwin (1809–1882) (cf., Darwin, 1868, 1870, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1877a, 1877b, 1877c, 1878, 1882a, 1882b), and the materialist doctrine by the writings of Ludwig Büchner (1824–1899) (Büchner, 1863, 1869, 1872, 1881, 1883, 1886). The image and scientific reputation of the C. Reinwald publishing house were to be founded above all on these latter two topics: evolutionism and materialism. We must therefore first of all make special mention of the works of Charles Darwin (1809– 1882), much of whose output and whose autobiography (Darwin, 1888) Reinwald published in French translation. He started publishing Darwin’s work in 1868 with Jean Jacques Moulinié’s (1830–1873) translation of The variation of animals and plants under domestication (Darwin, 1868). This translation was to be followed by many others including The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (Darwin, 1872) and The expression of the Emotions (Darwin, 1874), which were of particular interest to psychologists. It should, however, be noted that the JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs


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FIGURE 2. The bookshop owned by publishers C. Reinwald and then Schleicher frères in 1899, situated at 15 rue des Saints Pères. This bookshop has disappeared today and has been replaced by more fashionable shops (private possession of S. Nicolas).

first French translation of Darwin’s most important work, On the Origin of Species (Darwin, 1859), was not first published by Reinwald (cf., Becquemont, 1992). In fact, the first available French translation was produced by Clémence Royer (1830–1902) based on the third English edition (Darwin, 1861) and published in 1862 (Darwin, 1862) by the Parisian publishing house Guillaumin et Masson (second edition in 1866, third edition in 1870). Following a falling out with his French translator, Darwin asked Reinwald to publish a French translation of the new edition of his work (fifth edition). This resulted in the publication, in 1873, of a new translation by J.-J. Moulinié of the fifth English edition (Darwin, 1873). In 1876 (Darwin, 1876), following Moulinié’s death, Reinwald brought out the translation by Edmond Barbier (1834–1880), which was based on the definitive English text (Darwin, 1875). Finally, Reinwald also published translations of much of Darwin’s writing, which, in total, was to fill 12 volumes that were frequently reprinted or republished in the years that followed (Darwin, 1868, 1870, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1877a, 1877b, 1877c, 1878, 1882a, 1882b). Beyond Darwin, however, Reinwald also published works by other foreign evolutionary theorists, including works by Alfred Russel Wallace (1872), Ernst Haeckel (1874, 1877, 1879), John Romanes (1884), and August Weismann (1892). Darwin’s theories brought with them a break with the old order and were the object of criticism and resistance in France (cf., Conry, 1974). In France, Reinwald was the most important publisher to import from Germany in the form of scientific materialism. The German materialism of the time did away with the soul/body duality by considering mental activity to be a function of the physical aspects of existence. Indeed, a widespread movement in support of materialism had emerged in Germany during JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs

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FIGURE 3. Cover of L’Année psychologique (third year, 1897, works from 1896) (private possession of S. Nicolas).

the 1840s and 1850s, in part as a reaction against the exaggerated spiritualist philosophy that had reigned there for so long and in part due to the application to the mental realm of the principles of physical science. The advent of clear, committed German materialism came when Jacob Moleschott (1822–1893) published his “Circuit of Life” (Moleschott, 1852), which was JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs


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translated into French a few years later (Moleschott, 1866). In 1854, a debate took place between Carl Vogt (1817–1895), who was known for his materialist ideas, and the eminent philosopher Rudolph Wagner (1805–1864) who claimed that although there is nothing in physiology to indicate the existence of a distinct soul, this existence was made necessary by the moral relations between humans (Haßlauer, 2010). Vogt’s work Physiologische Briefe (Letters on Physiology) (Vogt, 1847), translated into French (as Lettres physiologiques) and published by Reinwald a few years later (cf., Vogt, 1875), had outraged Wagner and provoked a veritable scandal since it claimed that the production of thoughts, movements, and feelings was as natural to the brain as contraction was to muscles or urinary excretion to the kidneys. It was this polemic with Wagner that was to lead to the widespread dissemination of Vogt’s materialist ideas (cf., Wagner, 1854). In a series of works translated by the Reinwald publishing house, Vogt unyieldingly supported the idea that the mind was dependent on the body. The third, and without doubt the most popular, among those who developed these materialist ideas was Ludwig Büchner (1824–1899), who published his work Kraft und Stoff (Force and Matter) in 1855 (Büchner, 1855). The French translation of Büchner’s book under the title Force et Matière (1863), which was published by Reinwald, represents the real starting date for French new materialism. The chosen issues, traces of which can be found in France in the writings of Broussais and Comte, affirm above all a hostility to spiritual philosophy, the privileged role of the physical and physiological sciences, the unity of mental force and matter, and the negation of both the soul and God. Thus, according to Büchner, psychology was to be considered simply as the physiology of mental life. Reinwald also published translations of many other important works by Büchner. A few years later, he was to publish, among other things, the French translation of Friedrich Albert Lange’s (1828–1875) famous Geschichte des Materialismus (History of Materialism) (Lange, 1877–1879) and the important psychological investigations ´ of Russian physiologist Ivan Setchenov (1829–1905) under the title Etudes Psychologiques (1863) (Setchenoff, 1884) in which intellectual activity is explained in terms of purely reflex phenomena (his work was to have a major influence on young Russian thinkers including Ivan Pavlov). During the 1860s and 1870s, many critiques of the rise of physiological materialism as applied to psychological questions were published in France, in particular by the French spiritualist philosophers (e.g., Janet, 1864; Caro, 1867). The Schleicher Frères Publishing House, Successors to Ch. Reinwald: Promoters of Experimental Psychology In 1890, Reinwald joined forces with two of his nephews: Adolphe Schleicher (1867–1932) and Charles Schleicher (1872–1943). A year later, Reinwald died and his nephews took over as a matter of course at the helm of the publishing house, which was henceforth to bear their name. Over the course of the coming years, the Schleicher brothers were to pursue the scientific policy instituted by their uncle. That is why, for example, they padded out their catalogue of books by republishing classical exponents of evolutionist theory (e.g., Spencer, 1902; Lamarck, 1907) as well as of materialist and positivist doctrine (e.g., Comte, 1907, 1909). However, at a very early stage, they also turned their attention to the field of the new psychology. And in Binet, they found a director of collection who abounded in new ideas. It was he who suggested to the Schleicher brothers in 1897 that they publish two new reviews: L’Année Psychologique and L’intermédiaire des biologistes. At the start of the 1890s, Binet joined the laboratory of physiological psychology at the Sorbonne, which had thus far been presided over by Henry Beaunis (1830–1921). Very quickly, Binet was to become the lynchpin of the laboratory and its scientific activity burgeoned (cf., Nicolas & Sanitioso, 2012). Following the development of activity in the field JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs

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of experimental psychology, the number of papers and articles devoted to this new science had increased with every passing year. These texts were disseminated via a host of printed media dedicated to physics, physiology, general and special pathology, pedagogy, and philosophy, most of which were difficult to get hold of. Because French psychologists had great difficulty keeping abreast of developments in this scientific field, Binet, who was then assistant director of the psychology laboratory at the Sorbonne, decided in 1894 to found a psychology review: L’Année Psychologique (AP) (Nicolas, Ferrand, & Segui, 2000a, 2000b). The AP set itself the task of bridging this gap; on the one hand, by publishing 10 or so original papers authored by the leading names in French psychology every year; and on the other, by summarizing the most important work conducted in France and abroad by means of in-depth, critical analyses whose documentation in the form of tables and drawings made it unnecessary to consult the original sources. The first two volumes of the AP were published in 1895 (Vol. I containing works from the year 1894) and 1896 (Vol. II containing works from the year 1895) by Félix Alcan, before Binet asked Schleicher to take over publication and list the review in its catalogue in 1897. This new volume of L’Année Psychologique (Vol. III containing works from the year 1896) contained (see Figure 3), among other things, an inaugural paper by Ribot (1897) on the abstraction of emotions, the famous article by the Henri’s (Henri & Henri, 1897) on early childhood memories (cf., Nicolas, Gounden, & Piolino, 2013), research work into individual psychology (Binet, 1897; Henri, 1897), and, most importantly, a series of articles devoted to fluctuations in the capillary pulse in different working situations (Binet & Courtier, 1897a, 1897b, 1897c, 1897d; Binet & Vaschide, 1897). This latter research testifies to the interest during Binet’s lifetime in psycho-physiological studies and in what he termed “individual physiology” (Binet & Vaschide, 1898). This type of research was continued in subsequent years in the company of Binet’s colleagues V. Henri and N. Vaschide. It is not surprising that the same period was to give rise to an attempt to initiate a dialogue between Binet and the physiologists who were his contemporaries. It should not be forgotten that Binet, who on November 24, 1894 defended his thesis in the natural sciences, which was published by F. Alcan (Binet, 1894b), was highly regarded as a scientist known for his work in the field of biology. It is for this reason that in 1897, Binet suggested to Schleicher the publication of a new review: L’Intermédiaire des Biologistes. Organe International de Zoologie, Botanique, Physiologie et Psychologie. This was first and foremost a bulletin containing scientific information for biologists and psychologists, the first issue of which appeared on November 5, 1897 (see Figure 4). Binet’s first aim had been to create a weekly journal that would help establish a link between biologists from all countries and provide them with a way of always remaining in contact with one another. His second aim was to provide biologists with various types of information that would be of interest to them. The review consequently became: (1) a forum for discussion and information (questions and answers relating to scientific problems or relating to questions involving scientific bibliographic references); (2) a place where readers could obtain information about the various biology-related periodicals (through the reproduction of the tables of contents of the reviews). To give more punch to the publication, Binet subsequently added a new but brief section containing precisely focused, short articles or papers that were necessarily short lived but intended to communicate new observations or experiences. The articles followed the format and were of approximately the length of the papers habitually presented at academic societies such as the Paris Académie des Sciences. Judged in terms of its content, the journal was a success. Many researchers were to contribute to the journal’s columns. Among the psychologists, the names include, for example, J. M. Baldwin (USA), H. Ebbinghaus (Germany), G. E. Müller (Germany), W. Stern (Germany), E. Claparède (Switzerland), Th. Fournoy (Switzerland), A. Herzen (Switzerland), JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs


FIGURE 4. Cover of L’intermédiaire des biologistes (first year, 1898) (private possession of S. Nicolas).


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B. Bourdon (France), etc. However, the workload was too great for Binet (1898b), who wrote: “Since my personal work will, in future, prevent me from conferring the time required to the editorial direction of the Intermédiaire, I entrust the direction to my friend, Dr Hallion” (p. 1). The title of the journal was modified and became, as of 1898, L’Intermédiaire des Biologistes et des Médecins (The Biologists’ and Doctors’ Intermediary) in order to extend the scope of the review. Binet had been interested in pedagogy for several years and his guiding aim was to show how vital a contribution the experimental approach could make to this discipline. Thus, he wrote (Binet, 1894c): “We have always been very concerned with pedagogy and especially in recent years; we have also spent a lot of money; however, all the ardour and all the money have only served to bring out reviews, to stimulate speeches and lectures rather than to study children. I see pedagogical reviews that are full of good intentions and which, nevertheless, contain nothing in their pages but ministerial proclamations and administrative blather. Despite this, no-one would disagree with me that a single experiment with a class of children would be much more useful for pedagogy than the most brilliant feats of oratory” (p. 446). As a severe critic of the works relating to education and training published in the pedagogical field at the time, Binet thought that psychology should provide teachers with the tools they need in order to understand differences between individuals so that they can adapt their teaching to the capabilities of the children in their care. Binet (1893) showed, for example, that each of us has different memory capacities and his or her own way of remembering, different processes that often vary enormously from one individual to another (cf., Binet & Henri, 1894a, 1894b, 1895a, 1895b). He was to show that not only are there individual differences in the way in which we remember, but also in the way that we understand, imagine, explain, and feel emotion. It was here, in these higher functions, that Binet was to search for the specific characteristics of the individual and propose his program of individual psychology (Binet & Henri, 1896; see Nicolas, Coubart, & Lubart, 2014). For Binet: “Individual psychology has many important applications. However, the most immediate among them are certainly to be found in the field of pedagogy and consist in giving the teacher a way of knowing which intellectual and moral capabilities are overdeveloped and dangerous among their pupils, which they lack and also what special abilities they have that should be encouraged” (Binet, 1896, p. 419). In line with this approach to the study of children, which was simultaneously psychological and pedagogical in nature, he became, in 1898, the editor at Schleicher for a collection of works in the Bibliothèque de pédagogie et de psychologie intended to help pedagogy benefit from recent advances in the field of experimental psychology. For Binet, the new pedagogy was to be founded on observation and experience. It had to be, above all, experimental in the scientific sense of the word. Anxious to keep his readers informed of recent developments in the field of experimental psychology, he commissioned the translation into French of an American classic in the field, the Course in Experimental Psychology by E. C. Sanford (1900), and he asked Benjamin Bourdon to write a purely experiment-based work on La perception visuelle de l’espace (On the Visual Perception of Space) (Bourdon, 1902). Binet was himself to publish three major works in this collection: La fatigue intellectuelle (Intellectual Fatigue) (Binet & Henri, 1898); La suggestibilité (Suggestibility) (Binet, 1900); and L’étude expérimentale de l’intelligence (The Experimental Study of Intelligence) (Binet, 1903). Even though these works were of critical importance and broke new ground, none of them was translated into English. In the first of their books to be published by Schleicher, Binet and Henri (1898) wrote about mental fatigue in children and asserted that the pedagogy of the future had to be founded upon psychology. This was the first attempt to accumulate a repository of knowledge on this diverse issue. The authors explored the physiology and psychology of fatigue, investigating the effect of intellectual effort on physiological functions JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs


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and the repercussions for psychological activities. This book was the first volume of a series devoted to pedagogy and psychology and was well received as a useful and ably prepared compendium on the subject (e.g., Jastrow, 1898). In 1900, Binet published an interesting series of new experiments on suggestibility. He wrote: “This book is the execution of a quite small part of a much larger plan. This plan, on which I have worked for many years, and for which I amass materials, most of which have not yet been published, consists of establishing the experimental psychology of the higher functions of the mind, with the goal of differentiating individuals” (Binet, 1900, p. 385). Binet sought to study suggestibility as a normal social and cognitive process. He found that memory in children could be influenced by the form of simple questions (see Nicolas, Gounden, & Sanitioso, 2011). Taking the role of an investigating judge, Binet estimated the truthfulness of the memories of his witnesses and was the first to establish a scientific foundation for the psychology of testimony (Nicolas, Gounden, & Sanitioso, 2011). In the last of his books to be published by Schleicher, Binet (1903) reported his careful observations of his two young daughters, Madeleine (1885–1961) and Alice (1887–1938), to whom he had administered a set of tests of his own devising and designed to investigate individual psychology. He continually compared his two daughters and studied their mental characteristics. One of his two subjects was of an observational and the other of an imaginative nature. Binet was primarily interested in intelligence as assessed using qualitative methods. At that time, he thought that rapidly conducted mental tests undetaken among large populations had little value. However, just one year later in the context of the discussion in France concerning the introduction of special classes for “slow” children, he decided to create his own intelligence test with the explicit intent of underpinning the role of psychologists in schools (see Nicolas et al., 2013). For many years, Binet had been involved in the direction of the Société Libre pour l’Etude Psychologique de l’Enfant (SLEPE), a society created in 1899 by Ferdinand Buisson (1841– 1932) who was then in charge of primary school teaching at the Ministry of Public Education. Binet was called on to place the recent advances in the field of experimental psychology in the service of pedagogy. Not only did he wrote works on the psychology of children, but he also invested all his efforts in founding an experiment-based approach to pedagogy. It was in this context that, on the one hand, he aroused the interest of the members of SLEPE for the research topics that properly fell within his own domain and, on the other, and most importantly, was able to edit a Bulletin published by Schleicher, which constituted the official organ of SLEPE. His aim was to emphasize the role of the psychologist as a key actor in pedagogical matters. This society helped Binet to promote his ideas on mental testing. FRENCH MODEL VERSUS FOREIGN MODELS OF PUBLICATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY: SOME TENDENCIES However, Binet was not the only specialist of his age to direct a collection of works of psychology. In 1900, the French psychiatrist Edouard Toulouse (1865–1947) suggested to publishers Octave Doin and C° the idea of founding a Bibliothèque internationale de psychologie expérimentale normale et pathologique (International library of experimental normal and pathological psychology). The prime characteristic of this collection of works was that it would be international. A variety of authors from different countries were contacted to write on a range of psychology-related subjects. In addition to French authors, Toulouse called on Americans (Baldwin, Pillsbury, Woodworth), Russians (Bekhterev), Italians (Sergi, Tamburini, Morselli, Ferrari), Swiss (Claparède), Belgians (Van Biervliet), etc. The second characteristic of this collection was that, from the outset, it would be limited to 50 volumes, JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs

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each of which was to reflect one facet of psychology, and was, in the longer term, to form a vast treatise of 20,000 pages. Its third characteristic was that it would emphasize the experimental tendency in psychology as the initial volume entitled Technique de psychologie expérimentale (The Methods of Experimental Psychology, Toulouse, Vaschide & Piéron, 1904) indicated, and that it would supply the anatomo-physiological data necessary in order to understand the mechanisms involved in mental functioning, as the titles of the various volumes devoted to physiology and psychological physiology showed (see items 2–5 in Table 3). Ultimately, the aim of this Bibliothèque was to summarize the knowledge possessed at the time on normal psychology (intellectual functions, see items 6–29 in Table 3), comparative psychology (social and animal psychology, see items 30–34 in Table 3), abnormal psychology (genius, see item 40 in the table), and morbid psychology (hypnotism, madness, crime, see items 41–49 in Table 3). In addition, a number of volumes were devoted to studies of the relations between psychology and the other sciences (see items 35–39 in Table 3). The first works were published as of 1901 and the new collection was to become a direct competitor of Binet’s own, despite the fact that Binet’s collection was primarily psychopedagogical in its orientation. This competition also had a personal dimension, with Binet and Toulouse both having little time for one another. Toulouse was a psychiatrist who wanted to consider psychology as a branch of psychiatry, whereas Binet wanted to see psychology unbind itself from psychiatry (cf., Nicolas et al., 2013). At this time, other French publishers were also compiling collections of psychological works. For example, Raymond Meunier suggested to the publisher Bloud & C° that it might issue a Collection de psychologie expérimentale et de métaphsychie (Collection of experimental psychology and “métapsychie”), E. Peillaube suggested that the publisher Marcel Rivière initiate a Bibliothèque de philosophie expérimentale (Library of experimental philosophy). It is in this latter Bibliothèque that a translation of William James’ Psychology (Briefer course) was published (James, 1909). Thus in France, publishers were interested in compiling specific series dedicated to psychology. This tendency was also adopted in Spain by the publisher Daniel Jorro Rodriguez in Madrid who edited translated works (Quintana et al., 1997) from Toulouse’s Bibliothèque internationale de psychologie expérimentale normale et pathologique in the collection Biblioteca international de psicolog´ıa experimental normal y patológica (1905–1914) (see Table 3). Although, at an early stage, French psychology favored encyclopedic works involving collections of books centered on psychology-related subjects, psychologists also looked to produce collective works to which the great figures of French psychology of the time contributed individual chapters (e.g., Dumas, 1923–1924). These characteristics do not seem to have been present in other countries, where no specific psychology-related collections were published and collective works were infrequent. In America, a number of publishers such as Macmillan, Holt, Appleton, and Scribner brought out the works of the most famous American psychologists of the time (e.g., James, Hall, Baldwin, Titchener) together with translations of certain French (e.g., Ribot, Binet) and German (e.g., Wundt) authors. However, these books did not form part of a specific series (for an exception, see Macmillan’s International scientific series). The same is true of German (e.g., Engelmann, Voss, Vieweg) and English publishers. In southern Europe (e.g., Italy and Spain), however, it was the editorial model proposed by the publisher F. Alcan that came to the fore. Indeed, prestigious collections of scientific philosophy were published in Spain (Quintana et al., 1997) by Daniel Jorro in Madrid (Biblioteca Cientifico-Filosófica), and in Italy by the publishers Dumolard in Milan (Biblioteca scientifica internazionale) and Sandron in Palerma (Biblioteca di scienze e lettere), etc. These publishers brought out translations of various French (e.g., Ribot, Binet, Piéron), English (e.g., Bain, Romanes, Spencer), German (e.g., Wundt), and American works (e.g., Baldwin, James). Historians should pursue JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs


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TABLE 3. List of Works in the Collection Bibliothèque internationale de psychologie expérimentale normale et pathologique, Edited By Edouard Toulouse Author

Title

*1. Toulouse, E., Vaschide, N., Piéron, H. (1904) 2. Marinesco, G. (1909) [Biblio de physiologie] 3. Bekhterev 4. Bekhterev 5. Hallion, L., Comte, Ch. 6. Brissaud 7. Courtier, J. 8. Vurpas, Cl. 9. Vaschide, N. *10. Marchand, L. (1903) *11. Nuel, J. P. (1904) 12. Bonnier, P. (1901) 13. Bajenoff *14. Woodworth, R. S. (1903) 15. Oddi, R. 16. Piéron, H. 17. Ducasse *18. [Tokarsky] Pillsbury, W. B. (1906) *19. Van Biervliet, J. J. (1902) 20. Pitres, A. *21. Claparède, E. (1903) *22. Baldwin, J. M. (1908) *23. Dugas, L. (1903) *24. Sergi, G. (1901) *25. Malapert, P. (1902) *26. Paulhan, Fr. (1903) *27. Cuyer, E. (1902) 28. Fleury, M. de 29. Obici, G. 30. Perrier, E. 31. Antheaume, A., Vurpas, Cl. 32. Blum 33. Morselli 34. [Hamon, Parodi, E.] Duprat, G.-L. (1920) 35. Buisson, F. 36. Oddi, R. 37. Basch, V. *38. Duprat, G.-L. (1901) 39. Stout 40. Toulouse, E. *41. Vigouroux, A., Juquelier, P. (1905) *42. Grasset, J. (1903) 43. Tamburini, A. 44. Toulouse, E. 45. Ferrari *46. Marie, A. (1906) 47. Legrain *48. Pitres, A., Régis, E. (1902) 49. Colin, P. 50. Vaschide, N.

Technique de psychologie expérimentale (The Methods of Experimental Psychology) La cellule nerveuse (The nerve cell) Le cerveau (The brain) La moelle (Bone marrow) Physiologie psychologique (Psychological physiology) Les sensations internes (Internal sensations) La sensation et la perception (Sensation and perception) Le tact (Touch) L’odorat (Smell) Le gout ˆ (Taste) La vision (Vision) L’audition (Hearing) L’instinct sexuel (Sexual instinct) Le mouvement (Movement) Le travail et la fatigue intellectuelle (Work and intellectual fatigue) Le sommeil et les rêves (Sleep and dreams) L’inconscient (The unconscious) L’attention (Attention) La mémoire (Memory) La personnalité (Personality) L’association des idées (Association of Ideas) La connaissance et le jugement (Knowledge and Judgment) L’imagination (Imagination) Les e´ motions (Emotions) Le caractère (Character) La volonté (Will) La mimique (Mimicry) Le langage (Language) L’écriture (Writing) Psychologie animale (Animal psychology) L’hérédité mentale (Mental heredity) Le développement intellectuel de l’enfant (Intellectual development in children) Anthropologie psychologique (Psychological anthropology) Psychologie sociale (Social psychology) Pédagogie expérimentale (Experimental pedagogy) Logique (Logic) Esthétique (Aesthetics) Morale (Morals) Métaphysique (Metaphysics) Le génie (Genius) La contagion mentale (Mental contagion) L’hypnotisme et la suggestion (Hypnotism and suggestion) Les illusions et les hallucinations (Illusions and hallucinations) La folie: classification et causes (Madness: Classification and causes) Les délires (Deliria) Les démences (Dementias) Les débilités mentales (Mental debility) Les obsessions et les impulsions (Obsessions and impulses) Le crime (Crime) Bibliographie psychologique (Psychological Bibliography)

Only the titles printed in bold were actually published. Titles with (*) were translated into Spanish as part of the collection Biblioteca international de psicolog´ıa experimental normal y patológica, published by Daniel Jorro (Madrid). JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs

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the study of the international diffusion of psychological works via publishing houses because this constitutes an indicator of the influence of certain authors and ideas in various countries. CONCLUSION Here we have presented the importance of the publishing houses in the development of the new psychology. Indeed, the history of psychology has never previously been addressed from the perspective of academic publishing and editorial policy. The importance of the history of publishing in this field should therefore not be underestimated. We have given an example of such an approach here by examining Binet’s psychological output during the years 1894–1904, a key period in his scientific career (Nicolas & Ferrand, 2002, Nicolas & Levine, 2012). If, during the 1880s, Alcan enjoyed a quasi-monopoly in the publication of works devoted to scientific psychology (Tesnières, 2001), then things were to change as of the mid-1890s. The publishing house operated by the Schleicher brothers, as successors to C. Reinwald, decided to bring out its Bibliothèque de pédagogie et de psychologie, which was to be edited by Binet from 1898 onwards. Binet’s overtly experimental and pedagogical approach to psychology could be clearly seen in the works he published during this period and contrasted with the more psychopathological tendency of the French psychology of the age, which, in turn, was represented first and foremost by the new collection of works that was to be edited by the psychiatrist Edouard Toulouse for the Octave Doin publishing house. No such collection existed anywhere else in the world. Although Schleicher was the first publisher to propose a collection of books (directed by Binet) entirely dedicated to psychology, difficulties subsequently emerged. At the very time when Doin’s collection of psychological works was growing in size, Binet was alerted to the financial difficulties facing the Schleicher brothers. He wrote an extremely forthright letter on this matter to his friend, the Swiss psychologist Edouard Claparède (1873– 1940), asking him for information on his Swiss publisher Kündig and adding: “I have in my portfolio a volume of which I have already spoken to you on the experimental investigation of intelligence without figures or tables and with approximately 350 pages of text. I still intend it for my Parisian publisher. However, in the event of uncertainties that mean that I am unable to entrust the work to him, I should like to know what sort of fee your publisher in Geneva might offer me . . . I should also like information about the conditions to which he would consent if I were to offer to edit L’Année Psychologique for him. These are, of course, merely tentative enquiries. Even if, to my great regret, I were to be obliged to leave Schleicher, I would, I think, approach other Parisian publishers in order to compare their conditions with those available to me in Geneva” (letter to Claparède dated June 26, 1902, cf., Klein, 2011, pp. 137–138). Although Schleicher avoided bankruptcy, its accounting was dubious and the subscription service was unreliable. In addition, in October 1902, Binet had to make the decision to no longer publish the SLEPE bulletin at Schleicher. In a letter to Claparède, he provided the following information: “Our child psychology society had to leave him because the accounts and subscription service were in such disarray that half of our members were so discontent that they were ready to abandon us. We could not find out anything. Mr. Boitel, our dedicated general secretary, has resigned and we have been forced to stop dealing with Schleicher. Since then, our bulletin has started to appear regularly once more, it costs the Society approximately only a third as much and our membership has almost doubled in 9 months” (letter to Claparède dated April 23, 1903, cf., Klein, 2011, pp. 148–149). Furthermore, in the same confidential letter dated April 23, 1903, Binet informed Claparède of the situation at Schleicher as follows: “It now seems very unlikely that my Yearbook (AP) will continue to be published by Schleicher. JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DOI 10.1002/jhbs


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He himself is not insisting on it. ( . . . ) I still consider Schleicher to be a charming man who is both very straightforward and loyal. But he is badly supported. He has an artistic nature rather than that of a businessman and he has unfortunately put his trust in an employee who rules the roost in his company and has brought a most regrettable chaos to his business affairs. From a psychological viewpoint, this infatuation is most intriguing” (letter to Claparède of April 23, 1903, cf., Klein, 2011, p. 148). In secret, Binet had already been in contact with a number of potential publishers including the Swiss house Kündig and the French company Masson. The future of the Année Psychologique and the Bibliothèque de pédagogie et de psychologie, which were still being published by Schleicher, was being decided. The contract with Masson was signed in early July 1903. Binet wrote as follows to AP’s editor-in-chief, the Swiss psychologist Jean Larguier des Bancels (1876–1961): “As far as Masson is concerned, everything has been concluded and I have officially informed Schleicher of the name of the new publisher. Schleicher has not yet replied, naturally. You may therefore speak openly of the matter with whomever you wish, and in particular with Claparède. I have announced the change of publisher on a page in the Yearbook” (letter to Larguier dated July 14, 1903, cf., Klein, 2011, p. 33). The 10th volume (1903/1904) of the Année psychologique was to appear a few months later (January 1904). However, Masson, who specialized in the publication of medical works, did not want to purchase the volumes that had already been published in the Bibliothèque de psychologie et de Pédagogie, which Binet had edited for Schleicher and was also not interested in developing a collection of works on psychology. Consequently, this collection of high-quality works was discontinued. Only Binet’s work on the experimental investigation of intelligence was to be republished subsequently (Binet, 1922) by Schleicher’s successor, Alfred Costes, the very man whom Binet had suspected of leading the publishing house into bankruptcy. A perusal of Schleicher’s general catalogue of April 1910 shows that the publishing house, once an innovator in its editorial choices, was to publish no more works of any great scientific interest. Among the names of the most frequently observed authors, we find only reprints of certain works by Darwin, Lamarck, Spencer, and Comte. Although they were still present in the 1910 catalogue, the works of Binet that were published by Schleicher were quickly forgotten, even though their content deserved a more detailed examination. These included, in particular, Binet’s works on suggestibility (Binet, 1900) and the experimental investigation of intelligence (Binet, 1903). Binet’s later works were published by the major Parisian publishers Alcan (Binet, 1906), Colin (Binet & Simon, 1907), and Flammarion (Binet, 1905, 1909) after Binet had given up the idea of creating a collection specifically dedicated to psychology following the failure of his venture with Schleicher. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by a Labex-EFL Sorbonne Paris Cité (Axe 7) Empirical Foundations of Linguistics grant to S. Nicolas. REFERENCES Bain, A. (1874). Les sens et l’intelligence. Paris: G. Baillière. Bain, A. (1885). Les e´ motions et la volonté. Paris: F. Alcan. Beaunis, H. (1888). Les sensations internes. Paris: F. Alcan. Becquemont, D. (1992). Notes sur les e´ ditions françaises et anglaises de L’origine des espèces. In C. Darwin (Ed.), L’origine des espèces au moyen de la sélection naturelle ou la préservation des races favorisées dans la lutte pour la vie (pp. 37–41). Paris: Flammarion. Bergson, H. (1889). Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience. Paris: G. Baillière.


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